Making Drones Civic: Values and Design Principles for Civic Technology

Abstract

Can drones be fully accepted as civic technologies? Are there values embodied by drones that undermine their ability to perform in a civic capacity? What design principles might make drones more civic? Where does responsibility lie between civil society actors, drone designers, and policymakers in pursuing this goal while balancing privacy, security, and innovation? Although drones have several proposed civic use cases, particularly involving practices described as monitorial citizenship, drones are different from other civic technologies. Civic technologies are about shifting power away from corrupt actors and toward virtuous actors. And a motivating concept and ethic for civic technologies, whether used for interacting with governments or against them, is participatory practice. If we aspire to a definition of civic action that is fundamentally participatory and we hope for our civic technologies to embody that value of participatory practice, we must investigate whether drones can be fully accepted as civic technologies. This paper will address these questions and issues, problematizing the use of drones for civic purposes by defining a set of values and design principles for civic technologies and by showing where drones may play a role, situating contemporary cases among relevant political and ethical questions.

Full text

Making Drones Civic
Values and Design Principles for Civic Technology
ErhardtGraeff,CenterforCivicMedia,MITMediaLab,erhardt@media.mit.edu
J.NathanMatias,CenterforCivicMedia,MITMediaLab,jnmatias@media.mit.edu

Presentedduringthe"UnmannedRights:DroneUseByCivilSociety"panelatthe
InternationalStudiesAssociation's56thAnnualConvention,NewOrleans,Louisiana,20
February2015.

Abstract
Candronesbefullyacceptedascivictechnologies?Aretherevaluesembodiedbydrones
thatunderminetheirabilitytoperforminaciviccapacity?Whatdesignprinciplesmightmake
dronesmorecivic?Wheredoesresponsibilityliebetweencivilsocietyactors,drone
designers,andpolicymakersinpursuingthisgoalwhilebalancingprivacy,security,and
innovation?Althoughdroneshaveseveralproposedcivicusecases,particularlyinvolving
practicesdescribedasmonitorialcitizenship,dronesaredifferentfromothercivic
technologies.Civictechnologiesareaboutshiftingpowerawayfromcorruptactorsand
towardvirtuousactors.Andamotivatingconceptandethicforcivictechnologies,whether
usedforinteractingwithgovernmentsoragainstthem,isparticipatorypractice.Ifweaspireto
adefinitionofcivicactionthatisfundamentallyparticipatoryandwehopeforourcivic
technologiestoembodythatvalueofparticipatorypractice,wemustinvestigatewhether
dronescanbefullyacceptedascivictechnologies.Thispaperwilladdressthesequestions
andissues,problematizingtheuseofdronesforcivicpurposesbydefiningasetofvalues
anddesignprinciplesforcivictechnologiesandbyshowingwheredronesmayplayarole,
situatingcontemporarycasesamongrelevantpoliticalandethicalquestions.



Introduction
Candronesbefullyacceptedascivictechnologies?Aretherevaluesembodiedbydrones
thatundermineorenhancetheirabilitytoperforminaciviccapacity?Whatdesignprinciples
mightmakedronesmorecivic?

Asatechnologicalplatformunmannedaerialvehiclesor"drones"representapotenttoolfor
monitoringandreportingonterraininaccessibletousersduetopolitical,economic,and
geologicalbarriers.Theycanalsodeliverpayloadstosimilarlyinaccessibleareas.These
affordanceshavebeenmostnotablydeployedbymilitariesforsurveillanceandbombing
missions.However,thesecapabilitiesneednotberestrictedtomilitaryuse.Rather,drones
maybecivictechnologies;asChoi-Fitzpatrick(2014)catalogs,dronescanbenefitcivilsociety
actorsthroughadiversesetofissuesandusesincluding:

● art
● mapping
● publicsafety
● environment
● humanitariananddevelopmentaid
● journalism
● corporateaccountability
● stateaccountabilityandconflict
● humanrightsmonitoring
● socialmovementsandprotests
● materialandtechnicaldisruption

Amotivatingconceptandethicforcivictechnologies,whetherusedforinteractingwith
governmentsoragainstthem,isparticipatorypractice—processescenteredoncommunity
developmentandunderpinnedbyan"ideologyofequality"(LedwithandSpringett2010,14).
Ifweaspiretoadefinitionofcivicactionthatisfundamentallyparticipatoryandwehopefor
ourcivictechnologiestoembodythatvalueofparticipatorypractice,wemustinvestigate
whetherdronescanbefullyacceptedascivictechnologies.

