Presenting online multi-image elicitation: The contributions of a hybrid protocol

Abstract

This article presents the protocol of online multi-image elicitation (OMIE) in an effort to evaluate its
methodological contributions – using an example – and analyse its effectiveness as a marketing research
technique. We will outline the theoretical and epistemological foundations of this mixed method approach,
as well as the principles underpinning its development and the analytical possibilities available. We will
show how this hybrid mechanism combines the appeal of an interpretive protocol using both images and
text, while at the same time generating – on a large scale – rich- and good-quality data that can be used
for statistical purposes. We will see that OMIE is suitable for analysing the experiential and emotional components of consumption

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Recherche et Applications en Marketing
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DOI: 10.1177/2051570716658464
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Introduction
Experiential dimensions are of growing importance
in the study of consumption practices. The emo-
tional or symbolic responses of consumers to prod-
ucts or brands are also increasingly the subject of
attention among researchers and practitioners. But
this affective and experiential content is not easy to
capture and the right research techniques are needed
to correctly understand these intimate, hidden and
even unconscious phenomena. Purely quantitative
methods are not sufficiently spontaneous or compre-
hensive to achieve this, while qualitative techniques
carry limitations when it comes to generalising.
Mixed or hybrid methods – combining qualita-
tive and quantitative protocols – are being devel-
oped which serve to update some of the traditional
visual techniques used in anthropology and strive
for the immersion of respondents with a view to
generating greater commitment to the response pro-
cess. We are seeing the emergence of new mecha-
nisms – and the resurgence of others – which benefit
from the technological resources of the Internet and
its capacity for high-volume deployment.
However, there is little knowledge of these instru-
ments and researchers do not have any methodological
Presenting online multi-image
elicitation: The contributions
of a hybrid protocol
Stéphane Ganassali
I.A.E. Savoie Mont-Blanc - IREGE - Université de Savoie Mont-Blanc, France
Abstract
This article presents the protocol of online multi-image elicitation (OMIE) in an effort to evaluate its
methodological contributions – using an example – and analyse its effectiveness as a marketing research
technique. We will outline the theoretical and epistemological foundations of this mixed method approach,
as well as the principles underpinning its development and the analytical possibilities available. We will
show how this hybrid mechanism combines the appeal of an interpretive protocol using both images and
text, while at the same time generating – on a large scale – rich- and good-quality data that can be used
for statistical purposes. We will see that OMIE is suitable for analysing the experiential and emotional
components of consumption.
Keywords
immersion, mixed methods, multi-image elicitation, online surveys, response quality
Corresponding author:
Stéphane Ganassali, IAE Savoie Mont Blanc, Institut de Recherche en Gestion et en Economie (IREGE), Université de Savoie Mont
Blanc, 4, Chemin de Bellevue, BP 80439, 74944 Annecy Cedex, France.
Email: sgana@univ-smb.fr
658464RME0010.1177/2051570716658464Recherche et Applications en MarketingGanassali
research-article2016
Pedagogy
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2 Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition)
guide at their disposal to facilitate usage. Among
these methods, this article presents online multi-
image elicitation (OMIE), which is particularly well
suited to the analysis of the emotional or experiential
dimensions of consumption. We outline its theoreti-
cal and epistemological foundations and then, using
an example, show how to set up this mechanism and
use the large number of results it can generate. We
will see that OMIE can make mechanisms which are
usually highly qualitative more systematic and more
formalised. We go on to compare the quality of
responses obtained through OMIE to those obtained
using other questioning techniques. This allows us
to evaluate its potential contributions and effective-
ness as a hybrid technique for marketing research
and studies. We conclude by pointing to the most
pertinent contexts in which to use OMIE.
OMIE: Protocol at the
crossroads of various
methodological approaches
Presenting online multi-image
elicitation (OMIE)
The OMIE protocol involves asking respondents to
select several images from a large bank of photo-
graphs and to express their views on a specific theme,
before justifying their choices and finally answering
closed-ended questions. OMIE is a mixed methods
(or hybrid) research technique that is attracting
growing interest from marketing researchers and
practitioners (Harrison and Reilly, 2011). The first
step is to expose the respondent – as part of an online
survey – to a large set of images prepared by the
researchers and ask him to select a certain number of
them in response to a question designed to identify
his mental associations in respect of a given theme,
for example: ‘What does this theme mean for you?
From the set below, please choose n images that
represent what this theme means for you’.
On the following screen, the selected images are
displayed again and the respondent is prompted to
justify his choice by the following text:1 ‘You chose
the following images to represent what the theme
means for you. Can you tell us in a few words what
you had in mind when you chose these images and
why you chose them?’ This important step consti-
tutes what Stanczak (2007) calls the ‘interpretive
collaboration’ of participants. More habitual ques-
tions are used in the third step to measure behav-
iours, attitudes and other motivations in respect of
the phenomenon being studied. The OMIE protocol
is therefore made up of three successive steps:
choice of images, justification of this choice and
closed-ended questions.
This approach appears to be highly useful in
research focusing on experiential or emotional
dimensions, as it allows for a high level of respond-
ent immersion. The projection of images makes it
possible to access content that is more hidden or
unconscious (Boddy, 2005). The research con-
ducted by Albert et al. (2008) successfully used this
protocol to study feelings of love for a brand. OMIE
can be used to generate a high volume of informa-
tion which can then be compared to other data (tri-
angulation) in order to reach and refine one’s
conclusions. Several different analyses are possible:
descriptive (images chosen, keywords and concepts
in recorded comments), comparative (differences in
representations depending on candidate explana-
tory variables) or multivariate (for the purposes of
segmentation for example). OMIE can be seen as an
appealing methodological compromise to generate
profound insights, while at the same time quantify-
ing the results. We will now look at the methodo-
logical foundations of this technique.
