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Endangered leopards: Range collapse of the Indochinese leopard (Panthera pardus delacouri) in Southeast Asia
Abstract
The Indochinese leopard (Panthera pardus delacouri) is a genetically distinct subspecies that historically occurred throughout mainland Southeast Asia, but might have experienced recent declines in numbers and distribution. This study aimed to determine the current distribution of the Indochinese leopard, and estimate its population size, by reviewing data from camera trap and other wildlife surveys conducted during the past 20 years. Our results showed the Indochinese leopard likely now occurs only in 6.2% of its historical range, with only 2.4% of its distribution in areas of confirmed leopard presence. The leopard is extirpated in Singapore, likely extirpated in Laos and Vietnam, nearly extirpated in Cambodia and China, and has greatly reduced distributions in Malaysia, Myanmar, and Thailand. There are plausibly only two major strongholds remaining, which we consider priority sites: Peninsular Malaysia, and the Northern Tenasserim Forest Complex. We also identified a small isolated population in eastern Cambodia as a third priority site, because of its uniqueness and high conservation value. We estimate a total remaining population of 973–2503 individuals, with only 409–1051 breeding adults. Increased poaching for the illegal wildlife trade likely is the main factor causing the decline of the Indochinese leopard. Other potential contributing factors include prey declines, habitat destruction, and possibly disease. We recommend a separate IUCN assessment for the Indochinese leopard, and that this subspecies be classified as Endangered. Our findings provide important information that can help guide where conservation actions would be most effective in preventing the extinction of this subspecies.
... Large carnivores have been extirpated from much of Southeast Asia (O'Kelly et al., 2012;Rasphone et al., 2019;Rostro-García et al., 2016) due in part to high rates of deforestation and habitat fragmentation (Bhagwat et al., 2017;Hughes, 2017;Stibig et al., 2014). Additionally, direct poaching of large carnivores to supply illegal trade in ornamental and medicinal wildlife products, and hunting of their mammal prey for local consumption, has adversely affected populations across the region (Corlett, 2007;Nijman & Shepherd, 2015;Oswell, 2010). ...
... The Indochinese leopard (Panthera pardus delacouri) occupies only 6.2% of its historical range (Rostro-García et al., 2016). Despite receiving less attention than the "Endangered" tiger (P. ...
... However, in Kweekoh tiger numbers are so low that they are unlikely to impact leopard density. We suggest the low population density estimate we reported here is indicative of a highly threatened and/or declining subpopulation, possibly due to poaching involving both leopards and their prey, a conservation concern across Southeast Asia (Nijman & Shepherd, 2015;Rasphone et al., 2019;Rostro-García et al., 2016). ...
Large carnivores have been largely extirpated from Southeast Asia due to deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and poaching. Estimating the density of endangered carnivore populations, and identifying relationships between species occupancy and both environmental and anthropogenic factors, is essential for effective conservation planning. Recently, the IUCN conservation status of the Indochinese leopard ( Panthera pardus delacouri ) was upgraded to “Critically Endangered.” We surveyed Kweekoh Wildlife Sanctuary in Kawthoolei, an area administered by the Karen ethnic group in eastern Myanmar, to quantify (1) leopard population density using spatially explicit mark‐resight (SMR) models, (2) leopard occupancy as influenced by important ecological variables, and (3) potential differences in activity between melanistic and spotted leopard morphs. Leopard density was estimated to be 1.39 ± SE 0.22/100 km ² . Leopard occupancy ( ψ = 0.43; 95% credible interval: 0.26–0.67) increased further from roads, at relatively higher elevations, and in areas with higher relative abundance of wild boar. Leopard activity was cathemeral, with higher activity during night hours, and significant overlap (Δ = 0.84; 95% confidence interval: 0.71–0.96) between melanistic and spotted morphs. However, melanistic leopards were more active during twilight hours than spotted individuals whose activity did not significantly vary throughout the day. Indochinese leopard density estimates in Kweekoh were among the lowest reported from Southeast Asia. Leopard occupancy was highest in the sanctuary's core areas, suggesting the presence of negative anthropogenic impacts along the sanctuary borders. We suggest our low density estimates warrant immediate and decisive conservation action, including better protection for leopards, their habitat, and their prey.
... Apart from four journals that covered more than two records, almost all articles were only published one time in one journal. In particular, Biological Conservation (Davis et al. 2019;Rostro-Garcia et al. 2016;Xing et al. 2019) and Global Ecology and Conservation (Davis et al. 2020;Gomez and Shepherd 2018;Shepherd et al. 2020) were recorded as the most common journals with three times. PLoS ONE (Hansen et al. 2012;Williams et al. 2017) and Conservation Letters (Drury 2009;Olmedo et al. 2018) presented two articles each. ...
... Depending on the timeline, while the highest source is 70 times (Newton et al. 2008), the lowest rate is one time (Kline et al. 2020;Nguyen and Roberts 2020). Some publications have a similar time rate, such as 3 times (Le et al. 2018;Sharma et al. 2020;Smith 2018), 4 times Shepherd et al. 2020), and 34 times (Olmedo et al. 2018;Rostro-Garcia et al. 2016). Ironically, only a Vietnamese group scholar (Nguyen et al. 2019) on the AgBioForum-the Journal of Agrobiotechnology Management and Economics, analyzed the IWT in Vietnam with its causes and solutions has not yet been cited in any peer-reviewed articles after five years. ...
... The rest of the papers also used gray literature, including local authorities' information, annual reports, and non-government statistics. They published documents to warn about the emerging threats to small carnivores (Willcox 2020) and the declining populations of the Indochinese leopard (Rostro-Garcia et al. 2016), as well as to detail the nature and extent of WT/IWT in Vietnam (Ngoc and Wyatt 2013). ...
As one of the earliest countries in the Southeast Asia region, Vietnam joined the CITES in 1994. However, they have faced several challenges and practical barriers to preventing and combating illegal wildlife trade (IWT) after 35 years. This first study systematically reviews 29 English journal articles between 1994 and 2020 to examine and assess the main trends and patterns of the IWT’s concerns in Vietnam. Findings show (1) slow progress of empirical studies, (2) unbalanced authorship between Vietnamese and non-Vietnamese conducting their projects, (3) weighting of wildlife demand consumptions in Vietnamese communities rather than investigating supply networks with high-profile traffickers, (4) lacking research in green and conservation criminology to assess the inside of the IWT, and (5) need to focus on potential harms of zoonotic transmission between a wild animal and human beings. The article also provides current limitations before proposing further research to fill these future gaps.
... In the first five years of the 2010s, there were only four articles, apart from Drury's studies (Cao & Wyatt, 2013;Hansen et al., 2012;MacMillan & Nguyen, 2014;Martin et al., 2013); meanwhile, the rest of publications of non-Vietnamese have increased remarkably in the last five years. Accordingly, they include two articles in 2016 (Rostro-Garcia et al., 2016;Truong et al., 2016), one in 2017 (Williams et al., 2017), and five in 2018 (Dang & Neilsen, 2018;Gomez & Shepherd, 2018;Le et al., 2018;Olmedo et al., 2018;Smith, 2018), two in 2019 (Davis et al., 2019;Xing et al., 2019), and nine in 2020 Davis et al., 2020;Kline et al., 2020;Lemaitre & Herve-Fournereau, 2020;Nguyen & Roberts, 2020;Omifolaji et al., 2020;Sharma et al., 2020;Shepherd et al., 2020;Willcox, 2020). ...
... Depending on the timeline, while the highest source is 70 times (Newton et al., 2008), the lowest rate is one time (Kline et al., 2020;Nguyen & Roberts, 2020 Shepherd et al., 2020), and 34 times (Olmedo et al., 2018;Rostro-Garcia et al., 2016). ...
... Additionally, the rest of the papers used grey literature. They published documents to warn about the emerging threats to small carnivores (Willcox, 2020) and the declined populations of the Indochinese leopard (Rostro-Garcia et al., 2016), as well as to detail the nature and extent of WT/IWT in Vietnam (Cao & Wyatt, 2013). ...
... Habitat loss and fragmentation are major threats to wildlife in Southeast Asia (Duckworth et al. 2012;Gritten et al. 2019), and large carnivore species are now in decline throughout much of the region (O'Kelly et al. 2012;Rostro-García et al. 2016;Rasphone et al. 2019). Deforestation rates, particularly in the lowlands, are higher than other areas in the tropics (Sodhi et al. 2010;Stibig et al. 2014;Bhagwat et al. 2017), principally due to forest conversion for large-scale oil palm and rubber plantations (Stibig et al. 2014;Hughes 2017;Curtis et al. 2018). ...
... Tigers (Panthera tigris), leopards (P. pardus), and clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa) are three large felids particularly sensitive to habitat loss and fragmentation and have been extirpated from most of Southeast Asia (Lynam 2010;D'Cruze and Macdonald 2015;Rostro-García et al. 2016;Rasphone et al. 2019). Much of their remaining habitat in Southeast Asia lies within the Dawna-Tanintharyi Landscape (DTL; also known as the Tawnaw-Ternawtherri Landscape to the Karen ethnic group), a transboundary ecoregion on the border of Thailand and Kawthoolei (defined by the administrative and geographical distribution of the Karen people and the Karen National Union (KNU) and encompassing Karen State, Mon State, Bago Region, and Tanintharyi Region in Myanmar) that harbors extensive forest cover, a protected area network, and large felid breeding populations (Bassi et al. 2016;WWF 2018). ...
... Indochinese leopards (P. p. delacouri) only occur in 6% of their historical range, but they, along with clouded leopards, still reside in scattered protected areas in western Thailand, including WEFCOM (Ngoprasert et al. 2012;Rostro-García et al. 2016). These felid species also have been confirmed from wildlife sanctuaries and unprotected areas in Karen State and Tanintharyi Region, Kawthoolei, though their population status here is unknown (Rostro-García et al. 2016;Moo et al. 2017;WWF 2018). ...
ContextMaintaining landscape connectivity for large felids by preserving and restoring corridors between core habitats is crucial to their long-term conservation. Tiger, leopard, and clouded leopard populations occur in isolated habitat patches across the Dawna-Tanintharyi Landscape (DTL) of Kawthoolei (all Karen National Union administrative areas in Myanmar) and Thailand.Objectives
We analyzed connectivity among 18 habitat patches in this transboundary region based on large felid presence and expert opinion of large felid dispersal requirements.Methods
Least-cost corridor and circuit theory analyses were used to identify corridors, determine corridor quality and their relative importance to connectivity in the landscape, and pinpoint bottlenecks to movement.ResultsForty-eight corridors were identified. Lower resistances to dispersal were in forested montane areas. High-quality corridors remained in the northern DTL and south of Tanintharyi Nature Reserve in Kawthoolei based on cost-weighted distance to least-cost path ratio. Pairwise current pinch point analyses revealed a possible landscape level bottleneck to movement north of Thailand’s Western Forest Complex. Area corrected centrality scores indicated smaller habitat patches disproportionately contributed to landscape connectivity.Conclusions
The DTL may retain connectivity across the landscape if conservation actions are taken to protect integral habitats and corridors. Conservation efforts that expand the protected area network in Kawthoolei, either by increasing the size of current protected area habitats or by demarcating new protected areas in regions with confirmed felid presence, will aid DTL connectivity. The DTL should be managed to preserve connectivity on both sides of the border, entailing international governmental, indigenous community, and non-governmental collaboration.
... However, the leopard's range has collapsed considerably, now occupying only 25e37% of its historic range (Jacobson et al., 2016). The primary drivers of decline are habitat loss and fragmentation, depletion of natural prey, and direct persecution due to conflict with people, poaching, and indiscriminate killings (Athreya et al., 2011;Swanepoel et al., 2014;Rostro-García et al., 2016;Paudel et al., 2020). According to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the leopard has been identified as one of the major traded carnivores of the Asian big cats and recently, global leopard status was re-assessed and changed from Near Threatened to Vulnerable in 2016 . ...
... Road networks can fragment large areas of continuous habitat into smaller patches (Saunders et al., 2002;Mutter et al., 2015). For carnivores in general, population densities are often low while home range sizes and dispersal distances are large (Duangchantrasiri et al., 2016;Rostro-García et al., 2016), thus carnivore persistence can be strongly influenced by the isolating effects of such linear infrastructures. Roads also can have a major effect on large-carnivore mortality directly via vehicle collisions, and through increased hunting and poaching access, and indirectly by providing greater prey hunting access to people that can result in reduced prey availability for carnivores (Kerley et al., 2002). ...
... Leopard signs were discerned from tiger signs based on their morphological characteristics such as much smaller sizes of pugmarks: front foot width (~average 8e9 cm for leopard, 12.5e14.2 cm for tiger); pad size width (<6.5 cm for leopard, 8.8e10 cm for tiger), adult stride length (~average of 90 cm in leopard, > 100 cm in tiger), scrapes (<25 cm long and <15 cm wide for leopard, > 35 cm long and >19 cm wide for tiger), and scats (2e4 cm for leopard, > 11 cm in diameter at widest part of the scat for tiger) (McDougal, 1999;Singh et al., 2014;Rostro-García et al., 2016;Simcharoen et al., 2018;Lamichhane et al., 2019). Tiger scat usually is less coiled than leopard scat with a relatively long distance between successive constrictions within a single piece of scat (Wang and Macdonald, 2009). ...