Monitorialcitizenship(Schudson1998;Graeff&Zuckerman2014)effortsrepresentaclassof
participatorycivicactivitiesperhapsbestpoisedtoexploittheaffordancesofdrones.
ExamplesofparticipatorymappingprojectslikeOpenStreetMap ,mostnotablyMapKibera ,
1 2
couldbenefitfromcheapaerialphotographythatcanbereleasedintothepublicdomain.
Similareffortsin"grassrootsmapping"bythePublicLaboratoryforOpenTechnologyand
Science,usingballoonsandkites,havebeensuccessfulincapturingaerialphotography
cheaplyandaidingeffortstodocumentillegalmountaintopcoalmininginWestVirginia,to
1http://www.openstreetmap.org/
2http://mapkibera.org/

claimbenefitsfrompollutedfishingwatersintheGulfofMexico,andtosupportlegalcases
forhistoricalPeruvianlandrights(Warren2010).

Civictechnologiesframedasparticipatorypractice,which"treadsafinelinebetween
transformativechangeandmaintenanceofthestatusquo"(LedwithandSpringett2010,15),
ideallyshiftpowerawayfromcorruptactorsandtowardvirtuousones.Oftenthe
empowermentisinfavorofindividualsstandingagainstinstitutions,whereinstitutions
representanabstractionofpeople—bureaucraciesplaguedbyAllisonianproblems(1969).

The Standpoint of Drones in the Struggle to Govern the Commons


GrassrootsMappingkitusedtodocumenttheBPDeepwaterHorizonoilspill 
3

InTheStruggletoGoverntheCommons

,Dietz,Ostrom,andSternoutlinetheroleof
informationgatheringinthe"coevolutionaryrace"amonggovernments,privateinterests,and
publicstogoverntheuseofcommongoodslikeoceans,forests,andrivers(2003).They
arguethatthisraceplaysoutas"humansdevisewaysofevadinggovernancerules."Thisis
especiallychallengingincaseswheretheexerciseofpoweris"spatiallydisplacedfromtheir
causesandhard-to-monitor...inwaysthatswamptheabilityoflocallyevolvedinstitutionsto
3http://grassrootsmapping.org/

regulate."Informationcollectionandprovisionisthefirststepinsupportingeffective
governanceinthiscontext,supportingeffectiveconflictmanagementprocessesandrule
compliance.Infrastructurefordatacollectionandcommunicationiscriticaltothisprocess;
theyusetheexampleoflocalfisherswhousemobilephonesandradiostodocumentillegal
resourceuse.Civicdronesexpandthemonitorialreachofcitizengroupsforthese
spatially-disparateissuesandissueswhereotherformsofmonitoringactivityareconstrained.
Dronescancoverlargeareasofgroundwithaerialphotography,accessareasthatcitizens
cannotsafelyorlegallyenter,andcanbeallocateddynamicallytocitizengroups'pointsof
interest.

Especiallyincaseswheredataheldbygovernmentorprivateinterestsmightbedeployedto
overwhelmtheinfluenceofcitizengroups,droneinformationcanofferapowerful
counter-argumentinthestruggletogovernthecommons.FeministSTStheoristssituatethis
kindofworkas"explanatorypluralism"(Keller2003),"situatedknowledge"(Haraway1988),a
"standpointepistemology"(Harding1986),"displacingthedominanceoflinearconstructsof
causality"(Fortunn.d.).InthewordsofHaraway,offeringscientificdataandexplanations
fromasituatedstandpointcontributesknowledgethat"offersamoreadequate,richer,better
accountofaworld,inordertoliveinitwellandincritical,reflexiverelationtoourownaswell
asothers'practicesofdomination."

