ArticlePublisher preview available

Realistic Free-Spins Features Increase Preference for Slot Machines

DOI:10.1007/s10899-016-9630-x
Authors:
Lorance Taylor at Victoria University of Wellington
Lorance Taylor
Anne C Macaskill at Victoria University of Wellington
Anne C Macaskill
Maree Hunt at Victoria University of Wellington
Maree Hunt
Read publisher preview
Download citation
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract and Figures

Despite increasing research into how the structural characteristics of slot machines influence gambling behaviour there have been no experimental investigations into the effect of free-spins bonus features-a structural characteristic that is commonly central to the design of slot machines. This series of three experiments investigated the free-spins feature using slot machine simulations to determine whether participants allocate more wagers to a machine with free spins, and, which components of free-spins features drive this preference. In each experiment, participants were exposed to two computer-simulated slot machines-one with a free-spins feature or similar bonus feature and one without. Participants then completed a testing phase where they could freely switch between the two machines. In Experiment 1, participants did not prefer the machine with a simple free-spins feature. In Experiment 2 the free-spins feature incorporated additional elements such as sounds, animations, and an increased win frequency; participants preferred to gamble on this machine. The Experiment 3 "bonus feature" machine resembled the free spins machine in Experiment 2 except spins were not free; participants showed a clear preference for this machine also. These findings indicate that (1) free-spins features have a major influence over machine choice and (2) the "freeness" of the free-spins bonus features is not an important driver of preference, contrary to self-report and interview research with gamblers.
Screenshot from Experiment 1 simulation showing Blackbeard’s Revenge theme
Screenshot from Experiment 1 simulation showing Blackbeard’s Revenge theme
… 
Top panel shows mean amount wagered by each participant in the exposure phase of Experiment 1. White bars represent mean bet amounts on the free-spins machine, black bars represent mean bet amounts on the control machine. Bottom panel represents mean of participants’ bet amounts in the exposure phase. Error bars represent 95 % confidence intervals
Top panel shows mean amount wagered by each participant in the exposure phase of Experiment 1. White bars represent mean bet amounts on the free-spins machine, black bars represent mean bet amounts on the control machine. Bottom panel represents mean of participants’ bet amounts in the exposure phase. Error bars represent 95 % confidence intervals
… 
Top panel shows individual Experiment 2 participants’ preference during preference phase. Left side of reference line represents participants who had higher RTP on free-spins machine during exposure, right side of reference line represents participants who had higher RTP on control machine. Bottom half of panel shows the mean of participants’ number of spins on each machine during preference phase. Error bars represent 95 % confidence intervals of the mean
Top panel shows individual Experiment 2 participants’ preference during preference phase. Left side of reference line represents participants who had higher RTP on free-spins machine during exposure, right side of reference line represents participants who had higher RTP on control machine. Bottom half of panel shows the mean of participants’ number of spins on each machine during preference phase. Error bars represent 95 % confidence intervals of the mean
… 
Top panel shows individual Experiment 3 participants’ preference during preference phase. Left side of reference line represents participants who had higher RTP on bonus machine during exposure, right side of reference line represents participants who had higher RTP on control machine. Bottom half of panel shows the mean of participants’ number of spins on each machine during preference phase. Error bars represent 95 % confidence intervals of the mean
Top panel shows individual Experiment 3 participants’ preference during preference phase. Left side of reference line represents participants who had higher RTP on bonus machine during exposure, right side of reference line represents participants who had higher RTP on control machine. Bottom half of panel shows the mean of participants’ number of spins on each machine during preference phase. Error bars represent 95 % confidence intervals of the mean
… 
Top panel shows mean amount wagered by each participant in the exposure phase of Experiment 3. White bars represent mean bet amounts on the bonus machine, black bars represent mean bet amounts on the control machine. Bottom panel represents mean of participants’ bet amounts in the exposure phase. Error bars represent 95 % confidence intervals
+1
Top panel shows mean amount wagered by each participant in the exposure phase of Experiment 3. White bars represent mean bet amounts on the bonus machine, black bars represent mean bet amounts on the control machine. Bottom panel represents mean of participants’ bet amounts in the exposure phase. Error bars represent 95 % confidence intervals
… 
Figures - available from: Journal of Gambling Studies
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
  • A preview of this full-text is provided by Springer Nature.
