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Tenth Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (MCIS), Paphos, Cyprus, September 2016 1
BIG DATA AND STRATEGY: A RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
Completed Research
Mikalef, Patrick, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway, pat-
rick.mikalef@idi.ntnu.no
Pappas, O. Ilias, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway, il-
pappas@idi.ntnu.no
Giannakos, N. Michail, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Nor-
way, michailg@idi.ntnu.no
Krogstie, John, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway,
john.krogstie@idi.ntnu.no
Lekakos, George, Athens University of Economics and Business, Athens, Greece,
glekakos@aueb.gr
Abstract
With big data growing rapidly in importance over the past few years’, academics and practitioners
have been considering the means through which they can incorporate the shifts these technologies
bring into their competitive strategies. To date, there has been an emphasis on the technical aspects of
big data with limited attention on the organizational changes they entail and how they should be lev-
eraged strategically. As with any novel technology, it is important to understand the mechanisms and
processes through which big data can add business value to companies and have a clear picture of the
different elements and their interdependencies. To this end, the present paper aims to provide a theo-
retical discussion leading up to a research framework that can help explain the mechanisms through
which big data lead to competitive performance gains. The research framework is grounded on past
empirical work on IT-business, and builds on the resource-based view (RBV) and dynamic capabilities
view (DCV) of the firm. By identifying the main areas of focus for big data and explaining the mecha-
nisms through which they should be leveraged, this paper attempts to add to literature on how big da-
ta should be examined as a source of a competitive advantage.
Keywords: Big Data, Dynamic Capabilities, Resource-Based View, Competitive Performance, IT
Strategy
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1 Introduction
The notion of big data and its application in driving organizational decision making has attracted
enormous attention over the past couple of years. As the label itself indicates, big data refers to large
volumes of data generated and made available online and in digital media ecosystems (Constantiou &
Kallinikos, 2015). Associated with the notion of big data are aspects such as the diversity of data, var-
ying data quality, the frequency by which it is updated, and the speed at which it grows (Krogstie &
Gao, 2015). Many companies realize that the data they own or can get access to, combining own and
open data, and the way they use them can differentiate them from competition, and even provide them
with a competitive edge. Thus, todays companies try to collect and process as much data as possible.
The need to harness the potential of rapidly expanding data volume, velocity, and variety, has seen a
significant evolution of techniques and technologies for data storage, analysis, and visualization. Yet,
there is limited understanding of how organizations need to change to embrace these technological
innovations, and the business shifts they entail (McAfee et al., 2012). As big data tools and applica-
tions spread, they will inevitably change long-standing ideas about decision making, management
practices, and most importantly competitive strategy formulation (Kallinikos & Constantiou, 2015).
But as with any major change, the challenge of becoming a big data-driven enterprise can be enor-
mous. Nevertheless, it’s a transition that executives need to navigate through, with limited empirical
knowledge to guide their decisions.
Despite the hype surrounding big data, the aforementioned predicaments still remain largely unex-
plored (McAfee et al., 2012), severely hampering exploiting the business potential of big data. To
date, efforts have been primarily focused on infrastructure, intelligence, and analytics tools; substan-
tially disregarding how these technological developments should be incorporated into strategy and
operations thinking. Several research commentaries stress the potential value of big data as a strategic
tool (Constantiou & Kallinikos, 2015), but to date no empirical work has delved on this problem, leav-
ing practitioners in unchartered waters regarding their big data deployments. A recent highly-cited
framework sketches the emerging trends in big data tools and analytics techniques (Chen et al., 2012).
Another highly influential article underscores the importance of the data scientist in the big data-
driven enterprise, and emphasizes on the skills and knowledge that a successful data scientist should
have (Davenport & Patil, 2012). On a more strategic perspective, Constantiou and Kallinikos (2015)
outline how big data can be linked to strategic management theories, and propose a set of directions
for future research.