EffortsbyGrassrootsMappingtomonitorthescopeoftheBPDeepwaterHorizonoilspillin
theGulfofMexicoofferapracticalcaseofparticipatoryaerialphotographyusedtocontest
thenarrativesofprivateinterestsinspatiallydisparatesituations(Warren2010).Inthefirst
weeksaftertheDeepwaterHorizonspill,fly-overdatacollectedbyBPwasnotbeingshared
withthepublic,andNASAsatellitedata(250mresolution)wastoolowresolutiontoidentify
specificcoastlinedamage.InthefollowingweeksBPcollaboratedwiththeUSCoastGuard,
theDepartmentofHomelandSecurity,FederalAviationAdministration,andtheNational
OceanicandAtmosphericAdministrationtorestrictflyoversovertheaffectedarea,limiting
themtoaltitudesthatweretoohightoobservethespecificeffectsofthespill(Peters2010).
Collaboratingwithlocalfishermen,theGrassrootsMappingteamwereabletoofferaerial
dataonthespillata3cmresolutiononanongoingbasisduringthisblackout.Theresulting
pre-spillandpost-stilldatawasthenusedbyasanindependentdatasourcebyjournalists
andcitizengroupsineffortstoholdBPaccountablefortheeffectsofthespill,ratherthan
relyingsolelyonBP'soverflightdataorNASA'slow-resolutiondata.

TheDeepwaterHorizonspillillustratesthecontestationalnatureofaerialdatacollectionby
citizengroups,sinceBPandtheU.S.governmentexplicitlydeniedmonitorialaccessto
journalists,citizengroups,andscientists.Aerialballoonmapping,asanovel,unregulated
technique,becameanalternativestrategytocircumventtheserestrictions.Intheongoing
struggletogovernthecommons,itmaybethatdronesandothercivilsocietyaerialsystems
mayonlyofferatemporaryadvantageinthis"coevolutionaryrace."


Civic Data Creation as Media Making in Organizing for Change

DronefootageofafactorypigfarmbyMarkDevries 
4

Includingcommunitiesincollectionandinterpretationofdronedatacanalsobeseenasa
media-makingtactictowardscommunityorganizing.Firstly,imagestakenbydronesareoften
seenasbeautifulnovelties,thekindofspreadablemediathatcharacterizesparticipatory
onlinepublicsastheylike,share,andretweetbeautifulimages(CohenandKahne2012).
Secondly,involvingcommunitiesincollectingdataandtellingtheirstoriesthroughthatdata
offersopportunitiesforframechanges

thatexpandcommunities'capacitytoorganize
collectivelyaroundanissueofcommonconcern.

Whenwelabelsomethingas"civic"inWesterncontexts,wegenerallymeanthatit
contributestothepublicgoodinsomeway.Thisisinterpretedasoneofmanycivicacts
committedbythepublicwherebyallcitizensworkingtogetherconstituteademocracy.Inthe
U.S.,weknowthatinfactwehavechangedourideasoftheroleofthe"goodcitizen"over
time—startingwithJamesMadison'sFederalistNo.10disempoweringthemassestoprevent
factionalisminpublicelectionsuptotheearlytwentiethcenturyandWalterLippmann'sview
thatthepubliclackstheexpertisenecessarytocontributeeffectivelytogovernance
(Schudson1998).