Better conservation planning requires updated information about leopard distribution to prioritize and allocate limited resources available. The long-term persistence of leopards and sympatric tigers can be compromised by linear infrastructure development such as roads that fragment habitat. We used detection and non-detection data collected along walking search paths (∼4,140 km) in 96 grid cells (each cell 15 km by 15 km) spread across potential habitat (∼13,845 km²) in the Terai Arc Landscape, Nepal. Multi-season occupancy models allowed us to make both spatial and temporal inferences between two surveys in 2009 and 2013, based on ecologically relevant covariates recorded in the field or remotely sensed. Additionally, we used 2013 data to make inferences on co-occurrence between tigers and leopards at the landscape level. We found the additive model containing deforestation and district roads negatively influenced leopard detection across the landscape. Although weak, we found anthropogenic factors such as extent of deforestation (decrease in forest cover) negatively affected leopard occupancy. Road abundance, especially for the east-west highway and district roads, also negatively (but weakly) influenced leopard occupancy. We found substantially lower occupancy in the year 2013 (0.59 (SE 0.06) than in 2009 (0.86 (SE 0.04)). Tigers and leopards co-occurred across the landscape based on the species interaction factor (SIF) estimated at 1.47 (0.13) but the amount of available habitat and the prey index mediated co-occurrence. The SIF decreased as habitat availability increased, reaching independence at large habitat patches, but leopard occupancy declined in sites with tigers, primarily in large patches. The prey index was substantially lower outside of protected areas and leopards and tigers co-occurred more strongly in small patches and at low prey indices, indicating potential attraction to the same areas when prey is scarce. Mitigation measures should focus on preventing loss of critical leopard, tiger, and prey habitat through appropriate wildlife-friendly underpasses and avoiding such habitat when building infrastructure. Leopard conservation has received lower priority than tigers, but our metrics show a large decline in leopard occupancy, thus conservation planning to reverse this decline should focus on measures to facilitate human-leopard coexistence to ensure leopard persistence across the landscape.
... China: Leopard now occurs in less than 1% of southeastern China, with an estimated extant range of 2,483 km², as reported by Rostro-García et al. (2016). A recent review found the Indochinese Leopard was detected by camera traps only in two nature reserves, Nangunhe and Xishuangbanna (2008), both in southwestern Yunnan Province (Laguardia et al. 2017). ...
... Laguardia et al. (2017) concluded that each locality contains only a few individuals (fewer than 10 individuals apiece) and populations are unlikely to recover because of low prey numbers, and high levels of habitat loss and poaching in the region. Thus, the Indochinese Leopard probably is on the verge of extirpation in the country (Rostro-García et al. 2016). ...
... Lao PDR: There are unlikely to be any viable Leopard populations remaining in Lao PDR, and the Leopard is now likely to be functionally extinct in, if not fully extirpated from, the country (Rostro-García et al. 2016). Leopard was last photographed in 2004 in the Nam Et -Phou Louey (NEPL) National Protected Area, the largest and arguably best protected area in the country (Johnson et al. 2006), despite extensive camera-trapping and DNA testing of more than 500 scats since that time (WCS Lao PDR and Panthera, unpubl. ...
... Here we focus on a population of Indochinese leopard (Panthera pardus delacouri), which is found in Southeast Asia and southern China. Rostro-García et al. (2016) report that this subspecies now occurs in only 6.2% of its historical range in Southeast Asia, and that only seven viable populations remain: three in Myanmar, one in Cambodia, one in Malaysia and two in Thailand. ...
... Given the newly recognized concern regarding status of the leopard in Southeast Asia, knowledge of its behavioral interactions with its major prey, and with tigers, is critical for efforts to conserve this species. An earlier study on the ecology of leopards in Southeast Asia (Simcharoen et al., 2018) was conducted in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary (HKK), Thailand, which supports the largest populations of leopards and tigers in the region (Kenney et al., 2014;Rostro-García et al., 2016). Recent studies of leopard and tiger diets report a high degree of dietary overlap at several sites in South Asia (Lovari, 2015;Selvan et al., 2013) and also at our study site in HKK (Simcharoen et al., 2018). ...
... Given that both leopards and tigers are threatened across Southeast Asia and that their largest populations occur in WEFCOM, research at HKK contributes to the understanding of interspecies dynamics between these two large felids. There is no clear evidence of tigers reducing the density of leopards or altering activities in HKK, but in response to widespread interference competition by tigers toward leopards elsewhere, and the increasing decline of leopards in Southeast Asia (Rostro-García et al., 2016), managers need a conservation strategy that encompasses threats to both species. Unfortunately, rigorous field studies on the behavioral dynamics of carnivores and their prey are exceedingly difficult (Garrott et al., 2007) and the difficulty is compounded where two large predators with overlapping diets occur. ...
Despite their extensive distribution globally, recent reports indicate leopards are declining, especially in Southeast Asia. To support conservation efforts we analyzed the behavioral interactions between leopards ( Panthera pardus ), their prey, and tigers to determine if leopards fine-tune their activity to maximize contact with four prey species (sambar; wild boar; barking deer; banteng) and avoid tigers and if prey alter their temporal activity in response to variation in their relative abundance ratio with leopards. A lower density of sambar in the northern part of our study area and a lower density of wild boar and a higher density of tigers in the southern part allowed us to examine fine-grained differences in the behavior of leopards and their prey. We used camera trap data to investigate spatial and temporal overlap. Differences in tiger relative abundance did not appear to impact the temporal activity of leopards. Leopards had similar cathemeral activity at all sites with highest activity at dawn and dusk. This behavior appears to be a compromise to provide access to diurnal wild boar and barking deer and nocturnal sambar and banteng. Sambar showed higher temporal avoidance of leopards in the north where its RAI was lowest; in contrast, wild boar had the highest temporal avoidance in the south where its density was lowest. This is the first study in Southeast Asia to quantify spatial and temporal interactions between the leopard, its primary ungulate prey, and the tiger. It provides new insights for conserving this declining subspecies.
... In fact, NEPL was thought to harbour the last breeding population of tigers in Indochina (Johnson et al., 2016), and was identified as one of the most important source sites for tiger conservation in Southeast Asia (Walston et al., 2010). Additionally, based on 2000s surveys, it was hoped that NEPL would retain a leopard population, which have dramatically declined throughout all of Southeast Asia (Rostro-García et al., 2016). Management and enforcement policies in NEPL during the past 10 years have focused on conserving the tiger, but it is unclear whether these interventions have succeeded in conserving these globally important populations of tigers, leopards, and dholes. ...
... While we have no counter-factual to judge how much worse things might have been, our results make sadly apparent that the last decade of management interventions has fallen short of the goal of conserving of the top carnivores: conspicuously, tiger and leopard have been extirpated, and only the dhole persists as the last remaining apex carnivore in the landscape. The last photograph of a leopard from NEPL was at the end of 2004 (Rostro-García et al., 2016), shortly before the initiation of management interventions at the beginning of 2005 (Johnson et al., 2016); thus our extensive camera-trap surveys confirm that the leopard is extirpated from NEPL and that the new management interventions were not able to save the last leopards in the landscape. It appears we recorded the very last tigers, two individuals that had previously been photographed in 2012 (Johnson et al., 2016) e it is a chilling realisation that our records in 2013 were the last. ...
... Indiscriminate snaring has been increasing throughout SE Asia during recent years, which is causing a major crisis for biodiversity in the region (Gray et al., 2017b). For example, this was likely to have been the main reason for the recent range collapse of leopard throughout Southeast Asia (Rostro-García et al., 2016). The increase in snaring in NEPL was likely to affect large felids such as tiger more than other species, as also found in Sumatra (Risdianto et al., 2016), because large felids are solitary and have naturally low densities. ...
The Nam Et - Phou Louey National Protected Area (NEPL) is known for its diverse community of carnivores, and a decade ago was identified as an important source site for tiger conservation in Southeast Asia. However, there are reasons for concern that the status of this high priority diverse community has deteriorated, making the need for updated information urgent. This study assesses the current diversity of mammals and birds in NEPL, based on camera trap surveys from 2013 to 2017, facilitating an assessment of protected area management to date. We implemented a dynamic multispecies occupancy model fit in a Bayesian framework to reveal community and species occupancy and diversity. We detected 43 different mammal and bird species, but failed to detect leopard Panthera pardus and only detected two individual tigers Panthera tigris, both in 2013, suggesting that both large felids are now extirpated from NEPL, and presumably also more widely throughout Lao PDR. Mainland clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa had the highest estimates of probability of initial occupancy, persistence and colonization, and appeared to be the most widely distributed large carnivore, followed by dhole Cuon alpinus. Both of these species emerge as a priority for further monitoring and conservation in the NEPL landscape. This study provides the most recent assessment of animal diversity and status in the NEPL. Our analytical approach provides a robust and flexible framework to include sparse and inconsistent data sets of multiple species to assess their status via occupancy as a state process, which can often provide insights into population dynamics. Keywords: Clouded leopard, Dhole, Dynamic multispecies occupancy model, Laos, Nam Et - Phou Louey National Protected Area, Tiger
... pardus. delacouri; [57] , from Near Threatened to Critically Endangered and Endangered correspondingly. The remaining two leopard subspecies, African Panthera. ...
... pardus. fusca, are together Near Threatened [55,57] . Understanding on leopard distribution is enlightening while comprehensive population estimates and ecology of fears are still missing [58] . ...
The nocturnal activities of animals are influenced by the brightness of the moon in
different moon phases. Further, behaviour of prey animals, and also density, may fluctuate in
response to predators through both lethal effects and non-lethal (fear) effects. As we understand,
wildlife may experience fear from a range of predators, including large carnivores,
mesopredators, domestic dogs and humans, the latter being regarded as a super predator. In
such landscapes with the occurrence of predators, the prey is likely to be more alert in order to
lower the danger of being killed. Further, flight response is an appropriate, recognised and
measurable indicator (as flight initiation distance, FID) of fear effects in terrestrial animals.
In this research, our specific aims were: 1) to investigate the effects of moonlight on
activity patterns and the interactions between a large carnivore (North China leopard Panthera
pardus japonensis) and their prey; 2) to analyse the den-site selection by the mesopredator, red
fox (Vulpes vulpes montana) at multiple scales in a patchy human-dominated landscape; 3) to
describe the habitat factors and predator density effects on the spatial abundance of cape hare
(Lepus capensis) distribution; 4) to explore the increased FID in golden marmots (Marmota
caudata aurea) in response to domestic dogs, and; 5) to understand how the occurrence of
conspecifics in the neighboring space may influence FID in cape hare under the effect of
human disturbance. These collective works contributed to the understanding of fear ecology
and their implications for predator-prey interactions in China and Pakistan.
We used camera-traps to investigate the first aim; for the remaining four objectives, we
laid out transect lines in different habitats to explore how the fear effects stimulated by humans
and predators influence other mammals. A total of 102 camera locations operated between
March 2017-May 2019 and circadian activities of each species was analyzed by using temporalniche overlap model, as well as Generalized Linear Mixed Effects Model (GLMM) to link
habitat structures with leopards and prey species. We derived Resource Selection Functions
(RSFs) to predict the potential distribution of red fox dens at three spatial scales. We used the
standard line transect distance sampling method to calculate the seasonal density of hare and
comparative density of red fox. A traditional live-trapping protocol was used to capture a
sample of golden marmots at the four colonies. Lastly, we used human stimuli at the start of
each sampling period for the cape hare investigation to link with disturbances and flight
response.
The main results of this study are the following:
(1) North China leopard exhibited an irregular activity pattern, wild boar (Sus scrofa)
indicated lunar phobic behaviour and avoided leopard, and roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) were
lunar philic. Tolai hare (Lepus tolai) showed lunar phobic behavior. The nocturnal activities of
leopards, roe deer and tolai hare were positively related. The occurrence of leopard day vs.
night activity during four different lunar phases were exhibited a preference with distance to
deciduous forest and secondary roads, while avoided to lower elevations. Roe deer showed a
preference to secondary roads. Wild boar displayed avoidance of intermediate elevation. Tolai
hare indicated preference to grassland. Further, cloud cover, moonlight risk index (MRI),
humans and season had diverse effects on leopard and prey interactions.
(2) We found that for red fox den occurrence, elevation was the most significant covariate
at landscapes scale, and distance to forest had negative effect; at patch scale, distance to forests
were negatively correlated with number of dens and positively linked to shrubs. Furthermore,
at microhabitat scale, den occurrence was negatively linked with hiding cover and positively
associated with tree density and anthropogenic features – den occurrence was negatively
related with distance to roads and positively correlated with Indian pika (Ochotona roylei)burrow existence. We found that den entrance dimensions were larger for natal dens than
resting dens.