Mixed methods
The principles of OMIE are perfectly in line with
the elements that make up the mixed methods
approaches, from a perspective that could be
described as ‘post-positivist’ (Lincoln and Guba,
2000). Mixed methods can be defined as ‘research
that entails the collection and analysis of qualitative
and quantitative data within a single project’
(Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2010: 19). However, it is
not frequently used either in marketing research or
by professionals conducting studies. In our disci-
pline, the traditional contrast between quantitative
and qualitative approaches continues to be upheld.
Indeed, we lack a well-established methodological
basis and convincing illustrations to undertake
mixed methods research (Tashakkori and Teddlie,
2010), even though such methods are widely avail-
able, particularly in the case of research with a focus
on quantitative dimensions.
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Ganassali 3
There are two main justifications for using mixed
methods research (Onwuegbuzie and Teddlie, 2003):
‘representation’ and ‘legitimation’. Representation
relates to the capacity to extract adequate informa-
tion from underlying data or, according to the
authors, to ‘obtain more from the data’. It is recog-
nised that the non-structured (or semi-structured)
nature of qualitative data collection protocols makes
it possible to collect a greater and richer amount of
data more freely and more spontaneously. In this
regard, Stanczak (2007) emphasises the capacity of
protocols that use images to generate unexpected
knowledge. OMIE can be considered to belong to
the set of projective or ‘facilitation’ techniques
(Pellemans, 1999) that can be used to ‘overcome the
social facade of the individual and delve into his
behaviour in more depth’, but also to ‘facilitate a
more spontaneous expression of affects and past
experiences of a product or service’ (p. 97).
Legitimation refers to the validity of the inter-
pretation of the data. The aim here, by switching
between the two different techniques, is effectively
to list the qualitative results and qualify the quanti-
tative data: this is sometimes referred to as ‘triangu-
lation’ (Andréani and Conchon, 2005; Jick, 1979).
Using a qualitative technique to verify quantitative
results (e.g. illustrating a typological analysis using
the recorded comments of consumers) or vice versa
(verifying statistical results by comparing them to
the qualitative realities on the ground) allows the
researcher or author of a study to assert the validity
of his conclusions. Stanczak (2007) justifies the use
of images to ‘add an additional layer of data from
which a critical reader may triangulate between sta-
tistical data, theoretical or conceptual argumenta-
tion, and the subjectivity interpreted lived
experience of the participants’ (p. 12).
In the academic world, mixed methods play a
minority role but are gaining an increasing number
of advocates. One journal is now dedicated to mixed
methods – the Journal of Mixed Methods Research
– and they are presented in around 15% of articles
published in the field of management science
(Cameron and Molina-Azorin, 2011), including
empirical publications. In most cases, sequential
rather than simultaneous techniques are used.
Researchers use mixed methods research for the
purposes of development or complementarity: a
qualitative study ahead of a questionnaire-based
survey for example (Molina-Azorin, 2011). Articles
on strategy or entrepreneurship that use mixed
methods research also have a greater impact than
purely quantitative or qualitative studies and are
cited 50% more often in the case of strategy and
70% more often in the case of entrepreneurship
(Molina-Azorin, 2011). In the world of profession-
als, a certain number of renowned practitioners (Bô,
2010; Pawle and Delfaud, 2014) are trying to pro-
mote these so-called quali-quantitative approaches
in order to facilitate more informed marketing
decisions.
Visual anthropology and the
immersive protocols of online surveys
OMIE builds on a long tradition of visual anthro-
pology techniques. The use of images to collect
information on questions relating to the social sci-
ences is nothing new. It is one of the possible meth-
ods of conducting visual anthropology, usually
categorised as qualitative methods. The images
used can be produced by the researcher or by the
subject(s) being studied (Dion, 2007). Some
researchers consider images as a tool for recording
via ‘inventories’ or by taking visual notes. These
techniques provide a precise and dynamic repro-
duction of reality and can be complemented by an
exchange between the subject and the researcher
involving a categorisation process or ‘photo elicita-
tion’ (Harper, 2002). Where the categorisation is
done by the subjects themselves, this is referred to
as ‘auto-driving’ (Heisley and Levy, 1991).
In the same category, methods of collecting
images (collage) have recently attracted increasing
levels of interest. The ZMET2 method (Zaltman,
1997), which has been around for decades, invites
respondents to produce a composition using several
chosen images to express their point of view on the
theme being studied. The selected images lead to a
discussion with the analyst, who records and inter-
prets the explanations given by the respondent in
accordance with a clearly defined protocol (Zaltman
and Coulter, 1995). The ‘photo-language’ technique
is also very popular in the social sciences. It involves
asking participants (in a group or individually) to
express themselves in relation to a collection of
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4 Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition)
images prepared by the researchers, for example,
teenagers on the topic of sexuality (Baptiste et al.,
1991). In the field of design, Yoon et al. (2013) have
developed a tool known as the ‘Embodied Typology
of Positive Emotions’, which comes in the form of
a set of cards that represent and describe 25 emo-
tions based on drawings and text. The appeal of this
tool is that it facilitates a more precise expression of
positive emotions, which the authors refer to as
‘emotional granularity’. Finally, it is worth men-
tioning the ‘Album On Line’ (AOL) method
(Vernette, 2007), in which, following individual
reflection on a given scenario, participants agree on
a selected album of images (obtained online) to
express their representations of the theme being
studied. Keywords and brief narratives are also
generated.