Democracyisnowconstruedmoreliterally,thanksinparttonewtechnologiesthathave
changedcommunicationpatternsfromone-waybroadcaststotwo-waydialoguesempowering
morepeopletoexpresstheirvoiceandmakechange.CohenandKahnedefinethecurrent
stateofcitizenshipas"participatorypolitics"characterizedbyactswhichcan

4screenshotfromhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ayGJ1YSfDXs

"reachlargeaudiencesandmobilizenetworks,oftenonline,onbehalfofacause;help
shapeagendasthroughdialoguewith,andprovidefeedbackto,politicalleaders(on-
andoffline);andenableparticipantstoexertgreateragencythroughthecirculationor
forwardingofpoliticalinformation(e.g.,links)aswellasthroughtheproductionof
originalcontent,suchasablogorlettertotheeditor."(2012)

Beautifulimagesandfootagefilmedbydrones,arecurrentlyconsideredhighlynovel,
shareablemedia,whethertheoutputisanonlinevideooranaggregatedmappingresource.
IncontestationalsettingsliketheDeepwaterHorizonoilspill,whereinternationalmedia
outletsarebannedfromobservingtheeffects,aggregateballoonmapscollectedbyfishers
gavejournalistsanopportunitytocarryouttheiraccountabilityrole(Bilton2010).Imagesand
footagefromdronescanalsobeamplifiedbyonlineaudiencesinactsofparticipatorypolitics.
ThiswasthecaseinadroneprojectbyMarkDevries(n.d.)todocumenttheU.S.practiceof
storingfactoryfarmwasteinopencesspoolsanddisposingofitbysprayingwasteintotheair.
ThreemonthsafterthedronevideowaspostedinDecember2014,ithadreceivednearly
threemillionviewsonYouTube,withoverhalfamillionpeoplewatchinginoneday(Devries
2014).

Participatorypracticesthatinvolvecommunitiesinsharingdronematerialwitheachother
havethepotentialtosupportframechanges

insocialmovementorganizing.Collaborative
media-makinginitiativesbytheHollaback!

socialmovementofferanillustrationofthis
strategy(Dimondetal.2013).Hollaback!

crowd-sourceswomentopseudonymouslytell
storiesonlineabouttheirexperiencesofstreetharassment.Bydoingso,Hollaback!

hopedto
supportframetransformation

,where"peopleshiftfromonewayofseeinganissueand
oneselftoadifferentway."BytellingtheirstoriestogetherwithHollaback!

,participantswho
previouslyfeltliketheirexperiencewasanisolatedincident"feltthattheirownexperience
wasvalidatedandthattheywerepartofalargerepidemicthatwarrantschange"(Dimondet
al.2013,483).TheHollaback!

designersalsohopedtosupportframeextension

,tomove
fromrecognitionoftheproblemtorecognizingthemselvesagroupandmovingtowardsaction
(Dimondetal.2013,480).Byvisitingthesite,tellingtheirstories,andmeetingeachother,
participantswereabletoconnecttheirindividualexperiences,developingresponsesas
individualsandasanetworkedpublic(Dimondetal.2013,485).Asdrone-usingcommunities
sharedataandtechniqueswitheachotheronissuesofcommonconcernsuchaslogging,
participatorydroneusemaycometosupportsimilarframechangesandmovementbuilding.


Participatory Practices in Civic Technology and Political
Communication
AttheCitizensUKAssemblyShoreditchin2009,localcandidateswereaskedtoaccountfor
policiesandmakecampaignpromiseswithdirectimpacttotheShoreditchareaofLondon 
5

Ourviewsoncivicdronepracticesareanextensionoftheorizingcivicsinanageof
participatorypolitics,ascarriedoutthroughtechnology-poweredmonitorialcitizenship.
MonitorialcitizenshipasfirstproposedbySchudsonfocusesoncitizensrolein
"environmentalsurveillancemorethaninformation-gathering"(1998,310–311),residents
workingtogetherinaninformalcapacitytokeeptheircommunitiesfunctioningwellandsafe.
"Technology-poweredmonitorialcitizenship"takesthisideaandmarriesitwithtechnologies
likemobilephones,shareddatarepositories,andvisualizationtoolstocreateagrassroots
formofgovernance(Zuckerman2014;Graeff&Zuckerman2014;Graeff2014).

