The Status of English in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Past and Present

Abstract

English is the first foreign language of all children today in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), and those
who graduate from the country’s grammar schools attain a high level of fluency as users of English. This
achievement is remarkable when one considers that several decades ago, English was only sporadically
taught in schools and few people, mainly urbanites, could speak it. The transformation of the status of
English as a foreign language in BiH is intricately linked to the country’s recent history. Little has been
written about the rapid expansion of English from a marginally taught foreign language reserved usually
for a few urban schools to the first foreign language taught in all schools and universities, and used as a
medium of instruction in some. This introductory chapter explores the changing role of English in BiH
society and perspectives on teaching and learning of the language from the Yugoslav era, through the
recent war of succession, to the present day. Consideration will be given to how the political
circumstances of each period influenced the relative position of English vis-à-vis other foreign languages
in schools, classrooms and people’s homes, as well as the demand for English language competence
(relative to other languages) on the job market. Concomitant with political changes over this period came
changes in teaching syllabi and methods, and teacher qualifications.
This chapter discusses accounts of foreign language learning in BiH, as reported in the literature and
information from official English teaching curricula. As these are mostly not available in English, this
chapter will enable this information to reach a wider audience than has previously been the case. To
complement these previously published reports, we conducted a small survey on foreign language
learning in primary and secondary schools in BiH to identify which languages people had learned in
schools at different periods of the country’s recent history, and which languages they had wanted to learn
at that time. The results from this survey are presented at different points in this chapter according to the
relevant historical period. The survey included 118 participants randomly chosen from all walks of life
and with different qualification levels from both urban and rural areas. They come from different regions
of BiH, mainly the regions of Tuzla, Sarajevo, Zenica, Jajce, Travnik, Zvornik and Mostar. The
participants were contacted directly and asked to fill in the questionnaire.
Distinct periods in the development and growth of English are described in each of the four sections of
this chapter. The first section presents the period of BiH in the former Yugoslavia, from the end of World
War II to the beginning of the war of succession in 1992. The second section investigates the very special
status of English in BiH during the 1992–1995 war, when its role in survival was the greatest spur for its
expansion. The third section covers the first post-war years, which saw the most significant institutional
growth in English language teaching (ELT), and the final section addresses the present status of English as
a foreign language in BiH. The overview presented here broadly contextualises the following chapters in
this book, each of which focuses on a specific aspect related to the role of English in contemporary BiH,
many of which we touch upon in this chapter.

Full text

1 TheStatusofEnglishinBosniaandHerzegovina:
PastandPresent
AdisaImamovićandNihadaDelibegovićDžanić
Introduction
EnglishisthefirstforeignlanguageofallchildrentodayinBosniaandHerzegovina(BiH),andthose
whograduatefromthecountry’sgrammarschoolsattainahighleveloffluencyasusersofEnglish.This
achievementisremarkablewhenoneconsidersthatseveraldecadesago,Englishwasonlysporadically
taught inschoolsandfew people, mainlyurbanites,could speakit.The transformationof the status of
EnglishasaforeignlanguageinBiHisintricatelylinkedtothecountry’srecenthistory.Littlehasbeen
writtenabouttherapidexpansionofEnglishfromamarginallytaughtforeignlanguagereservedusually
forafewurbanschoolstothefirstforeignlanguagetaughtinallschoolsanduniversities,andusedasa
medium ofinstructioninsome.Thisintroductorychapter explores thechangingrole of EnglishinBiH
society and perspectives on teaching and learning of the language from the Yugoslav era, through the
recent war of succession, to the present day. Consideration will be given to how the political
circumstancesofeachperiodinfluencedtherelativepositionofEnglishvis-à-visotherforeignlanguages
in schools, classrooms and people’s homes, as well as the demand for English language competence
(relativetootherlanguages)onthejobmarket.Concomitantwithpoliticalchangesoverthisperiodcame
changesinteachingsyllabiandmethods,andteacherqualifications.
This chapterdiscussesaccountsofforeign languagelearninginBiH,asreportedintheliteratureand
informationfrom official Englishteachingcurricula. Asthese aremostlynotavailableinEnglish,this
chapter will enable this information to reach a wider audience than has previously been the case. To
complement these previously published reports, we conducted a small survey on foreign language
learning in primary and secondary schools in BiH to identify which languages people had learned in
schoolsatdifferentperiodsofthecountry’srecenthistory,andwhichlanguagestheyhadwantedtolearn
atthattime.Theresultsfromthissurveyarepresentedatdifferentpointsinthischapteraccordingtothe
relevanthistoricalperiod.Thesurveyincluded118participantsrandomlychosenfromallwalksoflife
andwithdifferentqualificationlevelsfrombothurbanandruralareas.Theycomefromdifferentregions
of BiH, mainly the regions of Tuzla, Sarajevo, Zenica, Jajce, Travnik, Zvornik and Mostar. The
participantswerecontacteddirectlyandaskedtofillinthequestionnaire.
DistinctperiodsinthedevelopmentandgrowthofEnglisharedescribedineachofthefoursectionsof
thischapter.ThefirstsectionpresentstheperiodofBiHintheformerYugoslavia,fromtheendofWorld
WarIItothebeginningofthewarofsuccessionin1992.Thesecondsectioninvestigatestheveryspecial
statusofEnglishinBiHduringthe1992–1995war,whenitsroleinsurvivalwasthegreatestspurforits
expansion.Thethirdsectioncoversthefirstpost-waryears,whichsawthemostsignificantinstitutional
growthinEnglishlanguageteaching(ELT),andthefinalsectionaddressesthepresentstatusofEnglishas
aforeignlanguageinBiH.Theoverviewpresentedherebroadlycontextualisesthefollowingchaptersin
thisbook,eachofwhichfocusesonaspecificaspectrelatedtotheroleofEnglishincontemporaryBiH,