OMIE, which is also based on images collected
from the Internet and which are then shown to
respondents as part of an online survey, is compa-
rable to a more recent methodological approach
described as ‘digital visual anthropology’ (Pink,
2011). It is important to draw a connection between
this type of method and the rise in certain contem-
porary Western societies of what some authors
have called the ‘image culture’. In this culture,
media images (e.g. via Facebook, Instagram or
Snapchat) are being increasingly used as sources
and expressions of cultural identity (Jansson, 2002)
and are a reflection – or indeed the object – of sev-
eral modern consumer phenomena, especially for
teenagers and young adults, according to a more
generational vision.
Nowadays, new protocols are of course available
that better exploit online resources, although they are
used to a limited extent (Krantz and Williams, 2010).
We are seeing the emergence of interactive and
‘immersive’ protocols (Carù and Cova, 2006) as a
reflection of increasingly experiential analysis of
consumption (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Schmitt,
1999). The idea underpinning immersive online sur-
vey protocols – in line with a qualitativist tradition –
is to try to partially recreate the conditions of the
theme being studied through illustration and contex-
tualisation (images are one possible medium) and
then through movement and interactivity. The opera-
tional objectives are initially to create a stimulating
adhesion effect to make respondents more likely to
respond and then – most importantly – to facilitate
the involvement or commitment of the respondent
and therefore the quality of his responses (Downes-Le
Guin et al., 2012; Puleston, 2011). Bradburn (1977)
suggests that if the interview becomes ‘a pleasant
social event in its own right’, this can alleviate per-
ceptions of the ‘burden’ of responding and lead to
better respondent commitment to the survey. Some
researchers identify immersive virtual environments
as the source of highly promising research tools for
the social sciences, providing a certain amount of
realism while at the same time guaranteeing excep-
tional levels of experimental control over a wider
sample (Blascovich et al., 2002).
The ‘dual coding’ theory assumes the superiority
of images when it comes to accessing non-verbal
and more emotional reactions (Paivio, 1971). This
theory was taken up and developed by Rossiter and
Percy (1980), who described a ‘dual loop’ of adver-
tising persuasion that is both verbal and visual.
They argued that images influence attitudes to prod-
ucts or brands through the visual aspect of the loop.
We also know that images manipulated in a digi-
tal medium are highly useful when it comes to
allowing respondents to formulate sensorial or
emotional responses more easily, as clearly demon-
strated by Pawle and Delfaud (2014) in their study
on instant coffee. This type of technique can also
contribute, as part of an experiential approach, to a
kind of co-creation of products, as perfectly illus-
trated on the PixmeAway website (Neuhofer et al.,
2014) in the context of tourism.
Finally, we need to locate OMIE in relation to
other visual methods. Table 1 sets out the objec-
tives, principles and main benefits and limitations
of several comparable approaches. We can see that
although it is not very common in marketing
research, it presents a certain appeal within the set
of visual techniques available to researchers. It is
not designed to replace purely qualitative and
exploratory protocols such as photo-language or
collages, and an OMIE-based investigation is no
doubt less profound and systematic than one using
the ZMET, but it can be used farther downstream as
part of a more confirmatory phase. Like the AOL,
based on online dissemination and in line with the
contemporary uses of the Internet and its profusion
of images, OMIE can be used to adopt a relatively
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Ganassali 5
Table 1. Online multi-image elicitation protocol compared to other visual methods.
Main objectives Principles Primary benefits Limitations and difficulties
Photo-language (Baptiste
etal., 1991)
Facilitate participant feedback on
sensitive topics through the use
of images
Respondents are shown a set of images
selected by the researcher. They must select
that or those which represent their vision of
the topic under study. A detailed interview
then takes place based on the choices made
and the justifications for them
- Good protocol control thanks to the
presence of moderators
- Refined observation of choices made
- Tried and tested on sensitive topics
- Performance dependent on
good image selection
- Successful outcome
dependent entirely on
interviewer’s empathy
Collage (Martin and
Okleshen Peters, 2005)
Collages allow for spontaneity
and creative and metaphorical
thinking. They encourage new
and hidden thoughts, emotions
and associations by transforming,
reorganising and editing images
Respondents produce a visual collage in
relation to a specific theme by cutting and
sticking image segments together in order to
form a coherent document in a prescribed
format
- Significant freedom, few limitations on
image-based contributions by participants
- Collage process makes it possible
to activate implicit or unconscious
knowledge as well as new and
unexpected associations
- Analytical methods are
varied and not systematised
- Subject must adopt personal
viewpoint without adequate
distance
ZMET (Zaltman and
Coulter, 1995)
Allows participants to express
themselves in non-verbal terms
using metaphors in order to
access profound thoughts and
sensations
Precise and varied protocol (story-telling,
categorisation, cognitive linkage, montage, etc.)
involving around 10 phases based on significant
images provided by the respondent in relation
to a research question
- Widely used and well-structured method
- Spontaneous responses are analysed
in detail and from several different
perspectives
- During certain phases, interpretation co-
validated by moderator and subject
- Protocol generates quite formalised
results (e.g. list of concepts), thus
facilitating analysis thereof
- Relatively complicated
technique, certain phases
(mental map) can seem
difficult for participants
with little inclination for
abstraction
AOL (Vernette, 2007) Explore and understand
representations of consumption
experiences
Based on stories associated with the
experience being studied, participants are
asked to choose keywords and select images
online. A composite album is then formed by a
moderator or via a collective choice process
- Both individual and collective dimensions
in analysis
- Use of narratives and images well suited
to experiential analysis
- Possible to co-validate interpretation by
moderator and subject
- First phase involves a series
of quite demanding tasks,
completed remotely, which
most likely makes protocol
control more difficult
Embodied Typology of
Positive Emotions (Yoon
etal., 2013)
Achieve greater granularity of
positive emotions
Participants are given cards that represent and
describe 25 emotions. This tool can be used to
train designers in emotional granularity or to
have consumers evaluate propositions
- Refinement and validity (granularity) of
proposed emotions
- Combination of visual and textual
descriptions
- Precise, structured and highly operational
approach
- No deployment on a large
scale via the web
- More a conceptual/design
method than one of
marketing research
OMIE Using a single online protocol,
simultaneously generate
responses to questions, recorded
comments and image associations
Online protocol where respondents must
choose several images on the screen. They
then justify their choices and answer closed-
ended questions
- Can be used with large samples
- Use of images on web-based medium in
line with contemporary usage for active
population segments
- Protocol generates formalised results,
thus facilitating analysis
- Possible triangulation between selected
images, justifications and responses to
closed-ended questions
- Totally self-administrated,
performance dependent on
good multi-image design,
important to formulate
question correctly in order
to generate comments in
line with research objectives
ZMET: Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique; AOL: Album On Line; OMIE: online multi-image elicitation.