Designingcivictechnologyforaparticipatoryvisionofcitizenshiplikemonitorialcitizenship
requiresparticipatorydesignmethodologiesthatacknowledgetheacknowledgethecritical
roleofthepublic.Approacheslikehuman-centereddesign,appropriatetechnology,and
participatorytechnologydesigncollaboratewiththeultimateusers(citizens)andrespectthe
contextsofthecommunitieswhereintechnologywillbedeployed(Rhea2010).

5PhotobyChrisJepson.http://www.citizensuk.org/?attachment_id=1943

Participatorydesignisatitsheartaphilosophyaboutresearchandlearning:takingitsrootsin
(participatory)actionresearchpracticesandconstructivism(Spinuzzi2005),honoringand
complementinglocalknowledgeandskillsratherthanatop-downsystematizingoftheworld.
Thepracticecomes,inpart,fromareadingof(dis)empowermentfromthesubtleeffectsof
dominantinstitutionsandculture,similarinviewtoPauloFreire'sPedagogyoftheOppressed
andAntonioGramsci'sSelectionsfromtheprisonnotebooks

(LedwithandSpringett2010).
Thiswhythelegitimacyoftheoutputofparticipatorypracticeisbasedonthelegitimacyofits
process,whichfocusesonavalueofequalitymaintainedthrougheveryaspectofwork(ibid.).

Spinuzzi(2005)suggeststhreestagescompriseparticipatorydesign:initialexplorationof
work,discoveryprocesses,andprototyping.Thefirststageinvolvesestablishingrelationships
withinthecommunityandunderstandingexistingtechnologiesandwaysofworking.The
secondstageinvolvesdesignersandlocaluserscollaboratingonsettingandprioritizinggoals
andfindingasharedsetofvaluestodrivethework.Thethirdstageistheiterativeprocessof
developingandtestingprototypes.Infact,allstagesaremeanttobeiterativeandcanbe
revisitedinaneffortofcollaborativemeaningmaking,wherelocalknowledgeisleveragedto
understandobjectives,contexts,andutilityofdesigns.

Aspartofafirststage-styleexplorationofworkwithBoston-basedcommunitygroupswho
adoptcivictechnologyadoption,EricGordonandRogelioLopez(2014),foundtworecurring
themes"keepingup"and"keepingitreal."Therewasaninterestinkeepingupwith
contemporarytechnologytrends,especiallysuchthattheircommunityworkwasabletokeep
upwithlocalyouth.Keepingitrealwasaboutstayingtruetothegrassrootsnatureofthe
organizationanditswork.GordonandLopezfoundalackoftheusualtechnologicalframeof
"disruption"amongsttheparticipantstheyinterviewedatthecommunityorganization.They
weremoreinterestedinmaintaininglegitimacyandhowtakingrisksthroughinnovationmight
threatenthatlegitimacy.

Evaluatingthesuccessofparticipatorydesignlikethismeanscheckingforevidenceoffull
participationthroughouttheprocess.Fromherworkfocusedexplicitlyoncivictechnology,
LaurenellenMcCann(2014)proposesfivecriteriafor"community-drivencivictechnology:"
startwithrealpeopleinrealcommunities,catertoexistingsocialinfrastructureand
sociopoliticalcontexts,letneedsandideasexpressedbycommunitiesdriveproblem
identificationandsolving,buildsolutionsmostusefultocommunityandsupporttheirgoals
andneeds,andprovethatyouhaveincorporatedcommunitycontributionsbydocumenting
throughouttheproject'slifecycle.Specificmetricscouldalsoinclude"directnessofinteraction
withthedesigners","lengthofinvolvementinthedesignprocess","scopeofparticipationin
theoverallsystembeingdesigned",and"degreeofcontroloverthedesigndecisions"(Kuhn
andWinograd1996).