While the abovementioned studies attempt to explore the business value and transformations that big
data entail, they largely base their arguments on non-theoretical perspectives. The purpose of this pa-
per is to introduce a theoretical research framework for examining how big data lead to competitive
performance gains. By building on the theories employed in Management Information Systems (MIS)
and novel contributions in the strategic management domains, this paper aims to explain the different
levels and mechanisms by which big data can deliver business value.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows. In section 2 the latest literature on big data analytics and
management is discussed. Section 3 provides the theoretical foundation upon which the conceptual
research model is built, presented in section 4. In closing, section 5 provides a discussion on research
directions and areas of future interest.
2 Literature Review
Big data have very quickly demonstrated that they are a great example of the impact of information
technology on business and decision making at the enterprise level (Constantiou & Kallinikos, 2015).
They transform the way that companies relate to both their customers and employees, and the way
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Tenth Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (MCIS), Paphos, Cyprus, September 2016
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they enact and perform business operations (Wamba et al., 2015). Through appropriate implementa-
tion of big data initiatives, companies have the potential of renewed business value creation along with
increased productivity and innovativeness (Maglio & Lim). The importance of big data and business
analytics is evident throughout the literature, and as they evolve they have various applications creat-
ing multiple emerging research areas (Chen et al., 2012). A heated discussion over the past years has
been on the opportunities and challenges that big data bring to organizations, communities, and indi-
viduals (Constantiou & Kallinikos, 2015).
Past studies have highlighted the importance of big data and business analytics is various areas such as
customer relationship management, new business models, and short-term economic predictions
(Mcafee et al., 2012; Varian, 2014). The value of big data however has also been noted in terms of
combining information from various sources, creating innovative services (Varian, 2014). This sug-
gestion, of combining multiple sources of data in order to derive value, has been advocated by multi-
ple scholars following recent paradigms presented in the business world (Davenport, 2014). Although
these articles demonstrate the value of big data in improving several areas within a business, they do
not address the issue of how to incorporate big data in the wider change that transcends business strat-
egy. Therefore, it is important to develop a theoretically-driven understanding of how the overarching
concept of big data can be incorporated in a firm’s business strategy, and under what conditions in-
vestments in this direction can lead to a competitive advantage.
3 Theoretical Background
The growing interest in big data requires a focused discussion on how it can be examined empirically
and what theories can be used to understand the critical success factors as well as the business value
such technologies add. Within the information systems literature, several theoretical perspectives have
been used to explore these issues, with recent attempts building on the convergence of theories from
strategic management and operations research. When examining the impact of IT investments at the
firm level of analysis, the Resource Based View (RBV) of the firm has been one of the most employed
theoretical perspectives over the past two decades (Wade & Hulland, 2004). The main argument of the
RBV is that resources that are valuable, rare, in-imitable, and non-substitutable are the building blocks
of a competitive advantage (Bharadwaj, 2000). In terms of IT resources, they have been distinguished
into tangible (IT infrastructure), human (IT human skills & knowledge), and intangible (culture and
relationships) (Bharadwaj, 2000). This has enabled researchers and practitioners to identify the differ-
ent types of IT resources their firms should aim to acquire and strengthen. Nevertheless, despite the
RBV providing a basis for identifying the raw materials that are necessary to build a competitive ad-
vantage, it fails to explain how these resources are leveraged (Kraaijenbrink et al., 2010). In addition,
the RBV provides little explanation as to how companies react in the face of external changes and how
the dynamic of resources evolves (Kraaijenbrink et al., 2010). These shortcomings of the RBV have
also been documented in the IT literature, and have caused academics to rethink the theoretical per-
spectives that could complement this gap.