manyofwhichwetouchuponinthischapter.
PoliticalBackground
TheSocialistRepublicofBosniaandHerzegovinawasoneofthesixfederalunitswhichconstituted
the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). Bordering with Serbia and Croatia, it was a
geographically central unit in which Serb, Croat and Bosniak traditions were intertwined. BiH was
recognisedasanindependentcountryon6April1992.From1992to1995,abitterwarwasfoughtamong
Serbs,CroatsandBosniaks.TheDaytonAgreementin1995endedthewaranddividedthecountryinto
two administrative units – the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was predominantly Bosniak and
Croat(occupyingabout51%oftheterritory)andRepublikaSrpskapredominantlySerb(occupyingabout
49%oftheterritory).TheFederationofBiHisdividedinto10cantons:fiveBosniak-majoritycantons,
three Croat-majority cantons and two ‘mixed’ cantons. The Brčko district in north-eastern Bosnia is a
self-governing administrative unit which is not part of either the Federation or Republika Srpska.
Consequently, the education system is fragmented. There are 12 ministries of education in BiH: 10
cantonalministriesintheFederation,theFederalMinistryofEducationandtheMinistryofEducationof
RepublikaSrpskaandtheDepartmentforEducationintheBrčkoDistrict(OECD,2003).
TheSocialistPeriod
Domestic politics and foreign policy influence factors concerning language learning and language
choice.Decisionsregardinganation’sofficiallanguageandwhichforeignlanguagesshouldbetaughtin
schoolsaretakenatapoliticallevel.IntheSFRY,thechoiceof‘favoured’foreignlanguage(s)depended
onthegovernment’sforeignpolicyatanygivenmoment.InthefirstyearsfollowingWorldWarII,like
othercountriesoftheEasternbloc,Yugoslaviahadacommunistgovernment.TheYugoslavgovernment
was allied with the Soviet Union on many levels (military, political, cultural and scientific) and the
influence oftheSovietUnionwas verystrong inall spheresoflife includingeducation.Consequently,
Russianwasstronglyencouragedbythegovernmentanditwastheprevalentforeignlanguageinschools,
althoughitwasnotimposed(Grčević,2011).Becauseofitsassociationswiththe‘enemy’,Germanwas
initially banned from schools, while English and French were merely ‘tolerated’ (Ignjačević, 2004;
Petrović,2004).
In these circumstances, students recognised the importance of Russian for their education and future
career. Government grants for education and professional improvement in Russian universities and
technicalschoolswerewidelyavailable.EducationintheSovietUnionwaspartlyanecessityduetothe
lackofuniversitiesinthepoorandpredominantlyruralYugoslavia,butitwasalsopoliticallymotivated.
Studentsreceivedtechnicalknowledgeandhadfirst-handexperienceofsocialism inthecountrywhich
wastherolemodelofcommunismandaninspirationforYugoslavyouth.Theyreceivedathirdbenefit–
theylearnedtospeakfluentRussianandtheycouldworkastranslators/interpretersupontheirreturnto
Yugoslavia(Perišić,2001).
Thehoneymoonwasshort-livedandYugoslavia’sfaithfuladherencetotheEasternblocendedin1948
with the Stalin–Tito split. Yugoslavia took its own, separate path in developing a unique model of
socialism.Fromthemid-1950s,Yugoslaviaopeneduptotheworld.IncontrasttotheEasternbloc,its
citizenscouldtravelfreelytoWesterncountrieswithoutentryvisas,andcouldenjoyWesternconsumer
goods–cars,food,drinkandclothes.NotonlydidmanyYugoslavcitizensworkabroad,butYugoslavia’s
visa-freepolicyfortouristsfromWesterncountries(atthetime,unusualforanEasternEuropeancountry)

attractedlargenumbers(Bancroft,1974;Bilandžić,1985).Thesociety’sneedforforeignlanguageshad
changed. German was reintroduced into schools in 1948 and the authorities decided to distribute the
number of students equally among the four foreign languages: Russian, German, English and French
(Ignjačević,2004).
Germanbecameveryimportantandwidespreadintheregionforpracticalreasons.Theexchangewith
German-speakingcountrieswasdenseandcross-sectorial:thetouristswhoflockedtotheAdriaticcoast
insummerprimarilycamefromWestGermany,AustriaandSwitzerland;mostYugoslavforeignworkers
(‘Gastarbeiter’)were employedinGerman-speakingcountries;andeconomicrelationswithcompanies
fromGerman-speakingcountrieswereintense.Asaresult,manypeoplehadimmediateexperiencewith
Germanandacompellingneedtolearnit.
EnglishgainedimmensepopularityamongtheWestern-orientedurbanyouthofthe1950sand1960s.It
was the era of modernisation, consumerism, urbanisation and pop culture. Shops were now full of
consumergoods.Youngpeopleorganiseddancepartieswhere theylistenedtojazz,swingandrock’n’
roll. They were eager to learn English to understand the music and emulate their rock stars. The
popularityofHollywoodmoviesfarsurpassedthatoffilmsfromtheEasternbloc(Pušnik,2010;Tomc,
2010).
Despite an economic crisis and the growth of national debt, personal consumption in the former
Yugoslavia continued to grow.The1970sand1980s were markedbya rapid rise inliving standards.
Yugoslavcitizenscouldaffordtotravelmorethan beforeandtheutility ofEnglishwas valuedinsuch
internationalencounters.
Englishbecameevenmorewidespread. Itwasneededfor real-lifecommunicationin many fieldsof
life,particularlyinbusiness,scienceandtechnology.Asoursurveywillshow,peoplebecameawareof
its importance as an international language. Some parents sent their teenagers to language schools in
EnglandsincetheybelievedthatEnglishcouldonlybelearnedproperlybyspendingtimeintheUKorthe
USandbeingimmersedinthetargetlanguageandculture.Studentexchangeprogrammeswereavailable
inmanyschoolsanduniversities, andyounggirls hadanopportunity togotoEnglandandworkasau
pairs.However,popculturecontinuedtobethemajormotivatingfactorforyounglearnersofEnglish.It
wasthetimeofdiscomusic,hardrock,hippies,anti-warmovementsandsitcoms,andtheyallcamefrom
theUS.
Inprimaryschools,studentslearnedoneforeignlanguage,English,German,RussianorFrench,starting
from Grade 5, although the degree to which they were able to choose a particular language remains
unclear. While some sources claim that students could select a language and that most chose English
(Bancroft,1974:104),othersmaintainthatthedecisionregardingtheavailabilityofforeignlanguagesin
schools rested with the authorities, and ensuring that an equal number of children learned Russian,
German, English or French was prioritised over personal choice (Ignjačević, 2004). According to
Petrović(2004),althoughitwaslegallypossibletolearnallfourlanguages,moststudentswereunableto
choose the language they wanted to learn because of lack of teachers of languages other than Russian
(Petrović,2004;Vilke,2007),andtheschoolmanagementmadethischoiceforthem.
In order to shed light on the issue of foreign language learning in schools in different periods, we
conductedasmallsurveywith57participantsfromdifferentregionsinBiHwhoattendedschoolinthe
periodbetween1948and1992.Theaimofthesurveywastoexaminewhetherthestudentscouldchoose
theforeignlanguagetheylearnedinschool,whichlanguageswerethemostwidespreadinschoolsand
whichwerethemostpopular.They wereaskedwhichlanguagetheylearnedinprimaryandsecondary
school, which language they wanted to learn and why. They were also asked which languages were
offeredintheir primaryandsecondaryschoolandhowmanyclasseslearnedeachlanguage.Ascanbe