Civic

Drones in Practice
Participatory Objective Design

ForagingDrone 
6

Theefforttomakedronescivicmuststartatthebeginningoftheparticipatorydesignprocess:
connectingtechnologydesigners,civilsocietyorganizations,andcommunitymembers
affectedbyaparticularissue.InthemonitorialcitizenshipprojectPromiseTracker,design
researcherswerequicklydisabusedoftheirassumedvisionofatoolfortrackingexplicit
electionpromisesofpoliticiansoncetheystartedcollaboratingwiththeirBrazilianpartnersin
MinasGeraisandSaoPaulo(Zuckerman2014;Barabas2014).AlexisHopedescribesthe
workshopinMinasGerais:

"Onourfirstdaytogether,wediscussedthegoalsandprioritiesourtwentyparticipants
had,andhowthosemighttranslateintosomethingthatcouldbemonitored.TheBelo
Horizontegrouphadmanygoalsandprioritiesrelatedtohousingappropriation,trash
pickup,theaccessibilityofthestairwaysintheircommunity,education,andsanitation.
Wetalkedwiththegroupabouthowsomeofthemorecomplexissues—education,
forexample—maybedifficulttomonitor,butwewereurgedbythecommunitythat
justbecausesuchissuesweredifficulttomonitordidnotmeanthatweshouldnottry."
(2014)
6imageviadronesforforaging.com


IntheexampleofGrassrootsMapping,thetechnologyprojectisseenfromthestartasa
communityincontrasttoprofessionalcartographyandgeographicinformationsystemswhich
empowermembersofthecommunitytoproducetheirownqualitymaps(Warren2010).Jeff
Warren,thefounderofGrassrootsMapping,statesthisveryclearlyinhisthesis:

"Myworkisintendedtoteachandassistcommunitiesandindividualstomap
themselves,forthemselves.Thisincludesbuildingliteracyandproficiencyin
geographictoolsaninformation,andmakinggoodchoicesabouthowtopublishtheir
maps—ifatall.themapswhichIhavepublishedhereareonlythoseforwhichIhave
requestedspecificpermissiontoreproduceforpurposesofeducationandresearch."
(2010,22)

Inthecaseof"DronesforForaging,"CarlDiSalvocommentedthatGeorgiaTech'sPublic
DesignWorkshopwasinitiallyplanningtooffertheforagersamobileapptohelpwiththeir
foragingoffruittreesinAtlanta.Theforagersthemselvescamebackandaskediftheycould
useadrone(DiSalvo2014).Thisshiftedtheprioritiesoftheircollaborationfromthestartand
introducedanewcontextandsetofdesignconstraints.

Participatory Drone Design


3DmapofSholinabvillageinGuyanacreatedbyaWapichanamonitoringteam 
7

7screenshotofvideoonhttp://www.digital-democracy.org/blog/we-built-a-drone/

Thefocusoncollaborationbetweendesignersandusersandempowermentinparticipatory
designleadstoafocusondesigningpotentialcivictechnologieslikedronesinwaysthatare
accessibletotheusersandideallyusingkitsthatthoselocaluserscanbuildthemselves.The
opensciencemovement,whichincludesexampleslikeGrassrootsMappingandSafecast,
focusonkitsthatcanbeassembledbynon-professionals.Returningtothefounderof
GrassrootsMapping'searlierstatement,thereisanexplicitgoalofassistingcommunitiesto
"mapthemselves,forthemselves."

InGuyana,membersDigitalDemocracyworkedwiththelocalWapichanapeopletobuild
dronesandmonitorandmapdeforestation(MacLennan2014).GregorMacLennantalks
abouttheownershipthelocalstookintheprojectastheysolderedtheirownvideo
transmissionsystemandtestedandrepairedtheirdrone:

"Whenthemotormountbroke,theteamscouredthevillagefordifferenttypesof
plastic,andfashionedanewmountfromanoldbeercrate.Thedronewasnolongera
foreign,mysteriouspieceoftechnology,butsomethingtheyowned,built,and
thereforeunderstood."(2014)