A growing body of literature emphasizes on the role of dynamic capabilities as a source of sustained
competitive advantage, especially in turbulent and uncertain environments (Teece, 2007). The dynam-
ic capabilities view (DCV) of the firm posits that the ability to purposefully adapt an organizations
resource and capabilities in the face of external pressures is the ultimate source of sustained competi-
tive advantage (Eisenhardt & Martin, 2000). The DCV has only recently begun to attract the interest of
IS scholars in terms of helping determine how an IT-based competitive advantage can be achieved in
dynamic and rapidly changing environments. Nevertheless, there have been several papers that employ
the theory empirically (Pavlou & El Sawy, 2010) with results indicating that thinking of IT through
this lens has good explanatory power (Drnevich & Kriauciunas, 2011; Mikalef et al., 2016). The ra-
tionale developed in these studies is that IT that is embedded in specific capabilities can provide a
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competitive edge. As such, the value of IT does not lie in IT resources per se, although their availabil-
ity is a prerequisite, but rather, on the process of integrating them into the organizational fabric. The
DCV has seen a maturing in terms of its theoretical grounding over the past few years, and has been
tested empirically in a range of contexts. In this way, empirical studies have demonstrated how to con-
ceptualize and measure the firms’ capacity to do so by virtue of its IT assets. The general consensus in
these empirical studies is to identify between the routines or capabilities of which dynamic capabilities
comprise (Eisenhardt & Martin, 2000). While there are some differences in terms of the routines used,
the underlying philosophy remains the same in most of these studies.
While the RBV and DCV build on different ideas to support how a company can achieve competitive
advantage, there is a growing body in literature which identifies their complementarities (Helfat &
Peteraf, 2003). Despite the DCV being more appropriate in explaining competitive advantage in turbu-
lent and unpredictable business environments, it is noted in literature that the types of resources that a
firm possesses will ultimately have an effect on the responses they can initiate. The types of resources
and their influence on responsive actions have also been noted in IT literature, thus reinforcing the
theoretical linkages (Wang et al., 2012).
4 Conceptual Research Framework
A vast amount of data is available through the internet and as part of daily operations, and most com-
panies are already trying to process it in order to extract specific information that will increase their
value. In order to make sense out of this vast amount of data, various tools, methods and analytical
concepts are applied such as text mining and sentiment analysis. However, the amount of data that can
potentially be processed is vast, leading to information overload for company managers, decision
makers and executives. Decision makers also have limited understanding on how to adopt and imple-
ment big data initiatives that can help drive their business strategies. To this end, a theoretical frame-
work is put forth that aims to delineate the core areas that should be considered when adopting big
data initiatives with a strategic perspective.
The theoretical discussion of the previous section provides a basis for understanding how to approach
big data projects for business purposes and develop a research framework for future reference. The
proposed research framework can therefore be used to avoid common pitfalls that have been docu-
mented in past IT research. This issue is particularly prevalent when novel solutions are promoted, in
which case it is important to understand the boundaries of their business value and under what circum-
stances they can result in competitive performance gains. To do so, we demonstrate how the theoreti-
cal perspectives are associated, what core notions and aspects are relevant, as well as what contingen-
cy factors shape these relationships in the context of big data. Already there have been some studies
that attempt to describe the theoretical basis on which big data can be examined (Constantiou & Kal-
linikos, 2015), yet, there is no coherent theoretical framework, or an underlying unifying framework to
provide a clear view of the overall business potential and strategic value.
We start this discussion by isolating the different levels and dimensions pertinent to each theoretical
perspective, identify how they are relevant to the context of big data, and finally attempt to describe
how they are inter-related. The starting point is to analyse the RBV in the IT context. Over the past
decade there have been numerous studies that define the levels at which the RBV can be decomposed
as aforementioned in the previous section. Building on the distinction between IT infrastructure, IT
human skills and knowledge, and relational IT resources, we overview some of the work that could be
used to guide researchers in the big data and business analytics area. In terms of IT infrastructure and
the different types that exist several papers have proposed aspects that should be considered (Bha-
radwaj, 2000). In the context of big data there have been some attempts to describe the necessary in-
frastructure which span hardware, software, and mathematical and analytical tools (Chen et al., 2012).