seeninTable1.1,themajoritylearnedRussiandespiteactuallypreferringadifferentlanguage.
Only 10% of those who learned Russian wanted to learn it, 27% did not care what language they
learned,whilealargemajority(63%)wereunhappywithit;50%wantedEnglishand13%German.Most
oftheparticipantswholearnedGerman(54%)likedit,16%wereindifferentand30% wantedanother
language(23%Englishand7%French).AlltheparticipantswholearnedEnglishwouldhavechosenit
themselvesanddidnotwanttolearnanotherlanguage.
When asked about the offer and distribution of the four languages in their schools, 35% stated that
Englishwasnotofferedatallintheirschool.EvidenceforthestrongerpositionofRussianemergedas
20%ofparticipantsstatedthatRussianwastheonlylanguagetaughtintheirprimaryschool,4%stated
thattheirschoolofferedonlyGerman,while12%saidtheirschoolsofferedGermanandRussian.Only
4% of participants stated that their school offered only English and these attended school in the late
1980s,whenthegradualreplacementofRussianwithEnglishwasinprogress.
Justoverhalf(54%)ofallparticipantswantedtolearnEnglishwhentheywenttoschool,butonly35%
had the opportunity to do so. Most wanted to learn it because they recognised it as an international
languageneededforcommunicationallovertheworld.Some likeditbecauseoffilm,music,scientific
researchandsomeneededitforprofessionaluse inIT.ContrarytoBancroft’s(1974:104) claim,our
surveyshowsthatstudentscouldnotchooseaforeign language.Althoughmostofthemwantedtolearn
English,amajorityofthemhadtolearnRussianbecause,asPetrović(2004)says,mostschoolsdidnot
haveEnglishteachers.
Table1.1 Distributionofthefourforeignlanguagesduringtheperiod1948–1992
Accordingtooursurveydata,moststudentscontinuedtolearnthesamelanguageinsecondaryschool.
ThereareveryfewexceptionswhenstudentslearnedRussianorGerman,andthenchangedtoEnglishin
secondaryschool.Forexample,thosewhowenttotheMadrassa(Islamicschool)inSarajevoalllearned
EnglishandArabic,regardlessofthelanguagetheylearnedinprimaryschool.
ThegradualtransitionfromRussiantoEnglishstartedinthelate1980s,withthedecreaseofRussian
influence in all fields. This process started in urban schools first. Retiring Russian teachers were not
replaced and other Russian teachers were shifted to administrative positions; in both cases, English
teacherswerehiredtofillthevancancies.
HowwasEnglishtaughtintheSocialistRepublicofBosniaandHerzegovina?Everythingconcerning
education was under the strict control of the central government. All curricula and syllabi were
prescribedbyagovernmentbody–theInstituteforEducation.Onepublisherwasselectedtoproducea
textbook. The author did not have any autonomy because the content was prescribed. One book was
publishedforeachcourseandthiswastheonlyonewhichcouldbeused(Kovač&KovačSebart,2002).
ThetopicsofthetextsinGrade5were mainlythestudent’simmediateenvironment,such asschool,
home, family, body, clothes, months, seasons and so on. From Grade 6, the topics included a lot of
culturalelementsfromboththesourceandthetargetculture,suchascapitals,famoussightseeingspots,

monuments, writers, scientists and artists. Obligatory topics included the socialist revolution, the
reconstruction and the industrialisation of BiH, socialist youth organisations and topics related to the
Yugoslavself-managementsystem.
Englishwastaughtinthree45-minutesessionsaweekfromGrade5(age10).Inthe1950sand1960s,
the grammar-translation method was used. ELT syllabi were organised in two sections: speaking and
writing, although in reality the focus was on grammar practice. Although the overall goal of ELT in
primaryschoolswastoteachstudentstospeakaboutcommoneverydaytopicsusingaround1300words,
speakingactivitieswereprimarilyfocusedonpracticingpronunciationandintonation.Therewasalotof
repetition(ofteninchorus),imitatingtheteacherortaperecordertopractisepronunciation,memorising
andrecitingpoemsandbrieftexts.Manyactivitieswerebasedonshorttextsfromthetextbooks,suchas
retellingandansweringquestionsaboutthetext.Speakingalsoincludedreading,butagainwiththefocus
on pronunciation and intonation (‘expressive reading’). Practicing writing skills consisted of frequent
dictations,rewritingtextsfromtextbookstopractisespellingandwritingshortcompositions.Theuseof
the first language (L1) was not allowed in presenting the content. From Grade 6, students practised
translatingshorttextsfromtheirsecondlanguage(L2)totheirL1andviceversa(Nastavniplaniprogram
zaosnovneškole,1959,1962,1964).
Typical units included text reading, comprehension questions and a set of grammar and vocabulary
exercises.Mostexercisesweresubstitutiondrills,orexercisesinwhichpupilswereaskedtofillinthe
blanksusingcorrectgrammaticalforms.Figures1.1and1.2areexamplesofatypicaltextwithexercises
forGrade8ofprimaryschool.