  • Learn more
Preview content only
Content available from Journal of Gambling Studies
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
ORIGINAL PAPER
Realistic Free-Spins Features Increase Preference
for Slot Machines
Lorance F. Taylor
1
•Anne C. Macaskill
1
•Maree J. Hunt
1
Published online: 20 July 2016
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
Abstract Despite increasing research into how the structural characteristics of slot
machines influence gambling behaviour there have been no experimental investigations
into the effect of free-spins bonus features—a structural characteristic that is commonly
central to the design of slot machines. This series of three experiments investigated the
free-spins feature using slot machine simulations to determine whether participants allo-
cate more wagers to a machine with free spins, and, which components of free-spins
features drive this preference. In each experiment, participants were exposed to two
computer-simulated slot machines—one with a free-spins feature or similar bonus feature
and one without. Participants then completed a testing phase where they could freely
switch between the two machines. In Experiment 1, participants did not prefer the machine
with a simple free-spins feature. In Experiment 2 the free-spins feature incorporated
additional elements such as sounds, animations, and an increased win frequency; partici-
pants preferred to gamble on this machine. The Experiment 3 ‘‘bonus feature’’ machine
resembled the free spins machine in Experiment 2 except spins were not free; participants
showed a clear preference for this machine also. These findings indicate that (1) free-spins
features have a major influence over machine choice and (2) the ‘‘freeness’’ of the free-
spins bonus features is not an important driver of preference, contrary to self-report and
interview research with gamblers.
Keywords Gambling Slot machines Free spins Bonus features EGMs
A portion of the data have been presented at the New Zealand Association for Behaviour Analysis annual
conferences (2014, 2015), and the Association for Behavior Analysis 8th international conference (2015).
These data will also form part of the first author’s PhD thesis.
&Lorance F. Taylor
lorance.taylor@vuw.ac.nz
1
School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand
123
J Gambl Stud (2017) 33:555–577
DOI 10.1007/s10899-016-9630-x
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... While findings consistently show that an illusion of control (Langer 1975) over physical actions like rolling dice and placing roulette chips influence gambling tendencies (e.g., Dixon 2000;Dixon et al. 1998;Henslin 1967), surprisingly little research has extended this cognitive bias into the digital domain. This is particularly remarkable, given the prevalence of digital gambling games (Armstrong et al. 2018) and their impact on gambling preference and behavior (Taylor et al. 2017). The current research takes a novel approach to understanding digital gambling behavior by introducing the concept of skeuomorphism to the gambling literature and linking it with illusion of control. ...
... Though no observed research has examined the potential interaction between skeuomorphism and illusion of control and the subsequent influence on gambling behavior, previous research hints at such a relationship. Generally speaking, digital gambling games are easy to access by all players (Armstrong et al. 2018) and the inclusion of realistic-looking design elements enhances customer preference for a machine (Taylor et al. 2017). Specifically, Taylor et al. (2017) found that incorporating features like free-spins in addition to sounds and animations increased customer preference for, and engagement with, a slot machine. ...
... Generally speaking, digital gambling games are easy to access by all players (Armstrong et al. 2018) and the inclusion of realistic-looking design elements enhances customer preference for a machine (Taylor et al. 2017). Specifically, Taylor et al. (2017) found that incorporating features like free-spins in addition to sounds and animations increased customer preference for, and engagement with, a slot machine. Connecting gambling machine design to the illusion of control, Harrigan et al. (2014) find that multiline slot games offering players the ability to adjust wagered pay lines and bets per line facilitates a sense of control on the part of the player. ...
The Effect of Skeuomorphic Digital Interfaces on the Illusion of Control over Gambling Outcomes
Article
Full-text available
The current research focuses on how the use of “skeuomorphs” in digital design interacts with an illusion of control to influence gambling behavior. Skeuomorphism is a design concept in which an aspect of a modern item is made to represent its outdated counterpart, even if this representation serves no functional purpose, such as hands “dealing” cards or horses “racing” on the screen of a digital machine. It is proposed that the inclusion of these non-essential links to physical objects in digital gambling games interacts with a player’s illusion of control over the outcome to influence behavior. Shown across a pretest and three experiments, the inclusion of skeuomorphic elements in the design of gambling games, compared to a minimalistic “flat” design, increases amount gambled. Additionally, skeuomorphism and manipulated illusion of control interact to further increase the amount gambled. The manuscript concludes with a discussion on the practical, theoretical, and policy implications of this research.