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6 Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition)
open-ended, free and spontaneous approach (selec-
tion from several dozen images – generating
respondent quotes) involving a large number of par-
ticipants. Beyond interpreting the selected images
and texts produced, it makes it possible to statisti-
cally list one’s results in a slightly more objective
way. By setting out the selected images – the second
step in OMIE – one can partially reproduce a certain
form of interactivity that could contribute to greater
cognitive involvement on the part of the subject,
thus improving his satisfaction and the quality of
his responses, which will be more comprehensive,
variable and rich (Bouzidi, 2011).
OMIE: Setup and usage
This section describes in more detail the procedure
for setting up and using OMIE. In schematic terms,
this procedure involves the seven phases described
in Figure 1. These will be illustrated using the
example of an online survey designed to explore
representations and motivations in relation to the
consumption of chocolate. The questionnaire was
issued online between October and December
2012 in France to around 2,000 people who were
pre-recruited by students and their teacher to
respond to a questionnaire about mental represen-
tations of chocolate consumption, as part of a class
on survey methodologies. More than 800 responses
were viable.3
Image selection
The concept of OMIE can be compared to the
development of similar tools involving images,
such as the Embodied Typology of Positive
Emotions (Yoon et al., 2013). The image search ini-
tially takes place using an online search engine. To
reflect the theme being studied, the collection of
images in this case focused on the following words:
Figure 1. Descriptive schema of OMIE setup and usage phases.
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Ganassali 7
‘chocolate’, ‘chocolat’ and ‘cacao’. This is an effi-
cient method as it necessarily leads to the most
popular representations of the topic concerned.
As well as representing different product types
(chocolate bar, spread, hot drink, cake, ice cream,
mousse, etc.), the images (all in colour, of the same
size and copyright-free thanks to the advanced
function of the search engine used) are above all
selected to cover all of the theoretical dimensions
identified in the academic literature and, in this
case, relative to the motives for consuming choco-
late. In our example, the researchers chose to focus
on the different dimensions of the experiences of
consuming chocolate based on the study by
Zarantonello and Luomala (2011). Four types of
motivations are presented: chocolate as medicine,
‘mind manoeuvring’ (e.g. escapism or nostalgia),
regression and ritual enhancement.
The multi-image presentation is designed so that
at least three images are related to each dimension.
Table 2 shows some of the images used to represent
the various dimensions, based on the categorisation
used by the researchers. An inter-coder reliability
test is recommended to verify that the right images
have been associated with the different themes.
Developing the OMIE technique therefore combines
two effects: the emergence of the most popular
images via search engine referencing, and a modera-
tion effect on the part of the researcher, who ensures
balance and consistency in terms of the theoretical
concepts mobilised.
Tests and preliminary version
Having prepared the initial set of images, a pre-test
was conducted on a sample of several dozen
respondents. The aim of this test is first of all to
verify the process as a whole: consistency of ques-
tionnaire structure, comprehensibility of questions
and instructions and so on. One must also evaluate
the multi-image composition in order to identify
any themes or images that may be missing and
check their legibility. This discussion between the
researchers and the test subjects on the selection of
images makes it possible to further limit the subjec-
tivity of the image selection process. Indeed, the
pre-test revealed that certain images were missing
(e.g. chocolate bars sandwiched in a baguette) and
that there were too many images representing the
carnal aspect of chocolate. The feedback and sug-
gestions collected during the test led to the final
version of the OMIE.
Table 2. Theoretical dimensions and proposed images.
Dimension Description Images
Medicine The images relate to the
physiological need for chocolate,
withdrawal and even ‘chocoholism’
…
Mind manoeuvring The images centre around
memories, childhood nostalgia and
escapism
…
Regression Chocolate is presented as a source
of materialism, possessiveness and
a lack of generosity
…
Ritual enhancement Chocolate as gifts or essential
components of ritual celebrations
…
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8 Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition)
Validity and consistency of OMIE
In order to account for possible response errors, the
validity and consistency of the OMIE technique
must be tested before drawing up the final version.
As in the case of procedures applied to quantitative
measures (Helfer and Kalika, 1988), validity and
consistency can be evaluated using a series of
adapted analyses (Rodriguez Santos et al., 2013)
such as:
 A study of the correspondence between the
first, second and third choices, which to a
certain extent represent the convergent valid-
ity of the OMIE, for example, by verifying
that the respondent whose first choice is an
image representing individual consumption
will statistically tend to choose an image
from the same category for his second and
third choices;
 An analysis of the associations between the
chosen images and the consumption motives
later given in response to the open-ended
questions, thus testing for a kind of predic-
tive validity, that is, the capacity of the cho-
sen images to induce the attitudes of the
consumer (see Figure 24);
 Comparing the chosen images with other
consumption measures taken at a later stage
via the questionnaire, thus evaluating the
consistency (Helfer and Kalika, 1988) of the
OMIE, for example, by testing the statistical
correspondence between the preferences
indicated by the chosen images and the
declared consumption frequency and budget.