Figure1.1 Atypicaltextinaprimaryschooltextbook(Bubić,1989)
InadditiontoregularschoolclassesofEnglish,thePioneers’CentreinSarajevohadEnglishcourses
forchildrenfromthe1970s.Thetextbookswerebasedontheaudio-visualglobalandstructuralmethod
developedbyCroatianlinguistPetarGuberina,whichwaswidelyrecognisedasstateoftheartinforeign
language teaching (FLT). The author himself called this a verbo-tonal method, also known as SUVAG
(SystemUniversal Verbotonal d’AuditionGuberina).Itwasoriginallydesignedforspeechtherapy,but
founditsapplicationinFLT.

Figure1.2 Atypicalexampleofapre-warprimaryschooltextbook(Bubić,1989:70–72)
Asof1980,therewasanoticeablemovetowardsthecommunicativemethod(Nastavniplaniprogram
za osnovno obrazovanje i vaspitanje, 1980). The four skills were introduced and students began to
practise communicative functions such as greeting, making requests and offers, refusing and accepting
offers,expressingopinionsandgivinginformation.Nevertheless,manyactivitiesremainedfromtheold
method, such as practicing pronunciation and intonation by repetition, reciting memorised texts,
‘expressivereading’,rewritingtextsandtranslation.
ToqualifyasaprimaryschoolEnglishteacher,twoorthreeyearsofpost-secondaryeducationwere
required,whilefouryearsofuniversitytrainingwasrequiredforteachersinsecondaryschools.Teachers
weretrainedattheEnglishlanguageandliteraturedepartment.Therewasonlyonesuchdepartmentinthe
country,foundedin1951,atthePhilosophyFacultyinSarajevo.DuetotheabsenceofspecialisedELT
programmes, all graduates were trained to work both as teachers and as translators/interpreters. For
almostfivedecades,theDepartmentofEnglishLanguageandLiteratureinSarajevowastheonlyhigher
educationinstitutioninBiHwhereEnglishteachersandtranslatorscouldbetrained.DozensofEnglish
teachersandtranslatorsgraduatedfromthisdepartmenteveryyear(e.g.in1976:72students,andin2004:
43students).ThedepartmentalsorunsMaster’sanddoctoralprogrammesinthefieldofEnglishlanguage
andliteraturestudies.Ithostedanumberoflecturers,literarycriticsandwritersfromtheUKandtheUS,
suchasDavidDaiches,GrahamHugh,ChinuAchebe,MarkStrand,WilliamKennedyandJamesHawes
(Spomenica60).

AsfewcouldlearnEnglishinschool,somepeopleattendedEnglishcoursesintheafternoonorganised
bytheRadničkiUniverzitet,theWorkers’Universities.Thesewerestateinstitutionswhichofferedtuition
invarioussubjectsinadditiontoculturalactivities.Thefirstprivatelanguageschoolsdidnotopenuntil
the late 1980s. They, too, had to have qualified teachers and were required to use syllabi and books
approvedbythegovernment.
TheWar(1992–1995)
In thespringof1992,the school yearwasunexpectedlyandviolently interruptedbythe war.Cities
came under siege and were exposed to heavy shelling. Schools were converted into housing for the
thousandsofpeopleforcedtoleavetheirhomes.Citiesandvillagesundersiegewerelikeconcentration
camps,with nofood,electricity or water.Manywerekilled tryingtoprovidefoodandwaterfortheir
families.
ThefirstUnitedNationsPROtectionFORces(UNPROFOR)unitsarrivedin1992.Intheyearstocome,
dozens ofmilitaryforces,non-governmentalorganisations(NGOs)andotherinternationalorganisations
arrived in BiH to bring humanitarian aid and establish peace. They remained for the next 20 years.
Englishwasusedasalinguafrancaamongallinternationalorganisations,regardlessofwheretheycame
from.Tocommunicatewiththelocalpopulation,institutionsandauthorities,theyhiredlocalinterpreters
andotherEnglish-speakinglocalsasdrivers,cleaners,engineersandadministrationstaff.Thepositions
andsalariesoftheselocalslargelydependedontheirEnglish-speakingskills.
InterpreterswereanewoccupationalgroupthatemergedwiththeoutbreakofthewarinBiH(Baker,
2010, 2012). The term interpreter is used in this context in a very loose sense. They were locally
recruitedyoungpeoplewithnolinguisticqualifications.TheypossessedsomeknowledgeofEnglishfrom
school.Mostofthemworkedasfieldinterpreters,buttheyhadnoclearjobdescriptionandalsoserved
as personal assistants to the international staff who hired them. They worked in extremely dangerous
conditions.Theyworkedonshort-termcontracts,andneverknewiftheircontractswouldbe extended.
Chapter12ofthisvolumeexplorestheexperiencesofinterpretersingreaterdetail.
On the other hand, since all economic activity in the country had ceased as a consequence of war,
international organisations became the most desirable employers. While local monthly salaries ranged
from 5 to 10 euros,paid inthe local currency,those whoworked for internationalorganisationswere
paidbetween500and1000eurosamonthinhardcurrency(usuallyDeutschmarks).Theseyoungpeople,
usuallyintheirtwentiesandsomeevenintheirteensprovidedfortheirparentsandrelatives.Moreover,
they had privileged mobility. While most people were stuck in the besieged cities, they could travel
withinthecountryand,insomecases,evengoabroad.Theyhadaccesstodesiredbasicsupplies,usually
food–flour,sugarandfruit.Hence,inthesetimes,knowledgeofEnglishwasnotonlyuseful,butitmeant
ajobthatenabledtheentirefamilytosurvive.
Intheperilsofwar,whendozensofpeoplewerekilled everydayandthousandsofbombshitcities,
peopledidtheirutmosttocreatetheillusionofnormallife.Theywenttotheirofficeseverydayevenif
theyhadnothingtodo.Animportantpartofthisimitationofnormalcyinextremeconditionswasthe‘war
schools’. The ‘normal’ school routine and the discipline that it imposed were crucial for the
psychologicalsurvivalofchildren.
Thesewereschoolswhichcontinuedtofunction‘normally’, holding classes andfulfilling curriculum
requirements, scheduling teacher meetings and parent–teacher meetings and exercising all the usual
functionsofaschooldespitebeinglocatedinbesiegedconditions.Insuchcircumstances,electricitywas
anunpredictableluxury,heatingduringwinterwasimprovisedbyplacingawoodstoveinclassrooms,