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Employees working in this area should have analytical thinking, ability to handle large amounts of
data, knowledge of analytics techniques and statistical modelling, as well as the capacity to tackle
problems with a data-driven approach (Davenport & Patil, 2012). In terms of relational IT resources,
in the context of big data and business analytics, it is important that companies establish a virtual pres-
ence on mediums where they can interact with involved parties, and clearly articulate communications
and interactions strategies with their existing or potential customers (Grégoire et al., 2015). An addi-
tional aspect that has been noted as being a core resource when dealing with big data, pertains to the 4
V`s, volume, velocity, variety, and veracity (Erl, 2016). Volume concerns not being restricted to sam-
ples but observing all available information. Velocity has to do with getting data on real-time. Variety
in big data is achieved when having access to various informational format resources (text, images,
audio, log-file data etc). Finally, veracity has to do with the quality of the data and its accuracy.
Although the four afore-mentioned aspects of big data are critical in order to gain a competitive edge,
they are of limited value if not leveraged appropriately. This means that the infrastructure, human
skills and knowledge, relational resources, and data must be put into action and into specifically di-
rected initiatives. To do so, a firm must have the IT competencies, i.e. the collective capacity to coor-
dinate activities and transform and bring together individual IT resources into IT-enabled dynamic
capabilities. While IT competencies have been described in previous studies (Cragg et al., 2011), they
are not the main area of focus of the present paper. This does not mean that they are of lesser im-
portance; in fact, they are particularly relevant and important in the process of transforming big data
IT resources into a potentially competitive asset. Yet, there is considerable qualitative research that
needs to be conducted to define them and they are highly likely to be context-specific.
While the ability to effectively orchestrate IT resources may also result in operational capabilities, the
focus of our research framework will be on dynamic capabilities due to their importance in contempo-
rary businesses. Therefore, we seek to explain the routines of which IT-enabled dynamic capabilities
comprise, and how big data initiatives can be infused into them with the purpose of augmenting them.
Researchers have sought to quantify the notion of dynamic capabilities by identifying distinct and
measurable dimensions, or else, capabilities (Teece, 2007; Pavlou & El Sawy, 2010; Mikalef et al.,
2016; Mikalef & Pateli, 2016). These capabilities include sensing, learning, coordinating, integrating,
and reconfiguring (Mikalef et al., 2016). A sensing capability concerns the capacity of a firm to spot,
interpret, and make sense of opportunities and threats in the business environment (Teece, 2007). Big
data and business analytics can be leveraged to enhance a firms sensing capability by helping identify
customer requirements, gaining feedback on existing products or services, or even monitoring compet-
itor moves and their customers’ responses (He et al., 2013; Risius & Beck, 2015). A learning capabil-
ity is defined as the capacity to acquire, assimilate, transform, and exploit new knowledge that enables
informed decision making (Zahra & George, 2002). While this capacity closely resembles a sensing
capability, it differs in that it doesn’t solely rely on spotting trends, but creates distilled information
that can be used in competitive actions. A coordinating capability is defined as the ability to orches-
trate and deploy tasks and resources, and synchronize activities with involved stakeholders (Pavlou &
El Sawy, 2011). Through feedback iterations with customers over social media and developing mean-
ingful analytics, firms can coordinate their efforts with various departments and at different stages of
development, and come up with products or services that are tailored to their likings. In addition, by
analysing in real-time log files of business processes, coordination can be enhanced and improved
(Vera-Basquero et al., 2013). An integrating capability includes the capacity to evaluate external re-
sources and competences, and embed and exploit them in new or revamped ways (Woldesenbet et al.,
2012). Big data and business analytics can be employed towards strengthening this capability by gath-
ering information from multiple sources and utilize them in combination, or else, through the process
of bisociation. Finally, a reconfiguring capability is defined as the ability of a firm to effectuate strate-
gic moves and demonstrate agility when there is a need to change existing modes of operation (Lin &
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Tenth Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (MCIS), Paphos, Cyprus, September 2016
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Wu, 2014). For this particular capability, big data and business analytics are particularly relevant since
by generating information at a constant flow, or else nowcasting, decision makers are equipped with
knowledge that allows them to respond instantaneously, thus increasing operational agility.