Possible types of analyses
Several different analyses can be conducted using a
wide range of measures, including selected images,
recorded comments and responses to closed-ended
questions.
Images in particular (like free texts) provide var-
ied results depending on the questions put to
respondents (Stanczak, 2007). For example, it is
possible to use a descriptive analysis of the images
chosen (taken individually or in categories) or to
study the justifications recorded after the images
have been selected. These recorded comments can
be used in their unabridged format or re-coded
using an analysis of textual data in order to compare
the thematic categories to other variables. The
meaning of the images above all lies in the way they
are interpreted by participants, rather than in the
inherent properties of their content (Stanczak,
2007). In the example of chocolate, one may try to
determine why the image of the soft cake was cho-
sen more than any other. Reading the associated
comments reveals that, for many, this image repre-
sents a certain conviviality, whether in terms of pre-
paring a nice home-made cake or sharing a dessert
that everyone enjoys.
Depending on the research questions, bivariate
analysis is possible with a view to comparing the
chosen image categories based on age groups, or
observing the themes referred to by respondents in
relation to a single group of images (such as those
that evoke nostalgia), based on gender, nationality
and so on (Figure 3). We observed that representa-
tions in relation to indulgence, conviviality or gift-
giving varied to a greater degree when assessed in
terms of age group rather than gender.
It is also possible to conduct multivariate analy-
ses combining selected images, textual explana-
tions and numeric variables. This procedure allows
the researchers to validate their interpretation of the
results observed and to refine them. This ‘triangula-
tion’ approach is highly useful not only to avoid
erroneous interpretations but also to support the
conclusions of a study.
The factorial analysis below illustrates this
approach by comparing the following variables:
 Selected images: identified on the map by
the abbreviation IMG;
 Representations associated with chocolate
consumption (re-coded using lexical analy-
sis) expressed by respondents after making
their choices;
 Groups to which the respondents belong
based on an automatic classification con-
ducted using a simplified involvement scale
comprising questions that cover the five fac-
ets proposed by Laurent and Kapferer (1986).
Three groups are identified using the mobile
centre procedure. ‘Connoisseurs’ are highly
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Ganassali 9
involved in chocolate, particularly when it
comes to situational dimensions. ‘Hedonists’
score most highly on the pleasure dimension.
The ‘instrumental’ respondents are less
involved. The image choices of each indi-
vidual combined with their justifications
make it possible to precisely interpret the dif-
ferent groups.
We can see from the factorial map above that
there is a very clear correspondence between the
interpretation of the consumer groups, the images
selected and the themes cited. For example, in the
north-east of the map, ‘connoisseurs’ can be seen to
be highly involved in situational dimensions and
refer to celebrations and memories. ‘Hedonists’
obviously emphasise sensorial dimensions: pleas-
ure, taste and also gastronomy. ‘Instrumental’
respondents – in the west of the map – are more
detached from chocolate consumption and see it as a
source of warmth or as a breakfast accompaniment.
The images selected revealed that these three visions
of chocolate also relate to different forms of the
product: liquid or warm for instrumental respond-
ents, prepared as part of a dish for hedonists (mousse,
cream or ice cream) and more elaborate for connois-
seurs (e.g. boxes of fine chocolates). Furthermore,
adopting a mixed approach, respondents’ comments
allow for a more precise interpretation of consumer
groups, as can be seen from Table 3.
Figure 2. Associations between images and declared consumption motives.
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10 Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition)
Productive efficiency of the
OMIE protocol
Beyond its appeal for combining qualitative and
quantitative approaches and the possibility of trian-
gulation, we studied the productive efficiency of
OMIE and in particular its impact on the quality,
abundance and richness of responses.
Response quality
Among the various sources of errors associated
with surveys (Groves, 1989), response quality is of
key importance. Response quality was for a long
time limited to response rates alone, but more
recently, the notion of quality has been extended
(Ganassali, 2008; Schonlau et al., 2002) to include a
much wider range of indicators, including com-
pleteness (see, for example, Deutskens et al., 2004),
abundance (see, for example, Healey et al., 2005)
and diversity (see, for example, Fricker et al., 2005).
From this perspective, the ‘extended’ notion of
response quality measures the involvement (or
commitment) of respondents in the survey and
therefore their propensity to express their attitudes,
opinions or intentions in the most explicit and
detailed way. It is recognised that the online ques-
tionnaire format has an effect on response quality
(see Vicente and Reis (2010) for a relatively recent
review). In reference to the model used by
MacKensie and Podsakoff (2012), we believe that
OMIE can optimise response quality, notably by
simplifying the task of responding (it is easy to
click on three images to express one’s viewpoint)
Figure 3. Correspondences between groups, chosen images, justifications and dimensions of involvement.
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Ganassali 11
and by motivating accurate responses (thanks to a
visual and interactive protocol).
The same survey on chocolate was used to test
the impact of this approach on response quality. We
designed and distributed three different versions of
the same questionnaire (see extracts in Figure 4):
 The first (1) was standard and did not include
any illustrations;
 The second (2) provided fixed images as
illustrations placed above an open-ended
question;
 The third (3) included a random presenta-
tion of 36 images representing the different
dimensions of chocolate consumption expe-
riences, based on Zarantonello and Luomala
(2011).
Respondents were randomly assigned to one of
the three questionnaires based on a predefined
distribution of 60%–20%–20%, with the largest
number being exposed to the multi-image presen-
tation.5 The emails inviting them to participate
were exactly identical regardless of the version of
the questionnaire. A single follow-up email was
sent, 5 days after the three versions of the survey
were initially sent. This recruitment system
allowed us to generate a particularly high response
rate of over 40%.