booksandothermaterialswerescarceandfurniturerudimentaryatbest,andteacherswerepaidlittleand
haphazardly. Schools sometimes existed as administrative entities, but they often had no buildings or
permanentlocation(Berman,2004). Goingtoandfromschoolexposedthemtoimmediatedangerfrom
snipersandmortarshells.Forthisreason,atthebeginningoftheschoolyear1992/1993,radioschools
weresetupforprimaryschoolchildren.Thisideaprovedineffective,asitwasnot possibletomonitor
their progress in any way. Therefore, every school had to organise a ‘cellar school’ in residential
buildings.classroominstructionwereorganisedincellarsandstairways(calledpunkt‘checkpoint’).In
this way, each student attended classes in his or her own apartment block. For example, the primary
schoolinDobrinja,asuburbofSarajevo, wasorganisedin28differentlocations(Berman,2004: 97).
Thestairway/cellarschoolunitswere administered bythenearestschoolinthatlocal community. The
documents of school attendance and academic progress were maintained assiduously, especially in
secondaryschools,becausewithoutthesedocumentsstudentscouldnotenrolinuniversitystudies.
This situationputadditional strainontheinstructorsbecausesometimestheyhadtoteachinthreeor
four different places in one day. Needless to say, the conditions in the cellar schools were far from
normal:thecellarsweredark,dirtyandcold.TheMinistryofEducationreducedtheschoolyearfrom36
to18weeks.Sometimes,thesituationwassoperilousthatnoclassestookplaceforweeks.
The MinistryofEducationordered thatregardless ofcircumstances,everyschoolhadtocontinueto
workandtoadaptitsoperationtothecircumstancesofwar.Thereality,however,wasthatschoolswere
left without buildings and teachers. Most schools became collective centres, housing thousands of
displacedpersons.Otherswereonthe veryfrontlineorweretotallydestroyedin the bombing.Many
teachersfledthecountrytoescapethedangersofwar.Somefoundjobswithinternationalorganisations
whichenabledthemtoprovidefortheirfamilies.Englishteacherswereamongthefirsttoleaveteaching
positions.Inthissituation,citizensfromallwalksoflifestartedtoworkas‘instructors’tothemissing
teachers.Moreover,schoolshadtotakecareoftheirstudents’safety.
Asfar asforeignlanguage learning is concerned,theprocess ofreplacing RussianwithEnglishand
Germancontinuedatamuchfasterrate.Attheoutbreakofwar,Russianwasabruptlyabolishedinmany
schools.In some schools,studentswhohadstartedlearningRussianinGrade 5 changed toEnglishor
German in later grades. Knowledge of Russian was considered useless. The Russian presence in
humanitarianorganisationswasmuchlowerthanthatofWesternEuropeancountries,andthere wasno
possibility for Russian to be the lingua franca in zones where the Russians were stationed. Also,
althoughmanyGerman-speakingorganisationswerepresent,theyusedEnglishintheirdealingswiththe
internationalcommunity.
Oursurveyofforeignlanguagedistributioninschoolsandstudents’preferenceincluded46participants
whowenttoschoolduringthewar.AlmosthalfofthemlearnedGermaninprimaryschool.Ofthese,a
largemajorityhadwantedeitherGermanorEnglish,somewantedboth.Themostcommonreasonsfor
preferringEnglishincludeditsroleasaninternationallanguageanditspopularityinthemedia.Lessthan
athirdofourparticipantslearnedEnglishinprimaryschool.MostofthemhadwantedtolearnEnglish,
andonlyafewhadwantedGermanbecauseofthepossibilityofenrollinginhighereducationinAustria.
ThereareparticipantswhostartedlearningRussianinGrade5andchangedtoGermaninGrades6and7.
Manyschoolsofferedonlyonelanguage:German(37%),English(17%)orRussian(13%)(Table1.2).
All students who began English in primary school continued to learn it in secondary school. The
situationwasdifferentforthosewhohadotherlanguages.While64%ofstudentswholearnedGermanin
primaryschoolcontinuedtolearnitinsecondaryschool,theremaining36%changedtoEnglish.Halfof
thosewholearnedRussianinprimaryschoolcontinued tolearnitinsecondaryschool,while theother
halfchangedtoEnglish.Somelearnedeventwonewforeignlanguages:EnglishandGermaninsecondary