(3) We identified that, the population density of hare was highest in bare areas and the
lowest in mixed plantations. In summer, we found a positive correlation between hare and red
fox density in a bare area, and in winter, in shrubs land. The relative density of red fox was
lowest in subalpine habitat. We found that hare pellet indices were positively connected with
indices of herbs in plantation forest, shrubs in mixed forest, trees in two selected habitat sites,
and negatively linked to cultivated land, roads, and rivers in mixed and streams in bare areas.
(4) We measured FID in 72 Golden marmots from four colonies in the Karakoram Range,
Pakistan. We found that the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) caused greater FID than pedestrian alone, and adult marmots nearer to roads showed greater FID. However, marmot age and colony substrate had more marked influences on FID, which was also greater at lower elevations where there were clusters of human settlements and livestock pastures.
(5) Our results showed that foraging hares have smaller FIDs than vigilant ones. Social
animals reduced FID of the focal hare due to a mutual vigilance, while a solitary animal had
greater FID due to less cooperative defense for predator detection.
This research has demonstrated that fear effects exist in human-dominated landscapes, and
that environmental factors can drive temporal activities of predator-prey interactions which are
linked with lunar phase. It also showed that human disturbances, such as domestic dogs,
influenced the core activity zones of burrowing herbivores. The studies also show the scale of fear and provide a superior chance to recognize the biological significance of fear ecology and its application for future wildlife conservation in human-dominated landscapes.
... org: accessed on the 2 nd of February 2017, Jacobson et al. 2016). In South East Asia, especially in Thailand, the common leopard is rated as endangered because of high rates of deforestation and poaching for the wildlife trade (Jacobson et al. 2016, Rostro-Garcìa et al. 2016). The main prey species of the common leopard range between 2 and 50 kg of body mass: over 150 species of wild mammals and birds have been reported in its diet throughout Africa (Hayward et al. 2006) and Asia (Lovari et al. 2013a). ...
... Eight years later, Rabinowitz (1993) reported the presence of the tiger, but no sign of this species (e.g. its diagnostic scrapes and pugmarks) was detected during our field work. The largest carnivore in our study area was the Indochinese leopard, a subspecies at risk of extinction (Rostro-Garcìa et al. 2016). No information was available on the density of prey species and on their seasonal availability for predators. ...
... This threat is acutely realised in Southeast Asia, where vast swaths of seemingly intact forests experience hunting-induced defaunation. As a significant cause of this defaunation, indiscriminate snaring driven by the demand for bushmeat locally and in urban centres, as well as wire snares being an inexpensive and highly effective method of capturing several species of commercial importance (Gray et al., 2017), has dramatically altered mammalian assemblages, even leading to the extinction of certain tiger sub-populations (O'Kelly et al., 2012;Johnson et al., 2016;Gray et al., 2017) and range declines of other endangered carnivores such as leopards Panthera pardus (Rostro-Garcıá et al., 2016) and clouded leopards Neofelis nebulosa (Macdonald et al., 2019;Macdonald et al., 2020). In response to the crisis, range country governments and NGOs have improved law enforcement efforts; however, on-the-ground interventions that prevent poaching must be conducted and evaluated (eg. ...
Tigers are a conservation-reliant species, as multiple populations face the risk of local extinction due to poaching arising from the continued demand for their body parts. Preventing tiger poaching poses a challenge for the rangers responsible for their protection, particularly in Southeast Asia, where the protected areas are typically large, mountainous tropical forests guarded by small teams of rangers. Improving counter-wildlife crime tactics is hindered without robust evaluations, and inefficient approaches are perpetuated. We evaluate an eight-year project aiming to recover a tiger population in Peninsular Malaysia. Three distinct poaching problems by Vietnamese, Thai and Cambodian groups, differing by organisation, target species and tactics, were prioritised, and ranger counter-poaching tactics were tailored to reduce these. Applying a framework developed to evaluate crime prevention known by the acronym EMMIE, here we: (1) examine evidence our intervention was Effective in reducing the poaching threat; (2) resolve the Mechanisms by which our intervention caused a reduction in harm from poaching and how intervention effectiveness is Moderated by the three poaching types; (3) define the elements necessary for Implementation and the Economic costs involved. We found poaching incursion frequency fell 40% from baseline years to treatment years across all poaching types while poaching incursion depth declined, with disrupted incursions on average, 2.6 km (Thai) and 9.1 km (Cambodian) closer to the forest edge. However, wire snares increased from baseline to treatment years as Vietnamese poachers increased the number of snares per incursion eightfold. No poaching incursions were observed during the Covid-19 pandemic. Tiger density remained below recovery potential (0.48/100km 2 in 2014 to 0.53/ Frontiers in Conservation Science
... Hunting has caused the extirpation of iconic large mammals across the region including Javan rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus), leopard (Panthera pardus), and tiger (P. tigris) (Brook et al., 2014;Rostro-García et al., 2016;Rasphone et al., 2019). Increasing domestic and international demand for wild meat and wildlife products drives unsustainable levels of illegal hunting in Southeast Asia (Corlett, 2007;Hughes, 2017). ...
Snaring poses a significant threat to terrestrial animals in many parts of Southeast Asia. However, long-term population monitoring data to determine the impact of snaring on wildlife populations is limited. We used distance sampling to estimate wildlife densities and population trends and data collected from ranger patrols to assess snare numbers across two protected areas in Cambodia's Eastern Plains Landscape. We found that the populations of three ungulate species, including the globally endangered banteng (Bos javanicus), steeply declined as snare numbers appeared to increase. In the same time period, the populations of two globally threatened arboreal primates remained similar or increased. Our findings indicate that snaring likely impacts ground-dwelling ungulates whilst sparing arboreal primates. Current ungulate densities are at critically low levels with several species at the brink of extirpation in our study area. We recommend urgent and comprehensive conservation actions to restrict snaring and prevent irreversible wildlife population collapses in this landscape and across the broader region.
... Despite their significance in ecology and human wellbeing, leopards have suffered range contraction and population decline worldwide (Jacobson et al. 2016). For instance, leopards have lost up to 48-67% of their historical range in Africa and about 83-87% in Asia (Jacobson et al. 2016) owing to factors like habitat destruction, poaching, prey depletion, and human-leopard conflict (Rostro-Garcia et al. 2016;Ramesh et al. 2016;Steinmetz et al. 2021) Protected areas across the world act as safe refuges for leopards due to habitat and prey availability along with law enforcement. (Mills 1991;Jhala et al. 2021). ...
Despite their high dietary and behavioural flexibility, leopards have lost > 70% of their historic range due to the causes like habitat loss, prey depletion and poaching. Precise abundance estimates are among the essential information required for leopard conservation. We provide estimates of leopard population density from Gir Protected Area, Gujarat, India, using camera traps deployed from May to June 2017. Our survey consists of 50 sampling sites covering an area of 200 km 2 in the western part of Gir. We used the likelihood-based spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) framework to assess leopard density in Gir. We identified 39 unique leopard individuals, among which 21 were males, 15 were females and three were of unknown sex. SECR analysis found the leopard density in Gir to be 19.90 ± 3.38 (S.E.) individuals/100 km 2 , where females had higher detection probabilities (0.14 ± 0.05 (S.E.)) than males (0.09 ± 0.02 (S.E.)). Males had a larger sigma value (σ) (in meters) (953.90 ± 92.99(S.E.)) than females (675.80 ± 84.78 (S.E.)). Possible reasons for the reported high leopard density are stringent protection measures which rule out chances of additive mortality in leopards, high preferred prey density, and limited effect of competitive interactions with Asiatic lions. A very high density of leopards could have implications for their own population regulation, prey population dynamics, and maintenance of the leopard population in the surrounding area through dispersal. The present study holds the potential to act as a baseline for future monitoring and inform management strategies for leopards in Gir.
... pardus nimr, orientalis and melas) and two endangered (P. pardus saxicolor and kotiya) (Jacobson et al., 2016;Rostro-García et al., 2016). Until recently, assessments of leopard conservation status in sub-Saharan Africa (P. ...
Globally three quarters of large terrestrial mammalian predators are in decline and many populations are data deficient, including those of African leopards across much of their range. Here we assess the drivers of decline African leopard populations in 16 camera trap surveys covering a total area of 15,120 km², across a gradient of anthropogenic impact, management and geography, in protected areas across the Zimbabwean component of the Kavango-Zambezi (KAZA) Transfrontier Conservation Area. Population density was calculated using spatially explicit mark-recapture estimators and Generalised Additive Models (GAM) were used to assess factors affecting population density. Density estimates ranged from 0.7 to 12.2 (mean 2.9 ± 2.7) leopards/100km². Leopard density was higher in wooded sites and rugged terrain but negatively affected by human factors including human appropriation of net primary productivity (HANPP), trophy hunting risk and bush-meat poaching. High lion densities (>6.0 lions/ 100km²) negatively affected leopard density. Annual rainfall over a gradient of ~300 mm across survey sites was not influential in predicting population density.
Previous assessments of the drivers of declining leopard population density (CITES 1988), asserting that leopard densities can be predicted by annual rainfall and are unaffected by human disturbance in unmodified habitat are not supported by our findings. We recommend that the 1988 assessment, used to manage CITES leopard trophy hunting export quotas since the late 1980s, should be reviewed.
... Population declines of mainland clouded leopard are driven by a combination of direct exploitation and targeted hunting, incidental mortality due to snares set for other species (although any mainland clouded leopard caught would likely enter trade), and habitat loss. Snaring has been implicated in the declines of many ground-dwelling forest dependent species throughout Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam (hereafter Indochina), including big cats (Rasphone et al. 2019, Rostro-García et al. 2016, and it is likely to have impacted Mainland Clouded Leopard populations in all three countries (Fig. 2). In Cambodia and Lao PDR, intensification of snaring throughout forests and protected areas occurred during the assessment period (Gray et al. 2018). ...
... Some of the leading causes relating to the endangerment of many wild cat species, including tigers and leopards, are the disturbance humans have on the environment [18][19][20], along with harmful human activities such as poaching and climate change [11,17]. With regards to cheetahs, the increasing human population and, therefore, the utilization of more land for activities such as farming [21] has led to the fragmentation or total loss of habitat [17] and has resulted in a total loss of 91% of historic range since the 1900s [1]. ...
The cheetah species (Acinonyx jubatus) is currently listed as vulnerable according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Captive breeding has long since been used as a method of conservation of the species, with the aim to produce a healthy, strong population of cheetahs with an increased genetic variety when compared to their wild counterparts. This would then increase the likelihood of survivability once released into protected areas. Unfortunately, breeding females have been reported to be difficult due to the age of these animals. Older females are less fertile, have more difficult parturition, and are susceptible to asymmetric reproductive aging whereas younger females tend to show a significantly lower frequency of mating behaviour than that of older females, which negatively affects breeding introductions, and therefore mating. Nonetheless, the experience from breeding methods used in some breeding centres in South Africa and the Netherlands, which also rely on the role that semiochemicals play in breeding, proves that cheetahs can be bred successfully in captivity. This review aims to give the reader an in-depth overview of cheetahs’ reproductive physiology and behaviour, focusing on the role that pheromones play in this species. Furthermore, it aims to provide new insight into the use of semiochemicals to improve conservation strategies through captive breeding.
... Particularly, the IndoChinese sub-species (P. pardus delacori, Pocock, 1930) is extirpated in Singapore, probably in Laos and Vietnam, nearly extirpated in Cambodia and China, and has a greatly reduced distribution in Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand [123] . Yet, one Asian landscape that is considered to be the richest temperate forest in the world in term of biodiversity, is the Hengduan Mountains area, located in China [31] , and China contains a high rate (14.7%) of the world's wild mammals [32] . ...
Carnivores have always undergone interspecific and intraspecific threats that seem tough to detect since carnivore studies often rely on passive sampling when investigating spatiotemporal threats or interactions with human activities. Studies on carnivores’ niche have been an important ecological topic for a long time as carnivore species are crucial in the functioning of ecosystems. This study focused on analysing the coexistence patterns of the North China leopard (Panthera pardus japonensis), the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) and the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in a human-dominated landscape, the Tieqiaoshan Natural Reserve (TNR), and to provide insights for implications of carnivores conservation.
The objectives of the study were: 1) to make insights on the North China leopard in distribution, threats, conservation and population status; 2) to characterize the spatiotemporal coexistence of the North China leopard, the leopard cat and the red fox in one season of data collection and depict effects of environmental factors on species’ site occupation; 3) to make a multi-year assessment of occupancy, detection and coexistence across three years and evaluate anthropogenic disturbances on carnivores estimates; 4) to analyse the threats of invasive species, including humans, livestock, and domestic dogs, on native carnivore in spatiotemporal patterns.