Response and retention rates
The response rate is the most commonly used indi-
cator to evaluate the success of an online survey. It
is calculated based on all of the successful submis-
sions, excluding incorrect addresses and any
responses rejected for technical or security rea-
sons. The retention rate is the ratio between the
final number of respondents and the initial number
of people shown the very first screen in the survey.
Table 3. Significant comments made by respondent groups (connoisseurs and hedonists).
Connoisseurs Hedonists
When I buy chocolate I buy a slightly more expensive bar,
made by a good brand, so I won’t be disappointed. High-
end chocolate bars are often thinner, like the bit in the
picture, it’s a sign of refinement, there isn’t much of it but
you have to savour it.
Chocolate is about indulgence and temptation.
When you succumb to that temptation, sometimes
it feels like a return to your childhood.
Chocolate = subtle substance/looking for different aromas
or chocolate types.
The master chocolatier is the one who creates delicious
combinations of chocolate and other products (caramel,
almonds, hazelnuts, etc.). He’s the one with the best
knowledge of the product, he’s the most creative. I love
chocolate compositions.
Chocolate can be a high-end and refined product. It’s an
ingredient that is associated with haute cuisine dishes and
pastries.
Wonderful memories for the taste buds, a unique
flavour, you can tell a good restaurant from its
mousse.
Secret indulgence, slightly unnecessary snacking but
delicious all the same. You come back for more
even though you know it’s not good for your figure.
This image was selected because it shows the
pleasure experienced and the feeling of well-being
when eating chocolate.
Fine chocolates, praline, indulgent snacks, gift received. A perfect representation of indulgence and
addiction to the aphrodisiac that is chocolate.
Fine chocolates, occasional celebratory pleasure The pleasure … of enjoying a bit of chocolate when
you feel like it: the flavour … the taste, the aroma
… the senses … bubble with excitement …!!!
I particularly like to taste chocolate in the form of
macaroons.
The pleasure of giving. Chocolate offered when you are a
guest, or at Christmas as a gift. That’s my favourite way to
consume chocolate. You can ‘savour’ it.
(…)
The chocolate mousse represents the ultimate
indulgence for me. Hmmmmmmmmmmmm … it’s
the pleasure of chocolate in its purest form. The
consumption of chocolate is a moment of refined
tasting, pleasure that titillates the taste buds.
(…)
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12 Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition)
The reverse of the retention rate is the rate of aban-
donment, which measures the proportion of online
participants who leave the survey midway without
recording or submitting their responses.
Table 4 shows that OMIE has a negative effect on
retention rates (82% compared to 89%). This small
but significant decline can most likely be explained
by the slightly complex nature of the task required of
respondents, which requires a slightly greater cogni-
tive effort. The overall effect of the response rate is
neutral in our experience (41.4% compared to
40.5%), and the difference is not significant.
Figure 4. Three formats of the ‘Chocolate’ survey.
Table 4. Response and retention rates for each protocol.
No. of emails
delivered correctly
No. of questionnaires
seen
No. of
responses
Response
rate
Retention
rate
OMIE 1136 573 470 41.4%* 82.0%**
Fixed images/no illustrationsa804 364 326 40.5% 89.6%
Fixed images 405 188 169 41.7% 89.9%
No illustrations 399 176 157 39.3% 89.2%
OMIE: online multi-image elicitation.
a
In Tables 4 and 5, the protocols with no illustrations or with fixed images are indicated on a single line to allow for an easier com-
parison with the multi-image presentation.
* Not significantly different from questionnaire with fixed images or no illustrations: p = 0.05 (Fisher’s exact test). **Significantly dif-
ferent from questionnaire with fixed images or no illustrations: p < 0.01 (Fisher’s exact test).
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Ganassali 13
Completeness and abundance of texts
Completeness is an indication of the percentage of
questions effectively documented out of all ques-
tions put to respondents (Ganassali and Moscarola,
2004). In our online survey experiment, no response
was mandatory, which meant that respondents were
free to overlook any undesirable question. The
abundance of texts is measured by the number of
words cited in response to all open-ended questions
put to respondents during the course of the survey
(three in our example, each related to representa-
tions of chocolate consumption). Naturally, this
excludes any questions that are conditional on cer-
tain previous responses (filter questions).
Table 5 shows that completeness is significantly
higher in the case of the questionnaire that included a
multi-image presentation (98.4% compared to 92%).
Similarly, the effect on the quality of responses to text-
based open-ended questions is noteworthy. The length
of recorded comments was 28.8 words on average in
the case of respondents shown the multi-image pres-
entation, compared to 22.8 words for other respond-
ents. We note that the questionnaire which included
fixed images generated longer comments than that
without illustrations, which is consistent with previous
findings (Ganassali, 2008). As could be expected, we
found that online participants spent more time
responding to the survey when OMIE was used.
Richness of responses
The richness of responses in itself has not often been
used to measure response quality (Ganassali, 2008).
It relates specifically to the way in which responses
to textual open-ended questions are documented.
Beyond the length of recorded comments, it indi-
cates whether respondents have provided answers
that are more or less ‘rich’ in content (Healey et al.,
2005). In our survey, we measured the richness of
responses by identifying and listing keywords that
denote the experiential nature of the response in
terms of sensations, emotions, circumstances or the
people referred to by the respondent. Comments can
be analysed by analysing content while reading
through the responses or more systematically
through the use of a lexical analysis. Given the large
volume of texts and their relatively homogeneous
nature, we chose the latter of these two methods, as
in previous research studies (see, for example,
Mossholder et al., 1995) where emotions were coded
using a similar protocol. Table 6 displays around 100
keywords identified by the researchers in order to
detect and code rich references to chocolate con-
sumption in all of the recorded comments.