school. In most grammar schools, all students learned both English and German. In some technical
schools, English for specific purposes (ESP) was taught in addition to another language if it was
considered necessary for that profession (IT, tourism, engineering). In Madrassas, all students learned
English,ArabicandTurkish.
HowwasEnglishtaughtinthesedifficultanddangeroustimes?Theinstructorsdidtheirbestwithwhat
they had. Neither teachers nor students had textbooks. They used the old textbooks from the pre-war
period andanyothermaterialsinEnglishtheycouldfind.Teachers wrotetexts ontheblackboardand
students copied them. If they were extremely lucky, they had access to a photocopier at school or a
friend’sofficetomakeasufficientnumberofcopiesforstudents.ThefirsttextbooksarrivedinNovember
1994 (Berman, 2004) as humanitarian aid. After two years of improvised English instruction in war
schoolswithnotextbooks,studentsfoundthenewlyreceivedEnglishbooksfartoodifficult.Forexample,
Headway Advanced proved an insurmountable obstacle for the students in the final year of grammar
schoolwhohadmissedtwoyearsofEnglish.
Table1.2 Distributionofthefourforeignlanguagesduringtheperiod1992–1995
WhatqualificationswererequiredfortheEnglishinstructors?Practicallynone.Anybodywhosaidthey
knewEnglishcouldteach.Mostofthemwereengineerswhohadlosttheirjobsbecauseofthewarand
whoworkedinschoolsasEnglishlanguageteachers.SomeofthemcouldspeakEnglish,butdidnothave
anyknowledgeofELTmethodology.Theywentbacktothegrammar-translationmethod,asitwaseasier
fortheseinstructorstopresentrulesthathadtobelearnedbyheart,provideL2examplestoillustratethe
ruleandfinallyofferequivalentsinL1.Inthatway,theyfeltsafetocontroltheclassandpredictpossible
questionsthatstudentsmightask.
TheDepartmentofEnglishLanguageandLiteratureofthePhilosophyFacultyinSarajevocontinuedto
work,eventhoughmostlecturershadleftforpositionsininternationalorganisationsortoemigrate.Since
thephilosophyfacultywasontheveryfrontline,itmovedtothecellaroftheLawSchool.Fromthe12
lecturersandeightteachingassistantsintheacademicyear1991/1992,threelecturersandtwoteaching
assistantsstayedtokeepthedepartmentworking.TwonewEnglishlanguageandliteraturedepartments
wereopenedin1994,inWestMostar(predominantlyCroat)andBanjaLuka,inRepublikaSrpska.Since
theydidnothaveacademicstaff,thenewdepartmentsworkedwith visiting lecturersfromCroatiaand
Serbia,respectively.Theywerebothestablishedwithinthenewlyestablishedstateuniversities,inorder
tomitigatethelackofEnglishteachers.
ThePeriodofReconstruction(1995–2000)
Thewarendedon21November1995withtheDaytonPeaceAgreement.Theconsequenceswerevast
andincalculable.Thecountrywasleftinastateofdevastation,withmostofitsinhabitantsdisplaced,

locally or abroad, throughout Europe, the US and Australia. The NATO-led multinational force IFOR
(ImplementationForce)arrivedinBiHon20December1995withtheprimarymissiontoimplementthe
militaryaspectsoftheDaytonPeaceAgreement.Theirmandatewasonlyforoneyearandin1996they
werereplacedbySFOR(StabilisationForce),whoserolewastocontributetoasafeenvironmentforthe
consolidationofpeace.They providedsupportforsomeciviliantasks,especiallyinreconstructionand
thereturnofdisplacedpersons.ThecivilianaspectoftheDaytonAgreementwasmonitoredbytheOffice
ofHighRepresentative(OHR),establishedinJanuary1996.AnumberofNGOsandotherinternational
organisationsparticipatedinamajorinternationalinterventiontoreconstructthecountryandtofacilitate
the return process. These organisations employed many local staff and again, English was the main
prerequisiteforwell-paidjobs.
When peace was established, school buildings were repaired and the students could return to their
classrooms.However,staffingwas stillamajor problem.MostEnglishteacherswerestillworkingfor
international organisations or living abroad. The instructors hired during the war to stand in for the
missingEnglishteachers continuedtowork.ThesituationwithEnglishinstructorswaschaoticbecause
therewerenorequirements theyhadtomeetorteststopass–theemployers(schools) relied ontheir
word that they could speak English. Many school students could speak much better English than their
instructors, having learned it from their parents or, in most cases, from cable TV. Generations of
schoolchildrenhadbeenformallytaught EnglishfromGrade 4, buthadnever learned tospeakit.The
textbooksusedinschoolsweremainlyinternationallyusedtextbooksfromBritishpublishers.Theywere
muchmoreexpensive thanlocalbooks,andweredeliveredashumanitarianaidforseveral years.The
studentsborrowedthemfromtheschoollibraryandthenreturnedthemforthenextgenerationtouse.
Our surveyoftheavailabilityofforeign languages inschools andstudents’preferences involved15
participantswhowenttoschoolintheperiod 1995–2000(seeTable 1.3). Ofthese, two-thirdslearned
Germaninprimary school, althoughfew ofthese hadactuallychosentolearn it.Somehadwantedto
learnEnglish,whileothershadwantedtolearnbothGermanandEnglish.ReasonsforpreferringEnglish
includeditsinternationalroleanditspresenceinpopularculture.
AllstudentswholearnedEnglishinprimaryschoolcontinuedtolearnitinsecondaryschool.Arounda
third of the students in this group who learned German in primary school continued to learn it in
secondaryschool,afewlearnedbothGermanandEnglishandoverhalfchangedtoEnglishexclusively.
The students who changed to English went to Madrassa or the Secondary School of Electrical
Engineering,whereEnglishwasconsideredsignificantforthefutureprofession.ArabicandTurkishwere
taughtinMadrassasinadditiontoEnglish.
Table1.3 Distributionofthefourforeignlanguagesduringtheperiod1995–2000
AsthelocalschoolsstruggledtofindqualifiedEnglishteachers,andunqualifiedpeoplefromallwalks
oflifeworkedas Englishinstructors,a newtrendstartedin1996: a numberofinternational education
chainsopenedprimaryandsecondaryschoolsandpreschoolinstitutionsinSarajevo.Thefirstwerethe