We used the documentary method to bring out results related to the first objective. For the three remaining objectives, in the spatial patterns, we performed the occupancy models, the single-season single-species and single-season two species (where 589 independent photographs from 81 camera traps were analysed), multi-season single-species and multi-season two species (where 81, 62 and 62 camera traps were respectively used in season one, two and three, with 589, 496 and 472 independent photographs respectively) from 2017 to 2019. We estimated three carnivores' site occupation, the environmental factors’ and human disturbances effect on species’ occupancy and detectability. In the last objective, we also estimated the site occupation of invasive species (humans, livestock, and domestic dogs). On the other hand, we calculated the temporal overlap between species using the Kernel Density Estimate through the overlap package in the temporal patterns.
The mainly results of this study are followings:
1) We suggested that the North China leopard's current distribution has drastically changed and only 2 % of its historical distribution remains occupied. Extant patches are in continual danger as the proximity index of patches was small which implying lack of connectivity. Habitat fragmentation, retaliation, and decline in prey species are the main threats. However, there is hope in conservation and long term existence in the area for this
leopard sub-species for its survival because new management policies are being undertaken and will eradicate or reduce threats.
2) Our study revealed extensive and simultaneous presence, implying high overlapping for space and activities during a broad time period (dawn-morning, and crepuscular) between fox and leopard. The North China leopard and the leopard cat avoided each other. The leopard cat and the red fox independently co-occurred with an overlap in nocturnal time. There was true coexistence between the North China leopard and the red fox. The vegetation continuous cover degree was found to be the most important factor in candidate models for site occupation.
3) In a multi-year pattern, the North China leopard occupancy probability did not markedly change with time as the occupancy equilibrium was constant or slightly enhanced. The occupancy of the leopard cat decreased with time. The occupancy equilibrium of the red fox alternately increased and decreased. However, all species presented a slight level of occupancy stability due to their small values of rate of change in occupancy. Environmental factors and anthropogenic disturbances slightly influenced the occupancy of all species across the years. The colonisation and local extinction for all species were relatively more strongly affected by the distances to villages and roads. Moreover, elevation increased the colonisation and decreased the extinction of the leopard cat. Species interaction factors increased with time for all species.
4) In the invasive and carnivore species’ encroachement, the invasive species did not show substantial changes in the occupancy rate and were well detected. Still, invasive species depicted higher values of occupancy equilibrium than carnivores in both interseasons. Domestic dogs directly co-occur with native carnivores (SIF > 1) while humans and livestock presence have direct (SIF > 1) and indirect (SIF not very high than 1) co-occurrence respectively with the North China leopard and leopard cat and red fox. The leopard cat was the least spatially affected carnivore by the invasive species interactions. In temporal patterns, the North China leopard depicted real temporal activities overlap (high Δ4) with all invasive species compared with the leopard cat and red fox (low Δ4).
5) This research confirmed that environmental factors and human perturbations are vital factors to wild carnivores' coexistence. It also exposes the negative impact of free-ranging invasive species across this protected area on native wild carnivores. An evaluation of how a carnivore species is studied and its coexistence with sympatric and invasive species across diverse protected areas management regimes is crucial to develop robust landscape-scale conservation strategies.
... Declines in these six countries are driven by a combination of targeted poaching for large cats (particularly in Myanmar), habitat loss, and incidental capture in snares (particularly in Indochina). Snaring has been implicated in declines of many ground-dwelling forest dependent species throughout Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam (Belecky and Gray 2020) including big cats (Rasphone et al. 2019, Rostro-García et al. 2016 and is likely to have impacted Mainland Clouded Leopard populations in all three countries. In Cambodia and Lao PDR, the intensification of snaring throughout forests and protected areas occurred during the assessment period. ...
... Strongholds were classified by survey status as either: (1) surveyed and confirmed, (2) surveyed and unconfirmed, or (3) unsurveyed and unconfirmed, based on the results of our literature review (see Section 2.2). Camera-trap surveys that possessed a total survey effort < 500 trapnights and did not detect golden cats were not included (following Rostro-García et al., 2016). To supplement our classification scheme, we also measured the percentage of each stronghold overlapping a protected area listed by the World Database on Protected Areas (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2020). ...
Identifying conservation priorities for an understudied species can be challenging, as the amount and type of data available to work with are often limited. Here, we demonstrate a flexible workflow for identifying priorities for such data-limited species, focusing on the little-studied Asian golden cat (Catopuma temminckii) in mainland Tropical Asia. Using recent occurrence records, we modeled the golden cat’s expected area of occurrence and identified remaining habitat strongholds (i.e., large intact areas with moderate-to-high expected occurrence). We then classified these strongholds by recent camera-trap survey status (from a literature review) and near-future threat status (based on publicly available forest loss projections and Bayesian Belief Network derived estimates of hunting-induced extirpation risk) to identify conservation priorities. Finally, we projected the species’ expected area of occurrence in the year 2000, approximately three generations prior to today, to define past declines and better evaluate the species’ current conservation status. Lower levels of hunting-induced extirpation risk and higher levels of closed-canopy forest cover were the strongest predictors of recent camera-trap records. Our projections suggest a 68% decline in area with moderate-to-high expected occurrence between 2000 and 2020, with a further 18% decline predicted over the next 20 years. Past and near-future declines were primarily driven by cumulatively increasing levels of hunting-induced extirpation risk, suggesting assessments of conservation status based solely on declines in habitat may underestimate actual population declines. Of the 40 remaining habitat strongholds, 77.5% were seriously threatened by forest loss and hunting. Only 52% of threatened strongholds had at least one site surveyed, compared to 100% of low-to-moderate threat strongholds, thus highlighting an important knowledge gap concerning the species’ current distribution and population status. Our results suggest the golden cat has experienced, and will likely continue to experience, considerable population declines and should be considered for up-listing to a threatened category (i.e., VU/EN) under criteria A2c of the IUCN Red List.
... Such changes influence home range size in ways that are particularly notable in larger carnivore species. Leopards occur in diverse settings across Africa and Asia (Jacobson et al. 2016), occupy a wide range of habitat types (deserts to rainforests), and coexist with humans along a spectrum of development from wilderness to habitats adjoining high human density areas (Stein et al. 2011(Stein et al. , 2016Rostro-García et al. 2016;Kshettry et al. 2017;Kafley et al. 2019). In some human-dominated settings inhabited by leopards, domestic prey biomass is much higher relative to natural prey biomass observed inside protected areas (Athreya et al. 2016), and as such, some leopard populations consume higher proportions of domestic species. ...
Home range size is a fundamental measure of animal space use, providing insight into habitat quality, animal density, and social organization. Human impacts are increasingly affecting wildlife, especially among wide-ranging species that encounter anthropogenic disturbance. Leopards (Panthera pardus) provide a useful model for studying this relationship because leopards coexist with people at high and low human densities and are sensitive to human disturbance. To compare leopard home range size across a range of human densities and other environmental conditions, we combined animal tracking data from 74 leopards in multiple studies with new analytical techniques that accommodate different sampling regimes. We predicted that home ranges would be smaller in more productive habitats and areas of higher human population density due to possible linkage with leopard prey subsidies from domestic species. We also predicted that male leopards would have larger home ranges than those of females. Home ranges varied in size from 14.5 km2 in India to 885.6 km2 in Namibia, representing a 60-fold magnitude of variation. Home range stability was evident for 95.2% of non-translocated individuals and 38.5% of translocated individuals. Leopard home range sizes were negatively correlated with landscape productivity, and males used larger areas than females. Leopards in open habitats had a predicted negative correlation in home range size with human population density, but leopards in closed habitats used larger home ranges in areas with more people.
... Consequently, tiger populations have crashed throughout Southeast Asia, and they have become extirpated over a large majority of the region (Goodrich et al. 2015). Similarly, leopard have recently experienced a range collapse in Southeast Asia primarily due to poaching (Rostro-García et al. 2016), and they are now extirpated from 94-98% of their former distribution in the region, and were recently classified as Critically Endangered (Rostro-García et al. 2019). Distributions of medium and small-sized felids have also been reduced in Southeast Asia, although not to the same extent as large felids. ...
Determining the density trends of a guild of species can help illuminate their interactions, and the impacts that humans might have on them. We estimated the density trends from 2013 to 2017 of the clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa, leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis and marbled cat Pardofelis marmorata in Nam Et—Phou Louey National Park (NEPL), Laos, using camera trap data and spatial capture-recapture models. Mean (± SD) density estimates (individuals/100 km²) for all years were 1.77 ± 0.30 for clouded leopard, 1.50 ± 0.30 for leopard cat, and 3.80 ± 0.70 for marbled cat. There was a declining trend in density across the study years for all three species, with a ≥ 90% probability of decline for clouded leopard and leopard cat and an 83% probability of decline for marbled cat. There was no evidence that mesopredator release occurred as a result of tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (P. pardus) extirpations. We believe that snaring, the factor that led to the extirpation of tiger and leopard in NEPL, is now contributing to the decline of smaller felids, to an extent that over-rides any potential effects of mesopredator release on their densities and interactions. We recommend that the NEPL managers implement a more systematic and intensified snare removal program, in concert with extensive community outreach and engagement of local people to prevent the setting of snares. These actions might be the only hope for saving the remaining members of the felid community in NEPL.
... To date, most studies and conservation efforts in Southeast Asian mammals have focused primarily on large flagship and high-profile species, such as tigers (Panthera tigris; Walston et al., 2010), orangutans (Pongo spp., Pandong et al., 2019), Asian elephants (Elephas maximus ;Wadey et al., 2018) and more recently leopards (P. pardus; Rostro-García, Kamler, et al., 2016), and clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa; Macdonald et al., 2019), with little attention given to smaller species (Brodie, 2009). ...
Dry deciduous dipterocarp forests (DDF) cover about 15%–20% of Southeast Asia and are the most threatened forest type in the region. The jungle cat (Felis chaus) is a DDF specialist that occurs only in small isolated populations in Southeast Asia. Despite being one of the rarest felids in the region, almost nothing is known about its ecology. We investigated the ecology of jungle cats and their resource partitioning with the more common leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis) in a DDF‐dominated landscape in Srepok Wildlife Sanctuary, Cambodia. We used camera‐trap data collected from 2009 to 2019 and DNA‐confirmed scats to determine the temporal, dietary and spatial overlap between jungle cats and leopard cats. The diet of jungle cats was relatively diverse and consisted of murids (56% biomass consumed), sciurids (15%), hares (Lepus peguensis; 12%), birds (8%), and reptiles (8%), whereas leopard cats had a narrower niche breadth and a diet dominated by smaller prey, primarily murids (73%). Nonetheless, dietary overlap was high because both felid species consumed predominantly small rodents. Both species were primarily nocturnal and had high temporal overlap. Two‐species occupancy modelling suggested jungle cats were restricted to DDF and had low occupancy, whereas leopard cats had higher occupancy and were habitat generalists. Our study confirmed that jungle cats are DDF specialists that likely persist in low numbers due to the harsh conditions of the dry season in this habitat, including annual fires and substantial decreases in small vertebrate prey. The lower occupancy and more diverse diet of jungle cats, together with the broader habitat use of leopard cats, likely facilitated the coexistence of these species. The low occupancy of jungle cats in DDF suggests that protection of large areas of DDF will be required for the long‐term conservation of this rare felid in Southeast Asia.
... All these species are too big for medium-large carnivores such as the clouded leopard or the Asiatic golden cat (Catopuma temminckii), leaving only the dhole (Cuon alpinus) able to exploit large herbivores, except for elephants, as a species hunting in packs [56,57]. Historical data supported the presence of tigers in the RYER [48], and leopards are known to be present inside the Yoma Elephant Range [58], but we did not detect either species during our three years of monitoring. In the HWS, instead, we documented the presence of tigers, and we also know that leopards are commonly present [26,59]. ...
Tropical forests comprise a critically impacted habitat, and it is known that altered forests host a lower diversity of mammal communities. In this study, we investigated the mammal communities of two areas in Myanmar with similar environmental conditions but with great differences in habitat degradation and human disturbance. The main goal was to understand the status and composition of these communities in an understudied area like Myanmar at a broad scale. Using camera trap data from a three-year-long campaign and hierarchical occupancy models with a Bayesian formulation, we evaluated the biodiversity level (species richness) and different ecosystem functions (diet and body mass), as well as the occupancy values of single species as a proxy for population density. We found a lower mammal diversity in the disturbed area, with a significantly lower number of carnivores and herbivores species. Interestingly, the area did not show alteration in its functional composition. Almost all the specific roles in the community were present except for apex predators, thus suggesting that the effects of human disturbance are mainly effecting the communities highest levels. Furthermore, two species showed significantly lower occupancies in the disturbed area during all the monitoring campaigns: one with a strong pressure for bushmeat consumption and a vulnerable carnivore threatened by illegal wildlife trade.
... Owing to unsustainable hunting and poaching, most large animals (> 1 kg) have experienced a precipitous decline in their populations across the SEA region (Harrison et al., 2016). Highly valued species, such as the Chinese pangolin (Challender et al., 2014), Indochinese leopard and tiger (Lynam, 2010;Rostro-Garcia et al., 2016), Javan rhinoceros (Brook et al., 2014), and Burmese star tortoise (Platt et al., 2011) have been extirpated from much of their original range or have even gone extinct in the wild. Crucially, the depletion of the region's wildlife resources has not only transformed the roles of certain SEA countries within the supply chain-Vietnam, for one, has evolved from a regional supplier into a key distribution center (Lin, 2005;Ngoc and Wyatt, 2013;Davis et al., 2019)-but it has also forced poachers, smugglers and illicit traders to target new source areas and alternative species as substitutes. ...