On average, respondents subjected to the OMIE
protocol used 2.32 rich keywords, compared to just
1.75 in the case of other respondents, a difference
that is statistically significant (see Table 5 above).
This finding supports the view expressed in the first
section of this article that OMIE has an immersive
capacity that facilitates the depth and expression of
respondents’ contributions.
Discussion and conclusion
OMIE makes it possible to enrich the survey proto-
col using a relatively relaxed, free and involving
sequence of questions that facilitates a good level of
immersion in the topic concerned. Subsequent com-
parison with the quantitative data recorded also
Table 5. Completeness and quality of recorded comments for each protocol.
Completeness for
22 questions
Average length of
comments
Richness of
responses
Median
response time
OMIE 98.4%* 28.8 words** 2.32** 5 minutes 6 seconds
Fixed images or no illustrations 92% 22.8 words 1.75 4 minutes 30 seconds
Fixed images 92.3% 24.1 words 1.7 4 minutes 45 seconds
No illustrations 91.6% 21.1 words 1.8 4 minutes 15 seconds
OMIE: online multi-image elicitation.
*Significantly different from questionnaire with fixed images or no illustrations: p < 0.05 (Fisher’s exact test).
**Significantly different from questionnaire with fixed images or no illustrations: p < 0.01 (Student’s t test).
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14 Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition)
allows for a particularly useful triangulation pro-
cess (in this case triangulating data in accordance
with the classification proposed by Denzin (1978)).
Located at the crossroads between several method-
ological approaches, the principles of OMIE are
closely aligned with the constitutive elements of the
mixed approaches, and this method fits in well with
the proposed classifications (Bahl and Milne, 2006)
as what is known as an ‘integrated’ technique, mid-
way between the qualitative and quantitative
approaches. This protocol is one possible way to use
these mixed methodological approaches and could
favour a certain epistemological reconciliation.
Using observation, deduction, modelling and expla-
nations, this type of approach combines the benefits
of rival stances such as positivism and constructiv-
ism (Avenier and Gavard-Perret, 2012). Positivism
is present when OMIE is used to validate or reject
the differences in representations between several
respondent profiles for example. Constructivism is
at work when the objective is to progressively dis-
cover the different possible groups of opinions or
social representations in respect of a given theme by
observing the images chosen and consulting the
related comments. The possible use of these differ-
ent analyses as part of a single study makes OMIE
resolutely mixed protocol. This is particularly rele-
vant today, following the post-modern, cultural or
interpretive ‘turns’, whereby according to Stanczak
(2007), ‘we no longer assume the pure objectivity
of unbiased academic research and allow for or
even expect transparent subject reflexivity in many
projects’ (p. 8). OMIE includes a certain amount of
assumed subjectivity in the choice of images and
above all in the way in which these choices and the
justifications thereof are interpreted. It also involves
real objectivity when it comes to listing preferences,
the frequency of words or the correspondence –
which can be statistically validated – between the
choices and texts and responses given to closed-
ended questions. Stanczak (2007) confirms that
Just as subjectivity and realism interact in the space
between the image and the viewer, the same occurs
between the producer of the image and the subject or
content. (p. 8)
In this regard, Koller and Sinitsa (2009) consid-
ered the online deployment of qualitative methods
using a large sample, particularly with the aim of
measuring and correlating behavioural and more
psychological dimensions. In a highly schematic
way, OMIE represents a numerical version of the
traditional protocols which use graphic materials as
part of an approach that some people now refer to as
digital visual anthropology (Pink, 2011). This new
Table 6. List of main keywords identified as rich references to chocolate consumption.
at home pleasant love birthday aphrodisiac appetising afternoon
odour beautiful well-being happiness mouth warmth warm
connection convivial conviviality guilty delectable delight delicious
depressed desire relax relaxation sweetness soft winter time
energy childhood hungry does some good cold weather pleasure familial
family festive festivity celebration festive period finesse cold
taste snack grandmother winter moment intense forbidden
garden joy lightness home mum morning mother
midday moist moment mood Christmas occasion smell
sumptuous sumptuousness taste buds Easter aroma sharing shared
share passion break sin sinful period pleasure
procure refined refinement remind warm up reward comfort
comforting comfort delight relaxation get together family reunion savoury
flavour savour flavoursome seduction senses sensation sensuality
sensual evening sun solitary memory childhood
memory
stress
sweet tenderness temptation sadness holiday voluptuous
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Ganassali 15
process can also make mechanisms which are usu-
ally highly qualitative more systematic and more
formalised. The data it produces are more structured
and, in addition to semantic interpretations of the
text-based and image-based materials, allow for
data processing that is more quantitative and there-
fore more objective and even more confirmatory.
Finally, the deployment of these earlier visual pro-
tocols online provides access to a greater number
of samples, thus providing conclusions that pro-
vide improved reproducibility, as suggested by
Blascovich et al. (2002). This points to a description
of OMIE as a ‘post-positivist’ method (Lincoln and
Guba, 2000), for it can be argued that it tackles a
reality that cannot be fully apprehended and does so
with more nuanced objectivity, while at the same
time producing results which this approach
describes as ‘probably true’.
In terms of memorisation, according to the dual
coding theory, it has been established that the verbal
system is activated when verbal stimuli are present,
and it dominates in the case of tasks that require
verbal, more rational responses, while the non-ver-
bal system is activated when non-verbal stimuli are
present, and dominates in the case of tasks that
require non-verbal, more affective responses
(Paivio, 1971). It was recently demonstrated (Herz
and Diamantopoulos, 2013: 111) in a mixed study
of country-specific associations that visual methods
(collages in this case) perform better when it comes
to detecting affective associations in relation to con-
sumption. The authors point out that ‘the adoption
of both verbal- and nonverbal-based approaches
provides complementary insights on consumers’
brand associations’.