... Free spins are a common type of bonus feature present on most slot machines. On such machines, when players see a set number of free spins symbols aligned, they receive a set number of spins on which they can win money without spending any of their available slot machine balance (Taylor et al. 2017). Interview research has found that both problem and recreational gamblers rate bonus features (including free spins) as very attractive (Millhouse and Delfabbro 2008;Livingstone et al. 2008;Landon et al. 2018). ...
... In particular, experimental methods allow researchers to manipulate specific machine features while controlling for others. For example, Taylor et al. (2017) had participants gamble on each of two slot-machine simulators: one with free spins and one without. Participants completed two phases: first, an exposure phase where they experienced each machine individually in a counterbalanced order, and second, a preference phase, where they made 200 spins choosing which machine to make each wager on. ...
... We conducted two experiments using the general procedure used by Taylor et al. (2017). We initially designed Experiment 1 to examine the effects of free spins, and subsequently expanded it to additionally examine the effect of machine balance (see "Procedure" Section). ...
The Effects of Machine Balance and Free-Spins Features on Machine Preference and Bet Amounts
Article
Full-text available
Across two experiments, the current study investigated whether the balance displayed on slot-machine screens affects gamblers’ decision making in a manner similar to the “house-money effect” observed in other gambling modes. The balance indicates the total amount the gambler has available to wager from. We manipulated initial slot-machine balance within a simulated slot-machine task. Participants gambled on each of two machines and then were able to switch between the two allowing us to assess the effect of machine balance on both preference and bet amounts. Experiment 1 also manipulated which machine incorporated a free-spins feature. In both experiments participants preferred to wager on, and made larger bets on, machines with higher balances. Experiment 1 replicated previous findings that people prefer to gamble on machines offering free spins. Together, these two experiments identify balance available as an additional slot-machine feature that contributes to slot-machine gambling behavior.
... We distinguished four types of gambling outcomes for assessing event-related changes in pupil diameter. In addition to standard 'wins' (where the payout exceeds the bet) and 'losses' (i.e., zero payout outcomes), we also coded losses-disguised-as-wins (LDWs) [59] as celebrated outcomes where the amount won is less than the bet; and free-spin bonus features [60,61], as rare events that are accompanied by distinctive and intense audiovisual cues, and are known to be highly appealing outcomes to regular slot machine gamblers [62]. We hypothesized that these three types of reinforcing outcomes would be associated with significant pupil dilation (i.e., increased pupil diameter) relative to losses. ...
Do pupillary responses during authentic slot machine use reflect arousal or screen luminance fluctuations? A proof-of-concept study
Article
Full-text available
Modern slot machines are among the more harmful forms of gambling. Psychophysiological measures may provide a window into mental processes that underpin these harms. Here we investigated pupil dilation derived from eye tracking as a means of capturing changes in sympathetic nervous system arousal following outcomes on a real slot machine. We hypothesized that positively reinforcing slot machine outcomes would be associated with increases in arousal, reflected in larger pupil diameter. We further examined the contribution of game luminance fluctuations on pupil diameter. In Experiment 1A, experienced slot machine gamblers (N = 53) played a commercially-available slot machine in a laboratory for 20 minutes while wearing mobile eye tracking glasses. Analyses differentiated loss outcomes, wins, losses-disguised-as-wins, and (free-spin) bonus features. Bonus features were associated with rapid increases in pupil diameter following the onset of outcome-related audiovisual feedback, relative to losses. In Experiment 1B, luminance data were extracted from captured screen videos (derived from Experiment 1A) to characterize on-screen luminance changes that could modulate pupil diameter. Bonus features and wins were associated with pronounced and complex fluctuations in screen luminance (≈50 L and ≈25L, respectively). However, the pupil dilation that was observed to bonus features in Experiment 1A coincided temporally with only negligible changes in screen luminance, providing partial evidence that the pupil dilation to bonus features may be due to arousal. In Experiment 2, 12 participants viewed pairs of stimuli (scrambled slot machine images) at luminance difference thresholds of ≈25L, ≈50L, and ≈100L. Scrambled images presented at luminance differences of ≈25L and greater were sufficient to cause pupillary responses. Overall, pupillometry may detect event-related changes in sympathetic nervous system arousal following gambling outcomes, but researchers must pay careful attention to substantial in-game luminance changes that may confound arousal-based interpretations.