China is among the world’s leading consumer markets for wildlife extracted both legally and illegally from across the globe. Due to its mega-richness in biodiversity and strong economic ties with China, Southeast Asia (SEA) has long been implicated as a source and transit hub in the transnational legal and illegal wildlife trade with China. Although several cross-border and domestic wildlife enforcement mechanisms have been established to tackle this illegal trade in the region, international legal cooperation and policy coordination between China and its SEA neighbors remain limited in both scope and effectiveness. Difficulties in investigating and prosecuting offenders in overseas jurisdictions, as well as organized criminal groups that sustain the illicit supply chain, continue to undermine efforts by the region’s governments to combat wildlife trafficking. In addition to reviewing the key trends in both the legal and illegal wildlife trade between SEA and China, this paper examines existing legal and policy frameworks in SEA countries and China, and provides a synthesis of evidence on the latest developments in regional efforts to curtail this multibillion-dollar trade. In particular, it discusses how proactive and effective China has been in cooperating with its SEA neighbors on this issue. The paper also draws on the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) framework to suggest pathways to deepen legal cooperation between China and SEA countries in order to disrupt and dismantle transnational wildlife trafficking in the region.
... Leopards are the most wide-ranging of large felids, yet their populations have been reduced, isolated, and even extirpated from large portions of their historic range owing to a host of threats (Jacobson et al., 2016;Rostro-García et al., 2016;Stein et al., 2020). Although the species receives research and conservation attention, there is a spatial bias in these efforts with camera trapping studies being concentrated in Africa (P. ...
Melanism is a form of pigmentation polymorphism where individuals have darker colouration than what is considered the 'wild' phenotype. In the case of leopards, Panthera pardus, melanism occurs at higher frequencies amongst populations in tropical and subtropical moist forests of south and southeast Asia, presenting a unique challenge in estimating and monitoring these populations. Unlike the wild phenotype that is readily recognizable by its rosette patterns, melanism results in individuals being unidentifiable or 'unmarked' through photographic captures obtained using white flash cameras. Spatial mark-resight (SMR) models that require only a subset of the population to be 'marked' offer the opportunity to estimate population density. In this study, we present an application of SMR models to estimate leopard densities using camera trap survey data from three sampling years at Manas National Park (MNP), India. By using an SMR model that allowed us to include captures of unidentified sightings of marked individuals, we were also able to incorporate captures where identity was either not confirmed or only known from a single flank. Following 18 674 trap-days of sampling across three years, we obtained 728 leopard photo-captures, of which 22.6% (165) were melanistic. We estimated leopard densities of 4.33, 2.61 and 3.37 individuals/100 km 2 across the 3 years. To our best knowledge, these represent the first known estimates of leopard densities from populations comprising both melanistic and wild phenotypes. Finally, we highlight that SMR models present an opportunity to revisit past camera trap survey data for leopards and other species such as Jaguars, P. onca, that exhibit phenotypic polymorphism towards generating valuable information on populations.
... Wild pigs have been documented to exhibit explosive population growth in similar ecosystems where natural predators have been removed and food availability is abundant (Ickes, 2001). Considering the high reproductive rate, and the extirpation of the pig's main predator (the tiger) and low abundance of other natural predators such as leopards and dhole (Gray, Rattanak, et al., 2012;Rostro-García et al., 2016, 2018, it could be expected that the population trend would be fluctuating but with an overall increase over an 8-year term. However, this is not the case in the EPL as the differences between 'dips' and 'peaks' are not statistically significant (although such comparison is complicated by the wide variance due to the highly variable cluster sizes and encounter rates). ...
Results from a decade-long (2010-2020) ungulate monitoring survey in Srepok and Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuaries of the Eastern Plains Landscape of Cambodia showed dramatic declines in Banteng and Red Muntjac populations, and that only small populations of Eld’s Deer, Gaur, and Sambar remain in the landscape.
Errata: calculation errors in Table 4 of page 39 and associated text in Section 3.3 have been corrected in this updated version of the report, dated September 2021.
... In these cases, we excluded the transient observations, assuming they either document the species' local extirpation (e.g., Coudrat et al., 2014;Coudrat, 2019) or isolated incidents of dispersal (e.g., records along China's southern border). Camera-trap surveys with no detections were only included if survey effort was !500 trap-nights, following a similar review of Indochinese leopard Panthera pardus delacouri records by Rostro-García et al. (2016). Using the results of our literature review, we classify strongholds by recent survey and detection status [i.e., (1) surveyed, presence confirmed; (2) surveyed, presence unconfirmed; and (3) unsurveyed, presence unconfirmed] to better facilitate the prioritization of conservation efforts. ...
To mitigate the ongoing biodiversity crisis in Tropical Asia, caused by extensive deforestation and wildlife poaching, we will need to take more strategic approaches towards identifying and prioritizing meaningful conservation interventions. This, however, can prove difficult for data-limited species. Focusing on the little-studied mainland clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), a potential umbrella species in the region, we demonstrate an accessible, flexible, and scalable approach applicable to any species. First, we model the species' range-wide local extirpation threat using a Bayesian Belief Network, taking into account the distribution of remaining suitable habitat and major anthropogenic threats (habitat loss and poaching). We then identify remaining habitat strongholds (defined as large contiguous areas of high quality habitat where the species could survive over the mid-to-long term) and grouped them into stronghold complexes, which we categorized based on local extirpation threat and recent camera-trap survey status. Our results show a 34% decline in the range-wide area categorized as a stronghold due to forest cover changes between 2000 and 2018, with 80% of remaining strongholds identified as having a high or very high average threat of local extirpation. Based on published records, only 60% of remaining strongholds had at least one site surveyed by camera-traps in the last 10 years, highlighting an important knowledge gap concerning the species' current distribution and population status. Combined, the results of our survey review and threat analysis suggest the species is likely extirpated from all of Vietnam, most of China, and large parts of Cambodia and Laos. Finally, we synthesize our findings, highlight tangible conservation needs, and propose actions for each stronghold complex based on the area's specific threats, protection level, and survey status, paving the way for the detailed local investigations needed to implement meaningful interventions on the ground.
... Our study did not account for dynamic processes of landscape and climate change which may exert considerable influence on our study population over the next several decades. Cambodia, for example, has experienced considerable rates of deforestation and limited protected area security [83,84], which would undermine efforts to support population persistence and maintain broad-scale connectivity. Conversely, we did not test scenarios of habitat restoration which may otherwise augment movement through our study landscape (e.g., [12]). ...
Development of landscape connectivity and spatial population models is challenging, given the uncertainty of parameters and the sensitivity of models to factors and their interactions over time. Using spatially and temporally explicit simulations, we evaluate the sensitivity of population distribution, abundance and connectivity of tigers in Southeast Asia to variations of resistance surface, dispersal ability, population density and mortality. Utilizing a temporally dynamic cumulative resistant kernel approach, we tested (1) effects and interactions of parameters on predicted population size, distribution and connectivity, and (2) displacement and divergence in scenarios across timesteps. We evaluated the effect of varying levels of factors on simulated population, cumulative resistance kernel extent, and kernel sum across nine timesteps, producing 24,300 simulations. We demonstrate that predicted population, range shifts, and landscape connectivity are highly sensitive to parameter values with significant interactions and relative strength of effects varying by timestep. Dispersal ability, mortality risk and their interaction dominated predictions. Further, population density had intermediate effects, landscape resistance had relatively low impacts, and mitigation of linear barriers (highways) via lowered resistance had little relative effect. Results are relevant to regional, long-term tiger population management, providing insight into potential population growth and range expansion across a landscape of global conservation priority.
... Mae Wong and Khlong Lan national parks (hereafter, MWKL) are part of Thailand's Western Forest Complex, a complex of protected areas that covers 19,000 km 2 and harbors one of the largest populations of tigers (Simcharoen et al. 2007) and probably leopards and dholes (Kamler et al. 2015, Rostro-García et al. 2016 remaining in mainland South-East Asia. Tiger density is a function of prey density and biomass (Karanth et al. 2004). ...
Longitudinal studies of wildlife are urgently needed in South‐East Asia to understand population responses to the high poaching pressure that characterizes this region. We monitored population trends and habitat use of five heavily poached ungulate species (gaur, sambar, wild pig, red muntjac, and Fea's muntjac) over five years in two protected areas in western Thailand using camera trap surveys. We used single‐season occupancy models to investigate effects of ecological and anthropological variables on ungulate distribution, and multi‐season models to assess occupancy dynamics over time. Occupancy of gaur and sambar was low (<0.25), but concentrated near saltlicks and at low elevations. Wild pig and muntjac occupancies were 3–4 times higher (0.60–0.80). Wild pig occupancy was lower near villages, but this effect dissipated in the final year of the study, coinciding with a purported decrease in poaching. Wild pig occupancy increased significantly, with the probability of colonizing new sites doubling from 0.40 to 0.81 over time. In contrast, occupancy rates of gaur, sambar, and muntjac did not grow, though they were stable. Poaching pressure during the study was low, perhaps allowing populations to stabilize. But only wild pig (the most resilient of the five species) increased. The failure of gaur and sambar to recover might stem from historical overhunting combined with ecological constraints, particularly low saltlick density. Recovery of ungulates (and the carnivores that depend on them) in overhunted South‐East Asian reserves might require intensive interventions, particularly habitat improvement and population augmentation, to achieve conservation objectives.
... Particularly, the Indo-chinese sub-species (P. pardus delacouri, Pocock, 1930) is extirpated in Singapore, probably in Laos and Vietnam, nearly extirpated in Cambodia and China, and has a greatly reduced distribution in Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand (Rostro-García et al., 2016). Yet, one Asian landscape that is considered to be the richest temperate forest in the world in term of biodiversity, is the Hengduan Mountains area, located in China (MacKinnon, 2002), and China contains a high rate (14.7%) of the world's wild mammals (Grumbine, 2007). ...
China has four sub-species of leopard throughout the country. One of them is the North China leopard (Panthera pardus japonensis, Gray, 1862) which experiences a wide range of threats. It remains at the centre of interest for recent research and new management policies within its natural habitat. Due to limited studies for a long time, its current distribution, and population size remain vague without accurate information. Using existing literature, we synthesized information on this endemic and endangered subspecies. We used research engines such as Google scholar, Baidu and China National
Knowledge Internet (CNKI) to find any available literature about the sub-species. By reviewing 39 published documents, nine national and international web news, and asking questions to some specialists in leopard and wildlife managers; we have concluded that the species' current distribution has drastically changed, only 2 % of its historical distribution remains occupied by around 174-348 individuals. Extant patches are in continual danger as the Proximity Index previously found was small. Habitat fragmentation, retaliation, and decline in prey species are the main threats. However,
there is hope for its survival, since the mega project launched in 2015 "Bring Leopards Home" and new management policies are being undertaken in protected areas that will annihilate or reduce threats. In addition, many researchers or governmental organisations are currently carrying out studies on this sub-species. These studies will fill information gaps on the North China leopard based on scientific evidence.
... Particularly, the Indo-chinese sub-species (P. pardus delacouri, Pocock, 1930) is extirpated in Singapore, probably in Laos and Vietnam, nearly extirpated in Cambodia and China, and has a greatly reduced distribution in Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand (Rostro-García et al., 2016). Yet, one Asian landscape that is considered to be the richest temperate forest in the world in term of biodiversity, is the Hengduan Mountains area, located in China (MacKinnon, 2002), and China contains a high rate (14.7%) of the world's wild mammals (Grumbine, 2007). ...
China has four sub-species of leopard throughout the country. One of them is the North China leopard (Panthera pardus japonensis, Gray, 1862) which experiences a wide range of threats. It remains at the centre of interest for recent research and new management policies within its natural habitat. Due to limited studies for a long time, its current distribution, and population size remain vague without accurate information. Using existing literature, we synthesized information on this endemic and endangered subspecies. We used research engines such as Google scholar, Baidu and China National
Knowledge Internet (CNKI) to find any available literature about the sub-species. By reviewing 39 published documents, nine national and international web news, and asking questions to some specialists in leopard and wildlife managers; we have concluded that the species' current distribution has drastically changed, only 2 % of its historical distribution remains occupied by around 174-348 individuals. Extant patches are in continual danger as the Proximity Index previously found was small. Habitat fragmentation, retaliation, and decline in prey species are the main threats. However,
there is hope for its survival, since the mega project launched in 2015 "Bring Leopards Home" and new management policies are being undertaken in protected areas that will annihilate or reduce threats. In addition, many researchers or governmental organisations are currently carrying out studies on this sub-species. These studies will fill information gaps on the North China leopard based on scientific evidence.