This suggests that OMIE would be highly rele-
vant for research where the affective dimension is
important. Recently, the use of images as a means of
expressing emotional reactions was discussed and
validated in a study by Yoon et al. (2013). The
authors used images to facilitate ‘affective granular-
ity’, that is, more refined and in-depth expression of
affective responses. Derbaix and Pham (1989) pro-
pose a classification of affects with seven categories:
appreciation (the most cognitive of all reactions),
attitude, preference, temperament, humour, senti-
ment and shock (the most affective). One can there-
fore argue that tools like OMIE are particularly
useful for detecting the most intense affects such as
humour, sentiments or even strong experiences,
which verbal accounts cannot always accurately ren-
der (Derbaix and Pham, 1989). In marketing, several
areas are interested in the study of ‘intense’ affects;
those most concerned include services marketing,
advertising, experiential approaches and brand
strategy.
Beyond our methodological position, our inten-
tion was to provide a concrete evaluation of the
OMIE technique, both in terms of its consequences
for the response process and the quality of data
collected. It appears to have had a negative impact
on the rate of participant retention. As with other
interactive and moderated protocols (Downes-Le
Guin et al., 2012), a slightly higher number of par-
ticipants withdrew midway through the survey
than in the case of simple questionnaires. This can
most likely be explained by the slightly higher
level of cognitive effort (duration) required of
respondents to express themselves. Second, we
note that for those who remained online – they
form a very significant majority (82% in this case)
– the quality of responses is significantly higher.
Scores for completeness, abundance and richness
of responses were higher. It appears as if this type
of more involving protocol tends to introduce a
slight ‘selection bias’ by discouraging unwilling
respondents (Rogelberg and Stanton, 2007) and by
stimulating others. To a certain extent, we encoun-
tered the same problems of representativity associ-
ated with samples made up of ‘volunteer subjects’
(Rosnow and Rosenthal, 1976); on this basis (out
of caution), we advise against the OMIE protocol
for surveys where generalisation is an absolute
priority.
However, in many other social science surveys
– and particularly in marketing – the researcher or
person responsible for conducting the study
expects active (or even ‘productive’) participation
from the subjects solicited. They hope for their
involvement and commitment so as to obtain suf-
ficient breadth and depth of expression in their
‘insights’, which are supposed to be useful when
making decisions in the future. In this respect,
mixed protocols like OMIE are promising when it
comes to stimulating the abundance and diversity
of responses. Such an approach now offers many
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16 Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition)
opportunities for research questions relating to
experiential consumption, advertising persuasion
or the detection and evaluation of the emotional
(Albert et al., 2008) or symbolic values of a brand,
particularly in certain areas like tourism, leisure
activities, culture, luxury products, hygiene and
beauty products, where it is sometimes difficult to
express brand attributes verbally.
From a managerial perspective, the OMIE tech-
nique is a concrete example of the twofold ‘quali-
quantitative’ approach by which practitioners are
generally convinced (Bô, 2010). It represents excel-
lent value for money as it generates a large volume
of insights that are relatively rich and objective for
relatively low implementation costs. Finally, this
type of visual protocol carries good aesthetic appeal,
thus contributing to a more modern and enhancing
image of the organisation responsible, which is not
a negligible advantage when the survey question
targets customers or staff.
Possible OMIE variations can be considered.
Researchers can introduce even more spontaneity to
the way in which respondents express themselves by
inviting them – as in the case of AOL – to search for
and choose three images online and post them in a
dedicated space as part of the online questionnaire
and then to express their associations of ideas.
However, if the aim is to reinforce the standardisation
of the protocol, it would also be possible to add scales
of experiential or emotional profiles, like that pro-
posed by Holbrook and Batra (1987), or to develop
more standardised visual tools like the Embodied
Typology of Positive Emotions (Yoon et al., 2013).
This article has shown that mixed visual tech-
niques have a role to play in the wider set of meth-
ods at the disposal of marketing researchers and
study practitioners. It is important to pursue research
in order to test and deploy these hybrid instruments
in new areas of application. It would be useful, for
example, to determine which categories of images
generate the richest responses. Other methodologi-
cal parameters would be useful when using these
innovative techniques to facilitate more tailored and
effective development.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the editor and anonymous
reviewers for their valuable advice and suggestions as
part of the review process. The technological support for
this research provided by Sphinx is also gratefully
acknowledged.
Notes
1. It should be noted that the way in which respondents
are invited to make and comment on their choices
can of course vary in accordance with the objective
of the study, depending on whether the researcher
is interested specifically in motivations, attitudes or
opinions for example.
2. Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique.
3. Because the objective of this research is methodo-
logical in nature, a non-probabilistic sample was
used, comprising 60% women with an average age
of 31. A total of 83% of respondents had higher edu-
cation diplomas.
4. Map based on a factorial analysis of the correspond-
ences between the selected images and the recoding
of the selection motives as indicated in recorded
comments. This shows which motivations are asso-
ciated with the different images.
5. The survey based on a multi-image presentation was
later to be used as part of a Master’s-level course on
methodology and was therefore expected to include
several hundred responses. Indeed, we often com-
pare OMIE to the two other protocols (fixed images
and no illustrations), in this case 470 observations
compared to 326, which is highly satisfactory in sta-
tistical terms for comparative analyses. By randomly
assigning respondents to one of the three question-
naires, we could ensure similar groups in terms of
sociodemographic characteristics.
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