SemaInternationalSchoolandtheQualitySchoolsInternational(QSI),andmanyothersfollowed.They
werefirstopenedinSarajevo,andtheninBihać,Tuzla,ZenicaandMostar.Theseprivateinternational
schools offered English-medium instruction. Some offered the Bosnian curriculum, others British or
American,oracombination.Atfirst,theywereintendedforthechildrenofthemanyexpatriateworkers
inSarajevo,buttheyalsoattractedmembersoftheBosnian‘élite’whocouldaffordthem.Theseschools
hadmanyadvantages:betterequipment,internationalormixedlocal–internationalstaff,qualitybuildings
andrecreationalfacilities.Unlikelocalschoolswhereclasseswereorganisedintwoshiftsbecauseofa
lackofclassrooms,resultinginalongdayforchildreninthesecondshift,privateinternationalschools
workedfrom8amto5pmandofferedafter-schoolsupervisioninthecaseoffamilieswithtwoworking
parents.
In order to meet the growing requirements of the Bosnian market for English courses, a number of
privatelanguageschoolsopenedupalloverthecountry.Becauseofthelackofqualifiedlocalteachers,
manyofthemhirednativeEnglishspeakers.Minimumqualificationswererequiredbutteachersusually
hadtohaveatertiarydegreeandaTeachingEnglishasaForeignLanguage(TEFL)certificate.Private
languageschoolshadtheirowncurriculaandusedthetextbooksfromrenownedUKpublishers.Someof
them were internationally accredited, and most of them organised international exams such as Test of
English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), International English Language Testing System (IELTS) and
CambridgeCertificates.VariousNGOsofferedEnglishcoursesfreeofchargeorforverysmallamounts
ofmoney.
ThehighereducationsectorhadtoresolvetheacuteshortageofEnglishteachersinschoolsandmeet
the growing requirement for English courses. The insufficient capacity of the existing teacher training
institutions led to the opening of new English language and literature departments all over BiH. The
Department of English Language and Literature in Sarajevo returned to its building at the Faculty of
Philosophy,buttheywereunderstaffed.Accordingtotheinformationfromthedepartment’scurriculaand
syllabifor2008/2009(Nastavniplaniprogramakademska2008/2009),inthesecondhalfofthe1990s,
thedepartmenthadthreelecturersandtwoteachingassistants.Theshortageoflecturerswassolvedby
hiringninevisitinglecturersfromCroatia,theUS,theUK,FranceandSpain.Thedepartmentenrolled10
students per academic year.Atthatpace, BiH would nothavesufficient Englishteachers for decades.
Hence, following the example of Banja Luka and West Mostar, a number of regional centres opened
Englishlanguageandliteraturedepartments:Palein1996,TuzlaandBihaćin1998,EastMostarin1999
and Zenica in 2001. While many believed that the new departments were doomed to failure, others
thoughtitwasbettertohaveEnglishteacherswithsomequalificationsthanEnglishinstructorswhohad
noneandwhostillworkedinmanyschools.Sincethenewdepartmentshadnolecturersatall,thework
was organised bylocal teaching assistantswith thehelp ofvisiting lecturers mainlyfrom Croatia and
Serbia.TheUSEmbassyinSarajevoandtheOpenSocietyInstituteofferedtheirhelpbysendingEnglish
languagefellowsandspecialists.Thecurriculaandsyllabiwereverysimilaramongthesedepartments,
havingbeenbased ontheoldex-Yugoslavsystem.Theyalloffereda four-year programme, exceptfor
EastMostar,whichbeganwithathree-yearprogramme,laterextendingittofouryears.Allprogrammes
hadverysimilarbasic components:practicallanguageskills toimprovethestudents’level ofEnglish,
linguistic disciplines (phonology, morphology, morphosyntax, syntax, semantics), general linguistics,
BritishandAmericanliteratureandculturalstudies,aswellasappliedlinguisticdisciplines,suchasELT
methodologyandtranslationstudies.Thosewhograduatedcouldworkeitherastranslatorsorteachers.In
thefirstpost-waryears,allfoundjobs,mainlyinschools.Securejobpositionsinstateschoolsincreased
thedemandforEnglishstudies.Inordertomeettherequirementsofthelocalcommunities,someofthese
departmentsenrolledahundredormorestudentsperacademicyear.

Startinganewdepartmentwas quitea difficulttaskatthattimebecauseofthe fundamental problem
throughoutthecountry– thedearthofacademicallyqualifiedstaff.Thenewdepartmentshadnofaculty
members with doctoral or master’s degrees, and even those with a bachelor degree in English were
scarce. Groups of enthusiasts organised the work with visiting lecturers and teaching assistants. The
system was far from perfect. Although visiting lecturers taught once or twice a month instead of on a
weeklybasis,newEnglishdepartmentsofferedsomeadvantages.Thestudents(andlaternoviceteaching
assistants)hadachancetolearnfromexperiencedlecturersfromprestigiousuniversitiesintheregion,
such asZagreb,Belgrade,SarajevoandOsijek,andfromEnglishlanguage specialistsfromtheUSand
other English-speaking countries. The promising young departments developed regional university
networksandimportantliaisonswithinternationalorganisations.
EnglishinBosniaandHerzegovinaToday
After 2000, most international organisations dealing with reconstruction closed their offices in BiH.
SFOR remained, but they started to reduce their troop levels in 2002 and ended their mission in
December 2004. They were replaced by the European Union Force (EUFOR) Althea. EUFOR had a
significantly smallernumberoftroopsanddid nothirenearlyas manylocalsas SFORdid. However,
anotheropportunityarosefortheEnglish-speakinglocalswhoworkedforUStroopsintheSFORmission
inTuzla–theycouldcontinueworkingwiththeUSarmyinIraqandAfghanistan.ThousandsofBosnians
eagerly applied for employment there because the salaries were unimaginably high for local
circumstances.IraqandAfghanistanbecamethepromisedlandsforEnglish-speakingBosniansofalljob
classes: officeworkers,ITspecialists,cooks,driversandhandymen.Someofthemremainedtherefor
overadecade.
The situation in primary and secondary schools has changed drastically. The importance of foreign
languagelearningwasnotonlyrecognisedbylocaleducationalauthorities,butwasalsostressedinthe
World Bank (2003) report as a priority in school reform, needed to support the creation of a more
competitiveworkforce.Nowadays,allchildreninBiHlearnEnglish,startingfromGrade3(age8)inthe
nine-year primary school curriculum, and they continue to learn it for another four years in secondary
schools. English is the first foreign language in all primary and secondary schools in BiH. While the
secondforeignlanguage(taughtfromGrade6,age11)inRepublikaSrpskaiseitherGermanorRussian,
intheFederationofBiH,studentshaveanoptiontochoosetheirfirstforeignlanguage:English,German,
FrenchorArabic(OkvirninastavniplaniprogramzadevetogodišnjuosnovnuškoluuFederacijiBosnei
Hercegovine,2010;Nastavniplaniprogramzaosnovnoobrazovanjeivaspitanje,2014).
In addition to changes in foreign language choice and availability, language teaching methodology,
particularlyinrespectofEnglish,haschanged.GlobaltrendsinELTareevidentinBosnianschoolsas
well. We live ina post-methodsera,andapproachesto languageteaching havebecome veryeclectic.
TeachersinBiHuseacombinationofdifferentmethodstopreparestudentstobecomecompetentusersof
theirL2outsidetheclassroom.Theuseofinformationandcommunicationtechnology(ICT)isnotpresent
inBiHschoolstotheextentthatitisinneighbouringcountries,butitisevidentthatthistrendwillsoon
change as most students are exposed to ICT outside the classroom, so they expect their teachers to
incorporateICTintoclassroominstruction.
All schools now have qualified teachers, as students who graduated from new English departments
gradually replaced unqualified English instructors. English teachers in BiH today show a significant
commitmenttoprofessional improvement: many ofthem continuetheireducationto completeMaster’s
degreesinlinguistics,literatureandELTmethodology.Conferences,seminarsandworkshopsforEnglish