ThiswassimilartoGrassrootsMapping'smodelintwoways.First,DigitalDemocracy
developedakitthatuserswithlimitedpre-existingexperiencecanbuildandevenrepairtheir
owntechnologylocally.Andsecond,theydevelopedmappingworkshopsandsoftwaresimilar
toGrassrootsMapping'sMapKnitter ,whichautomaticallystitchesaerialphotostogether.
8
DigitalDemocracy'seffortstomapwithdroneswasbasedonanongoingcollaborationthat
startedbyperformingremotesensingviasatellites,whichtheymadeaccessiblethrough
in-persontrainingsfollowedbytheabilitytointeractwiththedataviaemailandsimple
website(DigitalDemocracyn.d.).

8http://mapknitter.org/

Participatory Data Interpretation Practices

UsingtheMapKnittersoftware,webuserscreatemapsfromDIYaerialphotographs 
9

Thecollectionofdataforaccountabilityandtransparencyisnotwhereparticipatorypractice
shouldend.Communitiescanandshouldbeinvolvedininterpretingdatacollectedabout
themandforthem.Inhis"datatherapy"work,RahulBhargavadescribesanapproachof
"creativedataliteracyfornon-datapeople"as"PopularData"(2013).HecitesPauloFreire's
visionofpopulareducationinanefforttolocateempowermentthrough"engaging,
participatoryapproachestodata-drivenpresentationanddecision-making."Thereisafocus
onfacilitationratherthanteaching,suchthatcommunitymembersarenotdisempowered
throughtheuseofjargonorcomplicatedtechnologies.Rather,Bhargavaencouragesdata
analysisintheformof"story-finding."Thisfocusonstorytellingofferscommunities
opportunitiestoengageintheframetransformationsassociatedwithsocialmovement
organizing.

Micro-tasksandhumancomputationthroughcrowdsourcingofferpowerfulmeansfor
processinglargeamountsofdataquickly.Optimizingforspeed,efficiency,andqualitycan
alsodetractfrombroadercivicgoals,asparticipationisreplacedwithcentrally-directedlabor
andparticipantsareevaluatedasvolunteersratherthanstakeholders,intermsofthequality
andquantityoftheircontributions.AsMatiasandGeigerobserve(2014),manysystems
acrosscrowdsourcingandhumancomputationappeartomakethistrade-offbetweenafocus
oncivicvaluesandafocusonoutcomevalues.Fornow,thisapparentbutperhapsfalse
dilemmaisoftenmadevisibleinevaluationprocesses,withstory-orientedqualitativemethods
9http://publiclab.org/wiki/mapknitter-leaflet

characterizingcivicsystemsandquantitativeexperimentalmethodscharacterizingmore
output-orientedsystems(ibid.).

Inthecaseofdrones,civictechnologycanacceleratetheprocessofcollaborative
meaning-makingsothatarcanetaskslikeGISinthecaseofGrassrootsMappingcanbe
handledautomaticallyusingfreeandopensourcetoolslikeMapKnitter.Atthispoint,users
canbringtheirlocalknowledgetobearontheproblemoffindingastoryinthedata,analyzing
itandemployingitinanargumentthatrepresentstheirvoice,suchasthefishersmappingthe
BPDeepwaterHorizonspill.
Participatory Infrastructures for Sharing Drone Data

Asdemandfordronesanduseofdronesbycivilsocietygrows,therewillbeanincreased
valueinstandardizedinfrastructuresfordroneinformationprocessinganddatasharing
acrossgroups.Asthisoccurs,thecapacityofdronestosupportlocalcommunitygoalswillbe
mediatedbytheparticipatoryornon-participatorynatureofthoseinfrastructuresthemselves.