... Some people may spend substantial amounts of money on lottery tickets when they are in difficult economic situations with the unrealistic hope of winning large sums of money (Beckert & Lutter, 2013). Other structural characteristics of EGMs can facilitate stronger engagement and the potential for harm such as "bonus rounds" featuring free spins (Taylor, Macaskill, & Hunt, 2017) and "losses disguised as wins", where a payout is less than the initial wager (Dixon, Harrigan, Sandhu, Collins, & Fugelsang, 2010). Motivational characteristics was termed "Motivations for gamblers" in earlier editions. ...
The Conceptual Framework of Harmful Gambling: A revised framework for understanding gambling harm
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2020
Background and aims: The Conceptual Framework of Harmful Gambling moves beyond a symptoms-based view of harm and addresses a broad set of factors related to the risks and effects of gambling harmfully at the individual, family, and community levels. Coauthored by international research experts and informed by multiple stakeholders, Gambling Research Exchange (GREO) facilitated the framework development in 2013 and retains responsibility for regular updates and mobilization. This review article presents information about the revised version of the Conceptual Framework of Harmful Gambling completed in late 2018. Methods: We describe eight interrelated factors depicted in the framework that represent major themes in gambling ranging from the specific (gambling environment, exposure, gambling types, and treatment resources) to the general (cultural, social, psychological, and biological influences). After outlining the framework development and collaborative process, we highlight new topics for the recent update that reflect changes in the gambling landscape and prominent discourses in the scientific community. Some of these topics include social and economic impacts of gambling, and a new model of understanding gambling related harm. Discussion and conclusions: We address the relevance of the CFHG to the gambling and behavioral addictions research community. Harm-based frameworks have been undertaken in other areas of addiction that can both inform and be informed by a model dedicated to harmful gambling. Further, the framework brings a multi-disciplinary perspective to bear on antecedents and factors that co-occur with harmful gambling.
... Free-spins are a popular feature of many modern electronic gaming machines (EGMs) (Taylor et al. 2017). Due to their ubiquity, it is reasonable to assume that they might influence within-session play behaviour. ...
Free-Spins Spur Gamblers to Quit EGMs Early: An Online EGM Study
Article
Full-text available
Free-spins on slot machines introduce a salient moment of potentially large wins that might influence people to either quit or continue a gambling session. Two theoretical models make different predictions about why people quit a gambling session. From a behaviourist perspective, people quit a session when they are either satiated or the lack of rewards lead to the extinction of behaviour. Alternatively, from a behavioural-finance perspective, people quit due to the disposition effect: a general finding whereby investors tend to sell shares or other assets when the price has increased, but keep assets that have dropped in value. From the behaviourist perspective, we predict that people experience free spins as a moment of intermittent reinforcement, which should encourage them to continue gambling longer. According to the disposition effect, however, the large win would trigger risk-aversion, signalling an opportunity to “cash out” and lock-in the gain. In the present study, 188 gamblers (72 female) were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: control, early free-spins and late free-spins, in an online EGM simulation (points only). Consistent with the disposition effect, participants who received early free-spins quit earlier, placing significantly fewer bets, than those in control condition. The study suggests that free-spins, rather than being reinforcing within session, may signal an opportunity to quit early. In the discussion, however, we speculate on whether future research could demonstrate that a perceived lack of free spins in a session may keep players engaged longer.
... Free-spins are a popular feature of many modern electronic gaming machines (EGMs) (Taylor et al. 2017). Due to their ubiquity, it is reasonable to assume that they might influence within-session play behaviour. ...