Figure 1 Conceptual Research Framework
Building on the main theoretical arguments presented and their underlying concepts and notions, the
research framework presented above and the main associations can help guide future studies in deter-
mining the business value of big data and business analytics. By separating IT resources from IT-
enabled dynamic capabilities, it is possible to understand the nexus of relationships through which
competitive performance gains can be realized. While IT resources related to social media analytics
are necessary, they are of very limited value if they are not transformed into IT-enabled dynamic ca-
pabilities through effective orchestration and management (i.e. to develop the necessary IT competen-
cies at the group or business unit level). IT-enabled dynamic capabilities have been shown to be an
important part of gaining a competitive edge, especially in turbulent and highly dynamic markets.
Nevertheless, their effect on competitive performance has empirically been proven to be and indirect
one, mediated by other organizational capabilities and contingent upon business strategy (Barreto,
2010). It is therefore important to examine how IT-enabled dynamic capabilities relevant to big data
and business nalytics operate, in terms of changing the existing modes of operation and decision mak-
ing.
5 Discussion
An ever increasing numberof companies are attempting to use big data and business analytics in order
to analyse available data and aid decision making. For these companies, it is important to leverage the
full potential that big data and business analytics can offer in the aim of gaining a competitive ad-
vantage. Nevertheless, since big data and business analytics are a relatively new technological and
business paradigm, there is little research support on how to effectively manage them and use them in
the most effective manner. Early studies have shown the benefits of using big data in different con-
texts, yet, there is a lack of theoretically driven research on how to utilize these solutions in order to
gain a competitive advantage. This work identifies the need for a paradigm shift on firms’ view of big
data, and focuses at the same time on the yet underserved but highly needed and requested area, that of
big data and business strategy.
To this end, this study proposes a conceptual framework that is based on concepts from strategic man-
agement and management information systems literature, building on the core areas of big data as
identified by early studies. The framework therefore provides a reference for the broader implementa-
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Tenth Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (MCIS), Paphos, Cyprus, September 2016
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tion of big data in the business context. While the elements present on the research framework are on a
high-level and can be interpreted as quite abstract, they are purposefully described in such a manner so
that they can be adapted depending on the company at hand. This poses a novel perspective on big
data literature, since the vast majority focuses on tools, technical methods (e.g., data mining, text anal-
ysis, and sentiment analysis), network analytics, and infrastructure. Thus, the proposed framework
contributes to big data and business strategy literature by covering the aforementioned gap. It is more
important for managers and decision makers to learn how to implement big data and business analytics
in their competitive strategies, than to simply perform raw data analysis on large data sets without a
clear direction of where it contributed to the overall business strategy.
Furthermore, this study argues that the main source of a competitive edge, especially in highly dynam-
ic and turbulent environments will stem from companies being able to reinforce their dynamic capabil-
ities through targeted use of big data and business analytics. This of course does not lessen the im-
portance of IT resources, since their availability and VRIN (Valuable, rare, in-imitable, and non-
substitutable) characteristics can determine the strength of the associated IT-enabled dynamic capabili-
ties developed (Bowman & Ambrosini, 2003). The concepts used in the proposed framework may help
managers better understand, plan and organize the process of implementing big data analytics within a
business strategy.
This paper offers a theoretical framework on how to increase business value and competitive perfor-
mance through targeted application of big data. Future studies should empirically test and evaluate this
framework by using surveys, interviews, observation, focus groups with experts (e.g., managers, deci-
sion makers) and with customers’, as well as case studies from the industry. Also, both qualitative and
quantitative methods of data collection should be employed. For each different type of data, more than
one ways of analysis should be used (e.g., structural equation modelling, qualitative comparative anal-
ysis). The main argument made in this paper is that the value of big data does not solely rely on the
technologies used to enable them, but are apparent through a large nexus of associations that are even-
tually infused with organizational capabilities. Strengthening these core dynamic capabilities by virtue
of big data is what will lead to competitive performance gains.
Acknowledgments
This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research
and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No
704110
This work was carried out during the tenure of an ERCIM ’Alain Bensoussan‘ Fellowship Programme.
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