... For example, lack of clouded leopard detections in Vietnam is consistent with similar findings for leopards(P. pardus;Rostro-García et al., 2016), tigers (P. tigris; Lynam ...
Aim
Deforestation is rapidly altering Southeast Asian landscapes, resulting in some of the highest rates of habitat loss worldwide. Among the many species facing declines in this region, clouded leopards rank notably for their ambassadorial potential and capacity to act as powerful levers for broader forest conservation programmes. Thus, identifying core habitat and conservation opportunities are critical for curbing further Neofelis declines and extending umbrella protection for diverse forest biota similarly threatened by widespread habitat loss. Furthermore, a recent comprehensive habitat assessment of Sunda clouded leopards (N. diardi) highlights the lack of such information for the mainland species (N. nebulosa) and facilitates a comparative assessment.
Location
Southeast Asia.
Methods
Species–habitat relationships are scale‐dependent, yet <5% of all recent habitat modelling papers apply robust approaches to optimize multivariate scale relationships. Using one of the largest camera trap datasets ever collected, we developed scale‐optimized species distribution models for two con‐generic carnivores, and quantitatively compared their habitat niches.
Results
We identified core habitat, connectivity corridors, and ranked remaining habitat patches for conservation prioritization. Closed‐canopy forest was the strongest predictor, with ~25% lower Neofelis detections when forest cover declined from 100 to 65%. A strong, positive association with increasing precipitation suggests ongoing climate change as a growing threat along drier edges of the species’ range. While deforestation and land use conversion were deleterious for both species, N. nebulosa was uniquely associated with shrublands and grasslands. We identified 800 km² as a minimum patch size for supporting clouded leopard conservation.
Main conclusions
We illustrate the utility of multi‐scale modelling for identifying key habitat requirements, optimal scales of use and critical targets for guiding conservation prioritization. Curbing deforestation and development within remaining core habitat and dispersal corridors, particularly in Myanmar, Laos and Malaysia, is critical for supporting evolutionary potential of clouded leopards and conservation of associated forest biodiversity.
Currently youth are the future generations of the country, their awareness on the values of wildlife is critical in determining if they will follow the footsteps of the current generation in conserving natural resources (wildlife). This study was conducted in Wuparo and Balyerwa community conservancies, to assess learners' level of awareness on wildlife-based ecosystem services. The knowledge and awareness processes that introduce information about wildlife resources and their benefits plays a critical role in shaping lifelong attitudes, values, and patterns of behavior of learners toward wildlife. Questionnaires were used in data collection and the target population consisted of learners with the inclusion of teachers (control group) resulting to a sample size of 145 respondents which was randomly selected from eight indiscriminately selected schools within the two randomly selected conservancies. The results showed that learners were aware that wildlife has values (ecosystem services). Moreover, they are highly aware of tangible benefits 151 (provisional services) compared to other ecosystem services. There was no significant association between awareness and gender (P = 0.259), age (P = 0.374), level of education (P = 0.129). There was a positive correlation (R 2 = 0.9995) between level of awareness and level of education. The availability of wildlife related subjects, location of school, lack of environmental clubs and ignorance towards wildlife were the major factors reported to influence awareness of learners. Increased support for natural resources-focused education among the youth and improved support for environmental and wildlife clubs can be beneficial to wildlife and environmental conservation.
The focus of this study was to explore the impacts of the COVID-19 on the work-life balance of employees at the University of Namibia Rundu Campus. The study was conducted by choosing 10 participants who were randomly selected according to the departments where they work. The data generation processes was obtained through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and narratives to get insight and quality data. During interviews, open ended questions were used and other questions arose naturally through the process. The semi-structured interviews were used to enable the researchers to get indepth information by probing participants' responses. This assisted to elaborate on incomplete answers by being flexible and getting clarification on the experiences of workers during the challenging times of COVID-19. 4 1 Email: Mkalengay@Unam.Na 82 Participants were grouped in 2 strata comprised of teaching and non-teaching staffs. The participants were given questions ahead of group discussions to be aware of the topic concerned and to make them feel comfortable during discussions. The narrative approach also called 'story telling' was used by the researchers to give voice to the participants to elaborate on their own experiences. Thus asking the respondents questions about their understanding of work-life balance and how the COVID-19 impacted their lives added valuable data to the research. The overall findings of the research show that the COVID-19 pandemic has actually added more pressure to the already strained situation of the employees and has some how compromised on the work quality. The findings also revealed that dealing with pandemics especially those that restrict movements of people is a complex task. Therefore, the experiences of coping with the situation differ among individual employees and organizations because every employee's situation is unique and each organization experiences the daily challenges differently in various contexts.
The Tanintharyi Region in southern Myanmar is rich in biodiversity yet is facing threats from varying degrees of anthropogenic pressure. In this research we examine how anthropogenic pressures are influencing large carnivores (tiger Panthera tigris , leopard Panthera pardus and dhole Cuon alpinus ) and their major prey species (wild pig Sus scrofa , muntjac Muntiacus spp., sambar Rusa unicolor , gaur Bos gaurus and banteng Bos javanicus ) in the Lenya Reserved Forest and adjacent areas of Sundaic forest. We used data from camera-trap surveys during May 2016–March 2018 and logistic regression to analyse the relationships between the presence of large carnivores and explanatory variables such as human disturbance, landscape variability and changes in prey distribution. Tiger presence was positively associated with the occurrence of gaur and distance to villages. The occurrence of prey did not explain the detection of leopards in the study area. We suspect this was because leopards have a broad diet, including arboreal primates, and their prey was not fully recorded in our camera-trap survey. Dholes were positively associated with wild pigs and the total number of prey but not associated with forest type and landscape variables. To restore the carnivore population and conserve the biodiversity of this area, effective protection of predators and habitat management for large ungulates are crucial.
The “trophic downgrading of planet Earth” refers to the systematic decline of the world’s largest vertebrates. However, our understanding of why megafauna extinction risk varies through time and the importance of site- or species-specific factors remain unclear. Here, we unravel the unexpected variability in remaining terrestrial megafauna assemblages across 10 Southeast Asian tropical forests. Consistent with global trends, every landscape experienced Holocene and/or Anthropocene megafauna extirpations, and the four most disturbed landscapes experienced 2.5 times more extirpations than the six least disturbed landscapes. However, there were no consistent size- or guild-related trends, no two tropical forests had identical assemblages, and the abundance of four species showed positive relationships with forest degradation and humans. Our results suggest that the region’s megafauna assemblages are the product of a convoluted geoclimatic legacy interacting with modern disturbances and that some megafauna may persist in degraded tropical forests near settlements with sufficient poaching controls.
Clouded leopards are a bitypic genus (Neofelis) of medium-sized felid that share a common ancestor with the world’s pantherine “big cats.” They largely inhabit primary and secondary evergreen and mixed deciduous forests across tropical and subtropical Asia, from northeast India and the Nepalese Himalayan foothills, east through Indo-Burma to Vietnam, and south through the Indo-Malayan archipelago. Well-adapted for climbing and moving in trees, little is known about the ecology of clouded leopards relative to larger felids. They are believed to prey primarily on ungulates, primates, and smaller forest mammals, and occur at local population densities comparable to tigers and leopards, felids that are three to nine times their weight. Although predominantly nocturnal and crepuscular, clouded leopards are also active during daylight hours, and their movements may in part be influenced by both larger predators and potential prey. Populations of both the Indochinese clouded leopard (N. nebulosa) and Sunda clouded leopard (N. diardi) are declining and increasingly isolated due to large-scale habitat loss and deforestation for agricultural and infrastructural development, as well as indiscriminate hunting for their skins and parts, and a live pet trade. Broad-scale conservation policies and collaborative practices that safeguard and restore habitat, reduce fragmentation, enhance forest connectivity, engage communities on hunting, and increase the effectiveness of national and international law enforcement activities, are among the strategies needed to protect these IUCN Vulnerable cat species.
Climate change affects animal populations by affecting their habitats. The leopard population has significantly decreased due to climate change and human disturbance. We studied the impact of climate change on leopard habitats using infrared camera technology in the Liupanshan National Nature Reserve of Jingyuan County, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China, from July 2017 to October 2019. We captured 25 leopard distribution points over 47,460 camera working days. We used the MAXENT model to predict and analyze the habitat. We studied the leopard’s suitable habitat area and distribution area under different geographical scales in the reserve. Changes in habitat area of leopards under the rcp2.6, rcp4.5, and rcp8.5 climate models in Guyuan in 2050 were also studied. We conclude that the current main factors affecting suitable leopard habitat area were vegetation cover and human disturbance. The most critical factor affecting future suitable habitat area is rainfall. Under the three climate models, the habitat area of the leopard decreased gradually because of an increase in carbon dioxide concentration. Through the prediction of the leopard’s distribution area in the Liupanshan Nature Reserve, we evaluated the scientific nature of the reserve, which is helpful for the restoration and protection of the wild leopard population.
This study looks for the first time at the extent to which terrestrial animals protected by the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) are being impacted by wild meat taking, trade and consumption. It contributes to the implementation of a decision adopted by the CMS Conference of the Parties in 2020 (CMS Decision 13.109). We assessed the direct and indirect impacts of wild meat taking, trade and consumption of 105 terrestrial mammal species listed in the CMS Appendices I and II and relevant CMS daughter agreements and initiatives. We first used a systematic review of the published literature, global database searches and the IUCN Red List to determine which CMS species are affected by wild meat hunting. We then reviewed the legislation applicable to the regulation of wild meat hunting and trade and explored the application of hunting legislation using a national case-study example. Finally, we examined the known linkages between zoonotic diseases and wild meat use and trade.
For many centuries, humans and wildlife species have co-existed through domestication and protection of habitats. However, because of competition due to a perception of limited natural resources, the Human-Wildlife Conflict (‘HWC’) has become a serious global issue, including in Bhutan, posing a grave concern to the conservationist, agriculturist, public and policy makers worldwide. This chapter provides a situational analysis of the HWC in the global context, and its specific importance to the prevailing circumstances in certain parts of Bhutan, pertaining to the policies and strategies, preventive, mitigation, and response measures of such conflicts. Simultaneously, a detailed study of the HWC was conducted at Jomotshangka Wildlife Sanctuary, which encompasses three types of vegetation. Assessment of a global literature review and good practices, and results of a case study have been used to develop a road map of the HWC resolution in Bhutan using non-violent deployable techniques and Buddhist perspectives as preventive and mitigation measures.
Hunting is a primary driver of biodiversity loss across Southeast Asia. Within Cambodia, the use of wire snares to capture wildlife is a severe threat in protected areas but there have been few studies of the behaviour of hunters from local communities. Here, we combine the unmatched count technique with direct questioning to estimate the prevalence of hunting behaviours and wildlife consumption amongst households living within Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary, Cambodia. We assessed respon-dents' knowledge of rules, and their perceptions of patrols responsible for enforcing rules. Estimates of hunting behaviour were variable: results from the unmatched count technique were inconclusive, and direct questioning revealed % of households hunted, and % set snares around farms to prevent wildlife eating crops. Hunting with domestic dogs was the method most commonly used to catch wildlife (% of households owned dogs). Wild meat was consumed by % of households, and was most frequently bought or caught, but also gifted. We detected a high awareness of conservation rules, but low awareness of punishments and penalties, with wildlife depletion, rather than the risk of being caught by patrols, causing the greatest reduction in hunting. Our findings demonstrate the challenges associated with reliably estimating rule-breaking behaviour and highlight the need to incorporate careful triangulation into study design.
Large protected areas are essential for the long-term conservation of wide-ranging or low-density large carnivore populations. However, small protected areas can also contribute to carnivore conservation if they have sufficient prey density, if wildlife crime is controlled and if they are connected to other protected areas and/or embedded within a larger matrix of at least partially suitable habitat. In the central highlands of Sri Lanka, the 31.6 km² Horton Plains National Park is a mosaic of tropical montane cloud forest and patana grassland set within a mosaic landscape of forest and agriculture. We conducted a camera trapping study in 2017 and 2018 to estimate leopard densities and predict their activity centers. A Bayesian multi-session spatially-explicit capture-recapture analysis of 249 independent captures across two 4-month camera trapping campaigns returned density estimates of 10.6 per 100 km² (95% HDI = 8.0–16.0) in 2017 and 15.1 per 100 km² (95% HDI = 13.3–18.7) in 2018. Female capture rates and activity centers remained stable over the two survey periods, indicating fidelity to the grasslands. In contrast, most male activity centers were predicted to fall outside of the park, which implied that a significant proportion of males’ activity occurred outside HPNP, likely with occasional returns to the prey-dense grassland area. As a result, HPNP is unlikely to be sufficient on its own to sustain the estimated leopard densities—particularly for males—without contribution from the surrounding landscape. Thus, although the Department of Wildlife Conservation maintains jurisdiction over wildlife anywhere in the country, interagency collaboration in research, management and conservation should be encouraged owing to multiple jurisdictions over land management that will affect habitat suitability for leopards. Finally, we highlight the potential benefits of maintaining an updated camera-trap database for outreach and potential conflict management.