teachers are often organised by pedagogical institutes, universities and English language teachers
associations in cooperation with international organisations, embassies and international publishing
houses.
AnationalEnglishteachers’associationdoesnotexistdue,primarily,totheconsiderableautonomyin
educationalmattersofthetwoentitiesofBiH(theFederationandRepublikaSrpska),asforeseeninthe
constitution of BiH. However, some professional organisations are very active in providing English
teachers with opportunities for continuous professional development. One such organisation, Tuzla
EnglishTeachers’Association(TETA),isthebiggestandthemostactiveinthecountry.In2011,English
teachers from Tuzla realised that they needed a strong association if they wanted to pursue their
continuousprofessionaldevelopmentandseekopportunitiesforinternationalexchanges.Withthehelpof
US Embassy ELT specialists, TETA was officially registered in 2012. Their annual conferences have
attractedconsiderableattentionintheregion,astheyalwaysbringrenownedELTspecialistsandfamous
authors. The organisation enables members to participate in ELT conferences worldwide. Some
interesting teacher training seminars and conferences were organised by BURCH, a private Turkish-
funded English-medium university in Sarajevo. These events keep English language teachers in BiH
abreast of current trends in ELT and enable an exchange of views and experiences, all of which
contributespositivelytoteachers’senseofjobsatisfactionandthequalityofEnglishteachinginschools.
Studentshavemanyopportunitiestodeveloptheirlanguageskillsbeyondtherequirementsoftheschool
curriculum.TheypreparewiththeirteachersforcompetitionsinEnglishorganisedforvariouslevelsand
activities. Theycanparticipateinregionalcompetitionsorganisedbypedagogicalinstitutes,a spelling
beeorganised bytheUSEmbassyandinternational competitionssponsored byinternationalpublishers
suchasHIPPO.
The English language and literature departments which opened immediately after the war and were,
accordingtomany,‘doomedtofailure’,developedandgrew.TherearenowEnglishdepartmentsinseven
stateuniversities:Sarajevo,EastSarajevo,Tuzla,BanjaLuka,WestMostar,EastMostarandBihać.In
their earlyyears,they hiredtheirbeststudentsasteachingassistants. Now,15yearson,theseteaching
assistants have received academic degrees from various universities in the region, and have become
lecturers.UniversitieshavealsohiredanumberofrecentgraduateswithPhDsfromtheUSandtheUK
whoreturnedtothecountry.Aftermanyyearsofstrugglingforsurvival,thesedepartmentsnowhavetheir
own academic staff and are constantly growing. In addition to undergraduate English language and
literatureprogrammes,theyofferMasters’programmesinvariousdisciplines:Englishlinguistics,English
and American literature, ELT methodology and translation, and doctoral programmes. They are
developingspecialisedEnglishprogrammes(e.g.EnglishforaSpecificPurpose[ESP])tomeettheneeds
of students of other departments and faculties. Most universities have obligatory or optional English
coursesforspecialisedfields.Englishisveryimportantinhighereducationthesedaysnotonlybecause
ofthegrowingnumberofstudentexchangeprogrammesbutalsobecauseitisarequirement(oratleastan
advantage)foremploymentinarangeofsectors.
In addition to state universities, some private universities opened English language and literature
departments. Some of them, such as Slobomir P (opened in 2003) or Sinergija (2013), have English
language and literature departments, but other departments do not use English as the language of
instruction.Inothers,suchastheInternationalUniversityofSarajevo(openedin2004),BURCH(opened
in 2008), Sarajevo College of Science and Technology (2004) and the American University in BiH
(2007),Englishisthelanguageofinstructionacrossalldepartments.TheseEnglish-mediumuniversities
attractanumberofinternationalstudents.

Conclusion
ThisoverviewisintendedtoprovideaninsightintohowfarwehaveprogressedinteachingEnglishin
BiH.ItshowsthedifferentrolesthatEnglishhashadinBiH,fromthe‘fun’languageofpopcultureinthe
1960s,tothelanguageofscienceandtechnologyinthe1980s,tothetoolforsurvivalintheearly1990s,
totheindispensableomnipresentinternationallanguagetaughtinallschoolsinBiHtoday.Astheroleof
Englishasacommunicationtoolchanged,sohasitspresenceinschoolprogrammes.Thenumberofyears
offormaltuitionofEnglishinschoolshasincreasedfromeight(orsixforthosewhowenttotechnical
schools) to 11 years. This increase was followed by the rapidly growing number of English teacher
training academic departments. It is expected that this demand for English teaching and learning will
continuetogrowbecauseofthelikelihoodthatwithinsomeyearsBiHwillbepartoftheEU.Translators
willhavetoworkonthetranslationofEuropeanlegislation.Bosnianuniversitiesarealsoencouragedto
offer English-medium courses and degree programmes and thereby attract international students.
Currently, most student study-abroad mobility is unidirectional – from Bosnia to EU partners. The
languagebarrier,i.e.coursestaughtonlyinBosnian,isonereasonforthisunfavourablesituationandthe
current educational policy wishes to see this change in order to better integrate BiH educational
institutionsintotheEuropeanuniversitynetwork.
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