Free-spins spur gamblers to quit EGMs early: An online EGM study using real-money rewards
Article
  • Dec 2019
Free-spins on slot machines introduce a salient moment of potentially large wins that might influence people to either quit or continue a gambling session. Two theoretical models make different predictions about why people quit a gambling session. From a behaviourist perspective, people quit a session when they are either satiated or the lack of rewards lead to the extinction of behaviour. Alternatively, from a behavioural-finance perspective, people quit due to the disposition effect: a general finding whereby investors tend to sell shares or other assets when the price has increased, but keep assets that have dropped in value. From the behaviourist perspective, we predict that people experience free spins as a moment of intermittent reinforcement, which should encourage them to continue gambling longer. According to the disposition effect, however, the large win would trigger risk-aversion, signalling an opportunity to “cash out” and lock-in the gain. In the present study, 188 gamblers (72 female) were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: control, early free-spins and late free-spins, in an online EGM simulation (points only). Consistent with the disposition effect, participants who received early free-spins quit earlier, placing significantly fewer bets, than those in control condition. The study suggests that free-spins, rather than being reinforcing within session, may signal an opportunity to quit early. In the discussion, however, we speculate on whether future research could demonstrate that a perceived lack of free spins in a session may keep players engaged longer.
Cognitive Neuroscience Can Support Public Health Approaches to Minimise the Harm of “Losses Disguised as Wins” in Multi-Line Slot Machines
Article
  • Oct 2018
Video slot machines are associated with both an accelerated transition into problematic forms of gambling, as well as psychosocial harm above and beyond other forms of gambling. A growing body of evidence is uncovering how key design features of multi‐line slot machines produce an inflated experience of reward, despite the fact that these features offer no overall financial benefit to the player. A pernicious example of this are “losses disguised as wins” (or LDWs), which occur when simultaneous bets placed on multiple lines result in a winning combination that returns an amount greater than zero, but less the total wager. These events are usually accompanied by the same celebratory sounds and animations that accompany true wins. We argue that LDWs may leverage neuropsychological phenomena that underlie reinforcement learning and contribute to extended or repetitive use and gambling related harm. While other characteristics of slot machine gambling have been examined by cognitive neuroscientists, this feature has not yet received attention. Neuroscientific methods can be used to assess the impact of LDWs on the human reward system, to assess the claim that these events are a reinforcing and contributing factor in the development of harmful play. Positive findings would provide further persuasive evidence in support of strategies to minimise gambling harm through the regulation of machine design. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Electronic Gaming Machine Characteristics: It’s the Little Things That Count
Article
Full-text available
A range of gamblers, from low-frequency social gamblers through to problem gamblers in treatment, participated in focus groups discussing the characteristics of Electronic Gaming Machines (EGMs) that they found attractive. Analyses of the resulting transcripts resulted in two groups of EGM characteristics being identified as important, one group associated with winning and one with betting. Overall, free spin features were identified in all groups as the most attractive characteristic of EGMS. Beyond that it was smaller win-related characteristics, and low-denomination machines with multiple playable lines that were associated with increased duration and intensity of gambling behaviour. The important characteristics were consistent across different levels of gamblers, with the key behavioural difference being a self-reported ‘expertise’, and ‘strategic’ approach to gambling amongst higher-frequency gamblers and problem gamblers in treatment. The key characteristics all occur frequently and result in more wins and extended gambling sessions. The patterns identified resonated with established behavioural principles, and with models describing the development of problem gambling and addictions more generally.
Jackpot Structural Features: Rollover Effect and Goal-Gradient Effect in EGM Gambling
Article
Full-text available
Relatively little research has been undertaken on the influence of jackpot structural features on electronic gaming machine (EGM) gambling behavior. This study considered two common features of EGM jackpots: progressive (i.e., the jackpot incrementally growing in value as players make additional bets), and deterministic (i.e., a guaranteed jackpot after a fixed number of bets, which is determined in advance and at random). Their joint influences on player betting behavior and the moderating role of jackpot size were investigated in a crossed-design experiment. Using real money, players gambled on a computer simulated EGM with real jackpot prizes of either $500 (i.e., small jackpot) or $25,000 (i.e., large jackpot). The results revealed three important findings. Firstly, players placed the largest bets (20.3 % higher than the average) on large jackpot EGMs that were represented to be deterministic and non-progressive. This finding was supportive of a hypothesized 'goal-gradient effect', whereby players might have felt subjectively close to an inevitable payoff for a high-value prize. Secondly, large jackpots that were non-deterministic and progressive also promoted high bet sizes (17.8 % higher than the average), resembling the 'rollover effect' demonstrated in lottery betting, whereby players might imagine that their large bets could be later recouped through a big win. Lastly, neither the hypothesized goal-gradient effect nor the rollover effect was evident among players betting on small jackpot machines. These findings suggest that certain high-value jackpot configurations may have intensifying effects on player behavior.