Melanism is a form of pigmentation polymorphism where individuals have darker coloration than what is considered the wild phenotype. In the case of leopards, Panthera pardus, melanism occurs at higher frequencies amongst populations in tropical and subtropical moist forests of south and southeast Asia, presenting a unique challenge in estimating and monitoring these populations. Unlike the wild phenotype that are readily recognizable by their rosette patterns, melanism results in individuals being unidentifiable or unmarked through photographic captures obtained using white flash cameras. Spatial mark-resight (SMR) models that require only a subset of the population to be marked offer the opportunity to estimate population density. In this study, we present an application of SMR models to estimate leopard densities using camera trap survey data from three sampling sessions at Manas National Park (MNP), India. By using an SMR model that allowed us to include captures of unidentified sightings of marked individuals, we were also able to incorporate captures where identity was either not confirmed or only known from a single flank. Following 18,674 trap-days of sampling across three sessions, we obtained 728 leopard photo-captures, of which 22.6% (165) were melanistic. We estimated leopard densities of 4.33, 2.61and 3.37 individuals/100km2 across the three sessions. To our best knowledge, these represent the first known estimates of leopard densities from such populations. Finally, we highlight that SMR models present an opportunity to revisit past camera trap survey data for leopards and other species that exhibit phenotypic polymorphism towards generating valuable information on populations.
Despite its high risk of extinction in the wild, little is known about the ecology and population status of mainland clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa). We used camera-traps and spatial capture-recapture analysis to estimate mainland clouded leopard density within southern Thailand's Khlong Saeng – Khao Sok Forest Complex, comparing densities in two zones of the forest with different levels of relative human access and poaching pressure (core and edge). Over 5242 trap-days, we detected at least 27 mainland clouded leopards, including 12 females and 15 males. Model averaged density in the less accessible core zone (5.06 ± SE 1.64/100 km²) was 62% higher compared to the more accessible and more heavily hunted edge zone (3.13 ± SE 1.05/100 km²). This density difference corresponded to a 56% higher occupancy probability of muntjacs (Muntiacus spp.) in the core zone, a potentially important prey species for clouded leopards. Model averaged movements (sigma) of male clouded leopards were 38% larger (3448 m; SE 551 m) than female movements (2502 m; SE 478 m). Mainland clouded leopard density at our study site was among the highest recorded in South and Southeast Asia (range: 0.40 to 5.14/100 km²). We hypothesize this high density might be related to the extirpation of larger sympatric carnivores. Our study provides important baseline information for monitoring the conservation status of mainland clouded leopards in Thailand and Southeast Asia and offers insights into the species' behavioral ecology and capacity to adapt to human disturbance.
Dramatic population declines threaten the Endangered Indochinese tiger Panthera tigris corbetti with extinction. Thailand now plays a critical role in its conservation, as there are few known breeding populations in other range countries. Thailand's Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex is recognized as an important tiger recovery site, but it remains poorly studied. Here, we present results from the first camera-trap study focused on tigers and implemented across all protected areas in this landscape. Our goal was to assess tiger and prey populations across the five protected areas of this forest complex, reviewing discernible patterns in rates of detection. We conducted camera-trap surveys opportunistically during 2008–2017. We recorded 1,726 detections of tigers in 79,909 camera-trap nights. Among these were at least 16 adults and six cubs/juveniles from four breeding females. Detection rates of both tigers and potential prey species varied considerably between protected areas over the study period. Our findings suggest heterogeneity in tiger distribution across this relatively continuous landscape, potentially influenced by distribution of key prey species. This study indicates that the Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex is one of the few remaining breeding locations of the Indochinese tiger. Despite limitations posed by our study design, our findings have catalysed increased research and conservation interest in this globally important population at a critical time for tiger conservation in South-east Asia.
Sun bears (Helarctos malayanus) have a wide distribution in Southeast Asia, but little is known about their natural predators. During a camera-trap survey in 2018 in Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary, Myanmar, we photographed a male leopard (Panthera pardus) carrying a sun bear cub by the throat. This is the first reported case of probable predation on sun bears by leopards, and only their second confirmed predator. A literature review showed that consumption of sun bears and Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) by tigers (P. tigris) was widespread in Southeast Asia, whereas consumption of both bear species by leopards and dholes (Cuon alpinus) was less common. Outside of Southeast Asia, tigers and leopards, but not dholes, were shown to kill or consume other bear species. Future research should examine interspecific relationships between sun bears and large felids to better understand what, if any, impacts large felids have on sun bear ecology.
The green peafowl Pavo muticus is a highly threatened galliform species that was historically distributed widely across South-east Asia. Evidence shows a recent population decline and range contraction for this species, linked with habitat degradation and over-exploitation. This study aimed to determine the current known distribution across mainland South-east Asia and investigate potential habitat that could host remaining viable populations and contribute to the long-term survival of the species. We used locations from historical and recent records and habitat variables from a geographical information system database to model the probability of occurrence and classify key localities according to their relative importance for the species. Our results showed that the green peafowl probably occurs in less than 16% of its historical range across mainland South-east Asia and that remaining locations are fragmented. Four confirmed and two potential stronghold populations were identified for the species, based on the localities with high capacity to contribute to its long-term survival in large contiguous patches. These were in central Myanmar, western and northern Thailand, eastern Cambodia/south-central Viet Nam and northern Cambodia/southern Lao. Threats vary amongst countries, with continued habitat loss and degradation in many areas and hunting particularly acute in Viet Nam, Cambodia and Lao. Most of the remaining populations are in protected areas but the protection level varies widely. We propose conservation actions for each stronghold population, in accordance with the nature of the threats and protection level in each area, to prevent the local extinction of this species.
Recovering small populations of threatened species is an important global conservation strategy. Monitoring the anticipated recovery, however, often relies on uncertain abundance indices rather than on rigorous demographic estimates. To counter the severe threat from poaching of wild tigers (Panthera tigris), the Government of Thailand established an intensive patrolling system to protect and recover its largest source population in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary. Concurrently, we assessed the dynamics of this tiger population over the next eight years, employing rigorous photographic capture-recapture methods. Between 2006–2012, we sampled 624–1026 km² area deploying 137–200 camera traps, investing 21,359 trap-days effort to photograph 90 distinct individuals. Tiger abundance was estimated each year using closed model Bayesian spatial capture-recapture analyses. Abundance estimates were integrated with likelihood-based open model analyses to estimate rates of annual and overall rates of survival, recruitment and changes in abundance. Estimates of demographic parameters fluctuated widely, with densities ranging between 1.25–2.01 tigers/100 km², abundances between 35–58 tigers, survival between 79.6%–95.5% and annual recruitment varying between 0–25 tigers. We demonstrate the value of photographic capture-recapture methods for assessments of population dynamics in rare and elusive species that are identifiable from natural markings. Possibly because of poaching pressure, tiger densities at Huai Kha Khaeng were 82–90% lower than in ecologically comparable sites in India. However, intensified patrolling effort after 2006 appeared to reduce poaching, correlated with marginal improvement in tiger survival and recruitment. Our study suggests that population recoveries of low-density tiger populations may be slower than anticipated by current global strategies hoping to ‘double’ wild tiger numbers in a decade.
The leopard
Panthera pardus
, categorized globally as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, has the widest distribution of any wild felid species, although in Asia it has declined dramatically and five subspecies are Endangered or Critically Endangered. In China at least three subspecies have been reported to occur throughout much of the country, and in 1998 the population was estimated to be 1,000. However, recent studies have indicated that leopards have disappeared from large areas, probably as a result of habitat loss, a low prey base and poaching, indicating this species may not be as common in China as previously believed. To examine this we reviewed recent literature and interviewed specialists to determine the current status and distribution of the leopard in China. Our findings indicate that the species has declined dramatically, with confirmation of presence at only 44 sites in 11 provinces, despite extensive surveys. Current populations are small and fragmented, and occur mainly in isolated nature reserves. We estimate a total population of only 174–348
P. pardus japonensis
(the north Chinese leopard), which is endemic to China, and < 30 individuals for each of the other subspecies whose distributions extend beyond China. We recommend that a separate IUCN assessment be made for
P. pardus japonensis
, and that this subspecies be categorized as Critically Endangered. Our findings are the first reliable estimates of the current distribution and status of the leopard in China, and provide valuable information that will help guide conservation efforts.
In spite of the high importance of forests, global forest loss has remained alarmingly high during the last decades. Forest loss at a global scale has been unveiled with increasingly finer spatial resolution, but the forest extent and loss in protected areas (PAs) and in large intact forest landscapes (IFLs) have not so far been systematically assessed. Moreover, the impact of protection on preserving the IFLs is not well understood. In this study we conducted a consistent assessment of the global forest loss in PAs and IFLs over the period 2000–2012. We used recently published global remote sensing based spatial forest cover change data, being a uniform and consistent dataset over space and time, together with global datasets on PAs' and IFLs' locations. Our analyses revealed that on a global scale 3% of the protected forest, 2.5% of the intact forest, and 1.5% of the protected intact forest were lost during the study period. These forest loss rates are relatively high compared to global total forest loss of 5% for the same time period. The variation in forest losses and in protection effect was large among geographical regions and countries. In some regions the loss in protected forests exceeded 5% (e.g. in Australia and Oceania, and North America) and the relative forest loss was higher inside protected areas than outside those areas (e.g. in Mongolia and parts of Africa, Central Asia, and Europe). At the same time, protection was found to prevent forest loss in several countries (e.g. in South America and Southeast Asia). Globally, high area-weighted forest loss rates of protected and intact forests were associated with high gross domestic product and in the case of protected forests also with high proportions of agricultural land. Our findings reinforce the need for improved understanding of the reasons for the high forest losses in PAs and IFLs and strategies to prevent further losses.
We discovered the presence of two individual spotted leopards Panthera pardus in Ulu Muda Forest Reserve, a previously under-researched selectively logged rainforest of Peninsular Malaysia. These findings are unexpected, because only two other studies have detected the spotted morph amongst many other melanistic leopards caught on camera traps in Peninsular Malaysia. We discuss the implications of our findings with respect to the prevalence of melanism among leopards in the region. © Cedric Tan Kai Wei, Jonathan Moore, Salman bin Saaban, Ahimsa Campos-Arceiz and David W. Macdonald.
To date, leopards (Panthera pardus) in Peninsular Malaysia have been overlooked by large carnivore researchers. This is in part due to the country's unique population of individuals that are almost all melanistic, which makes it nearly impossible to identify individuals using camera traps for estimating leopard density. We discovered a novel modification to infrared flash camera traps, which forces the camera into night mode, that allows us to consistently and clearly see the spots of a melanistic leopard. The aim of this project was 1) to determine the feasibility of identifying melanistic leopards with confidence using infrared flash camera traps, and 2) to establish a density estimate for the leopard population in a wildlife corridor in Malaysia using maximum likelihood and Bayesian spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) models. Both SECR approaches yielded a leopard density of approximately 3 individuals/100 km2. Our estimates represent the first density estimate of leopards in Malaysia and arguably, the world's first successful attempt to estimate the population size of a species with melanistic phenotypes. Because we have demonstrated that melanistic leopards can be monitored with confidence using infrared cameras, future studies should employ our approach instead of relying on scars or body shape for identification. Ultimately, our approach can facilitate more accurate assessments of leopard population trends, particularly in regions where melanistic phenotypes largely occur. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.
Canine distemper virus (CDV) has recently been identified in populations of wild tigers in Russia and India. Tiger populations are generally too small to maintain CDV for long periods, but are at risk of infections arising from more abundant susceptible hosts that constitute a reservoir of infection. Because CDV is an additive mortality factor, it could represent a significant threat to small, isolated tiger populations. In Russia, CDV was associated with the deaths of tigers in 2004 and in 2010, and was coincident with a localized decline of tigers in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik, (from 25 tigers in 2008 to nine in 2012). Habitat continuity with surrounding areas likely played an important role in promoting an on-going recovery. We recommend steps be taken to assess the presence and the impact of CDV in all tiger range states, but should not detract focus away from the primary threats to tigers, which include habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching and retaliatory killing. Research priorities include: 1) recognition and diagnosis of clinical cases of CDV in tigers when they occur, and 2) collection of baseline data on the health of wild tigers. CDV infection of individual tigers need not imply a conservation threat, and modeling should complement disease surveillance and targeted research to assess the potential impact to tiger populations across the range of ecosystems, population densities and climate extremes occupied by tigers. Describing the role of domestic and wild carnivores as contributors to a local CDV reservoir is an important precursor to considering control measures.This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Likely due to their often solitary and nocturnal lifestyle we still know comparatively little about wild cats and every additional information is important. During the course of our study on the Phayre’s leaf monkey population Trachypithecus phayrei crepusculus at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand) we recorded all felid sightings (N = 117) for 7 consecutive years. It took more than 3.5 years before all 8 cat species known to occur in the sanctuary had been encountered. With 80.3 % of all sightings the leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis was the most abundant species, 3 species accounted for 7.7 – 2.6 % each, and the remaining 4 species were encountered less than 2 % each. With two exceptions these results matched the published records based on camera-trapping and life-trapping. We suggest that similar datasets should be generated by colleagues involved in long-term research.
Panthera pardus (leopard; Linnaeus, 1758) is the smallest of the 4 large felids in the genus Panthera. A solitary and adaptable species, P. pardus is the widest ranging of all wild felids, inhabiting rain forests, mountains, semiarid environments, and suburban areas throughout sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia to the Russian Far East. Despite this distribution, P. pardus is listed as “Near Threatened” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and several Asian subspecies are listed as endangered. P. pardus primarily feeds on small to medium-sized ungulates, but has a varied diet including fish, reptiles, birds, and small mammals.
Habitat destruction and overhunting are two major drivers of mammal population declines and extinctions in tropical forests. The construction of roads can be a catalyst for these two threats. In Southeast Asia, the impacts of roads on mammals have not been well-documented at a regional scale. Before evidence-based conservation strategies can be developed to minimize the threat of roads to endangered mammals within this region, we first need to locate where and how roads are contributing to the conversion of their habitats and illegal hunting in each country. We interviewed 36 experts involved in mammal research from seven Southeast Asian countries to identify roads that are contributing the most, in their opinion, to habitat conversion and illegal hunting. Our experts highlighted 16 existing and eight planned roads - these potentially threaten 21% of the 117 endangered terrestrial mammals in those countries. Apart from gathering qualitative evidence from the literature to assess their claims, we demonstrate how species-distribution models, satellite imagery and animal-sign surveys can be used to provide quantitative evidence of roads causing impacts by (1) cutting through habitats where endangered mammals are likely to occur, (2) intensifying forest conversion, and (3) contributing to illegal hunting and wildlife trade. To our knowledge, ours is the first study to identify specific roads threatening endangered mammals in Southeast Asia. Further through highlighting the impacts of roads, we propose 10 measures to limit road impacts in the region.
Leopard population declines largely occur in areas where leopards and people frequently interact. Research on how leopards respond to human presence and competitors, like other predators, can provide important insights on leopard ecology and conservation in human-dominated regions; however, such research is lacking. Here we used data from field cameras in 2010 and 2011 to examine how human presence, prey, and tigers influence leopard spatiotemporal activity patterns in and around Nepal’s Chitwan National Park, part of a global biodiversity hotspot. We found that leopards were adjusting their spatiotemporal activity patterns to both tigers and people, but by different mechanisms. Leopards spatially avoided tigers in 2010, but were generally active at the same times of day that tigers were. Despite pervasive human presence, people on foot and vehicles had no significant effect on leopard detection and space use, but leopard temporal activity was displaced from those periods of time with highest human activity. Temporal displacement from humans was especially pronounced outside the park, where there is a much greater prevalence of natural resource collection by local people. Continuing to evaluate the interconnections among leopards, tigers, prey, and people across different land management regimes is needed to develop robust landscape-scale conservation strategies.
Illicit trade in wildlife products is rapidly decimating many species across the globe. Such trade is often underestimated for wide-ranging species until it is too late for the survival of their remaining populations. Policing this trade could be vastly improved if one could reliably determine geographic origins of illegal wildlife products and identify areas where greater enforcement is needed. Using DNA-based assignment tests (i.e., samples are assigned to geographic locations), we addressed these factors for leopards (Panthera pardus) on the Indian subcontinent. We created geography-specific allele frequencies from a genetic reference database of 173 leopards across India to infer geographic origins of DNA samples from 40 seized leopard skins. Sensitivity analyses of samples of known geographic origins and assignments of seized skins demonstrated robust assignments for Indian leopards. We found that confiscated pelts seized in small numbers were not necessarily from local leopards. The geographic footprint of large seizures appeared to be bigger than the cumulative footprint of several smaller seizures, indicating widespread leopard poaching across the subcontinent. Our seized samples had male-biased sex ratios, especially the large seizures. From multiple seized sample assignments, we identified central India as a poaching hotspot for leopards. The techniques we applied can be used to identify origins of seized illegal wildlife products and trade routes at the subcontinent scale and beyond.
Lethal infections with canine distemper virus (CDV) have recently been diagnosed in Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica), but long-term implications for the population are unknown. This study evaluates the potential impact of CDV on a key tiger population in Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Zapovednik (SABZ), and assesses how CDV might influence the extinction potential of other tiger populations of varying sizes. An individual-based stochastic, SIRD (susceptible-infected-recovered/dead) model was used to simulate infection through predation of infected domestic dogs, and/or wild carnivores, and direct tiger-to-tiger transmission. CDV prevalence and effective contact based on published and observed data was used to define plausible low- and high-risk infection scenarios. CDV infection increased the 50-year extinction probability of tigers in SABZ by 6.3% to 55.8% compared to a control population, depending on risk scenario. The most significant factors influencing model outcome were virus prevalence in the reservoir population(s) and its effective contact rate with tigers. Adjustment of the mortality rate had a proportional impact, while inclusion of epizootic infection waves had negligible additional impact. Small populations were found to be disproportionately vulnerable to extinction through CDV infection. The 50-year extinction risk in populations consisting of 25 individuals was 1.65 times greater when CDV was present than that of control populations. The effects of density dependence do not protect an endangered population from the impacts of a multi-host pathogen, such as CDV, where they coexist with an abundant reservoir presenting a persistent threat. Awareness of CDV is a critical component of a successful tiger conservation management policy.
Camera-trapping in many areas across Myanmar shows that of six smaller cat spe- cies, leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis, mainland clouded leopard Neofelis neb- ulosa and Asiatic golden cat Catopuma temminckii remain widespread in the larger remaining forested landscapes. Marbled cat Pardofelis marmorata is somewhat less widely distributed or not so well documented by this survey method. Landscape- scale threats such as habitat fragmentation by mega-development projects may be significant threats to these four species. The remaining two species - fishing cat Prionailurus viverrinus and jungle cat Felis chaus – may need specific conserva- tion actions to ensure their national survival. Most cats are completely protected by existing wildlife law in Myanmar, but the legal status of fishing cat, leopard cat and jungle cat should be clarified.
Tiger Panthera tigris populations are under threat from poaching and depletion of their prey populations. The National Tiger Action Plan for Malaysia contains several actions addressing the threat of legal and illegal hunting of tiger prey species. One action in this plan required an investigation of whether urgent policy changes were needed to improve the protection of the prey of tigers, based on existing data. As the lack of reliable baseline data prevented us from determining population trends accurately, we compiled camera-trapping data from 23 studies conducted between 1997 and 2008 on four principal tiger prey species (sambar Rusa unicolor, barking deer Muntiacus muntjac, wild boar Sus scrofa and bearded pig S. barbatus) and two potential prey species (gaur Bos gaurus and Malayan tapir Tapirus indicus) and compared their distributions and relative abundances. From 10,145 wildlife photographs spanning 40,303 trap-nights, sambar, bearded pig and gaur appeared to be most threatened given their restricted distribution and low relative abundance. Among these, the gaur has full legal protection and has received more conservation attention than the other two species. Following our assessment and advocacy a 6-year moratorium on hunting both sambar and barking deer was imposed by the Malaysian government and the highest protection status possible was afforded the bearded pig. This case study illustrates how best available data (BAD), in this case from camera-trapping studies, can be harnessed to effect precautionary policy changes to curb the impacts of hunting on threatened predator and prey populations that could crash well before resources would otherwise be available for rigorous scientific assessments.
We investigate livestock predation by the common leopard (Panthera pardus) and emerging conflicts between this species, local people, and wildlife authorities at the Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary in the Himalayan region of India. We scrutinized secondary data that were collected by wildlife authorities; we also conducted informal interviews of villagers living within sanctuary, and wildlife staff to understand various human–leopard conflicts. Leopard density was approximately 0.33/km2 in the sanctuary. Leopards killed 1,763 domestic animals, about 90% of which were cattle, during a 14-year period. Within the sanctuary, leopards killed 1 person and injured 9 others. This high depredation rate may be due to many factors, including
low density of wild prey species in the sanctuary. The high level of livestock depredation by leopards in and around the sanctuary has caused severe conflicts.
Cited By (since 1996):63, Export Date: 26 November 2013, Source: Scopus
Forests in Flux
Forests worldwide are in a state of flux, with accelerating losses in some regions and gains in others. Hansen et al. (p. 850 ) examined global Landsat data at a 30-meter spatial resolution to characterize forest extent, loss, and gain from 2000 to 2012. Globally, 2.3 million square kilometers of forest were lost during the 12-year study period and 0.8 million square kilometers of new forest were gained. The tropics exhibited both the greatest losses and the greatest gains (through regrowth and plantation), with losses outstripping gains.
This chapter discusses the predation of wild carnivores on dogs, considering the range of recorded carnivore species responsible for killing dogs around the world. It examines the potential dog-killing species to search for records of killing or consuming dogs. There were also findings of recorded dog killings by non-carnivorous species.
Protected areas are extremely important for the long term viability of biodiversity in a densely populated country like India where land is a scarce resource. However, protected areas cover only 5% of the land area in India and in the case of large carnivores that range widely, human use landscapes will function as important habitats required for gene flow to occur between protected areas. In this study, we used photographic capture recapture analysis to assess the density of large carnivores in a human-dominated agricultural landscape with density >300 people/km2 in western Maharashtra, India. We found evidence of a wide suite of wild carnivores inhabiting a cropland landscape devoid of wilderness and wild herbivore prey. Furthermore, the large carnivores; leopard (Panthera pardus) and striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) occurred at relatively high density of 4.8±1.2 (sd) adults/100 km2 and 5.03±1.3 (sd) adults/100 km2 respectively. This situation has never been reported before where 10 large carnivores/100 km2 are sharing space with dense human populations in a completely modified landscape. Human attacks by leopards were rare despite a potentially volatile situation considering that the leopard has been involved in serious conflict, including human deaths in adjoining areas. The results of our work push the frontiers of our understanding of the adaptability of both, humans and wildlife to each other's presence. The results also highlight the urgent need to shift from a PA centric to a landscape level conservation approach, where issues are more complex, and the potential for conflict is also very high. It also highlights the need for a serious rethink of conservation policy, law and practice where the current management focus is restricted to wildlife inside Protected Areas.
Tigers got exterminated from Sariska Tiger Reserve before 2005. After that, five tigers were re-introduced to Sariska during 2008 to 2010. The present study compared the abundance, site occupancy and temporal activity pattern of leopard before and after tiger re-introduction. The population of leopard was estimated by mark-recapture technique using camera traps during 2008 to 2010 in an effective trapping area of 223.3 km 2 . Before tiger re-introduction (2008), the leopard density was estimated to be 7.6±0.6 (SE) /100 km 2 and after tiger reintroduction it was 6.2±0.8 /100 km 2 (2009) and 3.1±0.4 /100 km 2 (2010). It was observed that the density of leopard declined significantly (Two sample T-Test; P = 0.0002) from 2008 to 2010. Rate of site occupancy was calculated through site-wise capture history of leopard obtained from camera traps. Before tiger re-introduction the probability of site utilization of leopard was 0.75, while after tiger re-introduction probabilities of site utilization of leopard and tiger were estimated at 0.54 and 0.52 respectively and the co-occurrence of both the species was 0.51. Temporal activity patterns of tiger and leopard were investigated from photo captures. Prior to the release of tigers, mean activity time of leopard was 20: 57 h (95% CI 20: 19 to 22: 53) but shifted to 22: 35 h (21: 02 to 01: 25 h) after tiger release (Watson's U 2 test: p<0.005). The present study showed that there was a decline in the leopard population after tiger re-introduction and considerable segregation between the two carnivores along the spatial and temporal axes.
Global species loss during the present human-caused mass-extinction far exceeds background rates and is detrimental to human existence. Across the globe, vertebrate extinction risks are highest in South-east Asia. This region has among the world’s fastest recent habitat-loss rates. More of a determinant to the conservation status of many vertebrates has been a huge explosion in South-east and East Asian trade demand, and thus harvest rates, for wild species for luxury food, medicine, tonics, horns and other trophy parts, and captive animals. The region has little tradition of effectively managed protected areas. Consequently, many South-east Asian species will become extinct in the near future if current trends continue. An emerging programme coordinated by IUCN SSC on behalf of its member organisations is being developed to assist implementing agencies and their partners minimise the impending extinctions among South-east Asian non-marine vertebrates. The programme is neither a direct implementing body nor a direct donor, but is a supporter using the synergistic strength of its constituent organisations and IUCN’s intergovernmental status to ameliorate perennial challenges to these species’ conservation. Its two main components are (1) to identify species at greatest risk of extinction, specify their conservation needs and support conservation efforts to reduce this risk; and (2) to build, in selected ways, an enabling environment for species-specific interventions. To address the first component, the programme will: develop and maintain a priority species list with associated priority sites necessary to reduce extinction; determine what conservation mechanisms are already in place (many species presently have none), and encourage additional actions as warranted; and serve as a clearinghouse for