The Relationship Between Structural Game Characteristics and Gambling Behavior: A Population-Level Study
Article
Full-text available
The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between the structural characteristics and gambling behavior among video lottery terminal (VLT) gamblers. The study was ecological valid, because the data consisted of actual gambling behavior registered in the participants natural gambling environment without intrusion by researchers. Online behavioral tracking data from Multix, an eight game video lottery terminal, were supplied by Norsk-Tipping (the state owned gambling company in Norway). The sample comprised the entire population of Multix gamblers (N = 31,109) who had gambled in January 2010. The individual number of bets made across games was defined as the dependent variable, reward characteristics of a game (i.e., payback percentage, hit frequency, size of winnings and size of jackpot) and bet characteristics of a game (i.e., range of betting options and availability of advanced betting options) served as the independent variables. Control variables were age and gender. Two separate cross-classified multilevel random intercepts models were used to analyze the relationship between bets made, reward characteristics and bet characteristics, where the number of bets was nested within both individuals and within games. The results show that the number of bets is positively associated with payback percentage, hit frequency, being female and age, and negatively associated with size of wins and range of available betting options. In summary, the results show that the reward characteristics and betting options explained 27 % and 15 % of the variance in the number of bets made, respectively. It is concluded that structural game characteristics affect gambling behavior. Implications of responsible gambling are discussed.
Participants' Sensitivity to Percentage Payback and Credit Value When Playing a Slot-Machine Simulation
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2004
Legalized gambling has become both a major industry and concern in the United States, but little research from the behavior-analytic perspective has been done on the topic. The present study consisted of two experiments that had participants play a computer-simulated slot machine. The variables manipulated were the percentage payback rate (i.e., overall rate of reinforcement) and the amount of money the credits being wagered were worth (i.e., reinforcer magnitude). Experiment 1 investigated these variables using a between-groups design. Experiment 2 investigated them using a within-subjects design. Results from both experiments demonstrated that participants’ gambling behavior did not vary as a function of payback percentage. Their behavior was, however, sensitive to credit value; overall, participants bet less when the credits were worth more. These findings have potential implications for why some people display “problem gambling.” They will also hopefully promote research on a topic that has been largely ignored by the field of behavior analysis.
Predictors of Return Rate Discrimination in Slot Machine Play
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which accurate estimates of payback percentages and volatility combined with prior learning, enabled players to successfully discriminate between multi-line/multi-credit slot machines that provided differing rates of reinforcement. The aim was to determine if the capacity to discriminate structural characteristics of gaming machines influenced player choices in selecting 'favourite' slot machines. Slot machine gambling history, gambling beliefs and knowledge, impulsivity, illusions of control, and problem solving style were assessed in a sample of 48 first year undergraduate psychology students. Participants were subsequently exposed to a choice paradigm where they could freely select to play either of two concurrently presented PC-simulated slot machines programmed to randomly differ in expected player return rates (payback percentage) and win frequency (volatility). Results suggest that prior learning and cognitions (particularly gambler's fallacy) but not payback, were major contributors to the ability of a player to discriminate volatility between slot machines. Participants displayed a general tendency to discriminate payback, but counter-intuitively placed more bets on the slot machine with lower payback percentage rates.
Are Psychology University Student Gamblers Representative of Non-University Students and General Gamblers? A Comparative Analysis
Article
Full-text available
Students recruited from psychology undergraduate university populations are commonly used in psychology research, including gambling studies. However, the extent to which the use of this subpopulation produces findings that can be extrapolated to other groups is questionable. The present study was designed to compare results from university-recruited psychology student gamblers to those obtained from a sample of gamblers recruited from the general population that also included students. An online survey measuring gambling behavior and Internet gambling, attitudes and knowledge about gambling and problem gambling severity was posted on websites accessed by gamblers. Participants were recruited from two sources, a psychology undergraduate university population (n = 461) and online websites (n = 4,801). Results showed university-recruited students differed significantly from both adults and students recruited from the general population in respect to demographic variables and gambling behavior. Psychology undergraduate students were younger, more likely to be female, and had lower incomes. When relevant demographic variables were controlled, psychology undergraduate students were found to gamble less frequently, at different times, and to be at lower-risk for gambling-related problems, but had more irrational beliefs and more negative attitudes towards gambling than gamblers recruited from the general population. Results suggest that caution should be used in extrapolating findings from research using university-recruited psychology student gamblers to wide community populations due to differences related to gambling thoughts, attitudes and behaviors.
An Analysis of Switching and Non-switching Slot Machine Player Behaviour
Article
Full-text available
Learning theory predicts that, given the repeated choice to bet between two concurrently available slot machines, gamblers will learn to bet more money on the machine with higher expected return (payback percentage) or higher win probability per spin (volatility). The purpose of this study was to investigate whether this occurs when the two machines vary orthogonally on payback percentage and volatility. The sample comprised 52 first year psychology students (mean age = 20.3 years, 20 females, 32 males) who had played a gaming machine at least once in the previous 12 months. Participants were administered a battery of questionnaires designed to assess level of knowledge on the characteristics and operation of poker machines, frequency of poker machine play in the past 12 months, personality traits of impulsivity and capacity for cognitive reflection, and gambling beliefs. For the experimental task, participants were instructed to play on two PC-simulated electronic gaming machines (EGMs or slot machines) that differed on payback percentage and volatility, with the option of freely switching between EGMs after a practice phase. Results indicated that participants were able to easily discriminate between machines and manifested a preference to play machines offering higher payback or volatility. These findings diverged from previous findings of no preference for play on higher payback/volatility machines, potentially due to of the current study's absence of the option to make multi-line and multi-credit bets. It was concluded that return rate parameters like payback percentage and volatility strongly influenced slot machine preference in the absence of betting options like multi-line bets, though more research is needed to determine the effects of such betting options on player distribution of money between multiple EGMs.
Investigating preferences for gaming machine features in problem and non-problem gamblers using a consumer choice methodology
Article
  • Jan 2008
Upping the Reinforcement Rate by Playing the Maximum Lines in Multi-line Slot Machine Play
Article
Reinforcement is a key component of slot machine play. Multi-line video slot-machine play can lead to "losses disguised as wins" (LDWs) which are credit gains that total less than the wager on the spin. LDWs only occur on multi-line games, with their frequency increasing with the number of lines played. If perceived as wins, they will be reinforcing to the player despite actually being losses. It has been suggested that players may attempt to maximize their reinforcement rates by playing maximum lines with a minimum bet per line. We recorded the actual game play of 83 participants on two different machines having different LDW rates. On both machines, players, regardless of problem gambling status, seldom bet on a single line (<6 % of spins), preferring to bet on the maximum number of lines available (>70 % of spins). Post-reinforcement pauses indicated that players found LDWs significantly more rewarding than losses and as rewarding as small wins. Players significantly overestimated the number of times they won more than their spin wager (i.e., miscategorizing LDWs as wins). Players indicated a number of game traits that made them prefer one machine over the other. Players who preferred the game with many LDWs endorsed "lack of long losing streaks" and "frequency of wins" to a greater degree than those preferring the other game. In sum, gamblers prefer playing maximum lines. Maximum line-play increases the frequency of LDWs. Players may miscategorize LDWs as wins, thus increasing the perceived reinforcement rate of multi-line slot machine.
The Psychology of the Fruit Machine: The Role of Structural Characteristics (Revisited)
Article
  • Apr 2006
Over the past three decades, a number of authors have examined the role of structural characteristics as they appear to be important in the acquisition, development and maintenance of gambling behaviour. Furthermore, it has been argued that fruit machine gambling features more gambling-inducing structural characteristics than all other forms of gambling. However, it is clear that previous overviews in this area are now out of date in a number of key areas. This paper therefore reviews the changes in structural characteristics of the fruit machine over the last decade. Important changes in the structural characteristics of fruit machines will be discussed focusing on the small changes to established structural characteristics (e.g., the near miss, sound effects, light effects, colour effects, event frequencies etc.) as well as a more speculative examination of new and contemporary characteristics such as the importance of “features” and the psychology of familiarity.