Cross-communitysharingofdronedataisalreadyoccurringinthefieldofconservation.The
ConservationDronesprojectisaninternationalnetworkofpractitioners,developers,and
trainersfromseveralcontinents,whohavepooleddrone-generatedmapsfromSumatra,
Borneo,SouthAustralia,andelsewhere,inordertotrainmachineclassifierstodetectlogging
(ConservationDrones2015).Bysharingdatawitheachother,theyareabletoimprovethe
qualityofautomatedclassificationofaerialfootage.

ProjectslikeConservationDronesfollowthepatternoftheVolunteerGeographicInformation
movementandprojectslikeOpenStreetMaps.OSMhascreatedhighqualitymapsofmany
partsoftheworldthroughvoluntaryeffort,supportinglocalcommunitiestodocumenttheir
localareas.YetasJudeMwendaNtabathiahasdocumented,theOpenStreetMapssystem
acceptsonlyone,canonicalmapthatissharedbyeveryone,withacanonicaltaxonomythat
failstoaccountforgeographicitemsthatarecommonoutsideoftheUnitedStatesand
Europe(2014).WhenKenyanvolunteersattemptedtoaddM-Pesamobilepaymentshops
andlocalreligiousshrinestoOpenStreetMaps,theywereresistedbyorganizersbasedin
theU.S.andEuropeonthegroundsthatWesterntaxonomieswouldsuffice(ibid.).Asa
result,localcommunitieswerenotallowedtosearch,index,andclassifygeographicdataon
theirownterms.Thesamecouldhappentodronesascommoninfrastructuresincreasingly
mediatethedeploymentofdronesandthesharingofdrone-collecteddata.Unlessthe
platformsandschemaaredesignedtosupportlocalepistemologies,theymightshutout
participationfromlocalcivilsocietyactors.


Barriers to Civic Drone Use
The Fear of Drones as Military Objects
InthecourseofhisworkwiththeHumanitarianUAVNetwork,PatrickMeiercataloged
commonconcernssharedbyhumanitariansofusingdronesinhumanitariancontexts
(2014b).Thisisthelistinorderofthefrequencyofmentionsin"documents,reports,articles,
etc.,onhumanitarianUAVs:"

● MilitaryAssociation/Stigma
● Privacy/DataCollection/Surveillance
● TransparencyandConsent
● Fear/Confusion/PsychologicalTerror
● LawsandRegulations
● ResponseExpectations
● TechnologicalWeakness
● InappropriateUse
● IneffectiveDeterrence

Oneconclusion,well-describedbyHelenaPuigLarrauri(2014)andreiteratedbyMeier
(2014a),isthatnon-lethaldroneuseinconflictsettingsposecomplicatedethicalproblems
duetotheirmilitaryassociationandthefearandconfusiontheyinspire.Despitethisstigma,
Meierfullyexpectscommunitiestousedronesinconflictsettingswheretheyseeavaluefor
monitoringorcivilresistance(Meier2014a,Meier2014b,Meier2012).

TheHumanitarianUAVNetworkhasacodeofconduct,whichproposesguidelinestohelp
mitigateproblemsfollowingfrommilitaryassociationandpsychologicalterror(UAViators
2014).TheseincludeconformingtothehumanitarianDoNoHarmprincipleandrights-based
andsafetymanagement-basedapproaches.Additionally,theyrecommendflyingonlysmall
drones,less2kginweight,toreduceperceivedthreats.Andinaccordancewithgood
participatorypractices,UAViatorsrecommends:

"EngagelocalcommunitieswhenpossibletoensuretheyareawareofUAVflightsand
toprovideanavenueforlearning.SeeklocalpartnershipstoensureUAVprojectsare
relevantandappropriate.Trainlocalpartnersandcommunitiesonhowtouse/fly
UAVs."(2014)
Privacy and No Fly Zones
AsseeninMeier'sinformalanalysisofUAVreports,issuesofprivacy,datacollection,and
surveillancewerethesecondmostfrequentraised.Wehavealreadyaddressedthequestion
ofdatacollectionpracticesandtheownershipofboththeresultantdataandparticipationinits
analysisandpresentation.However,privacyremainsanimportantconcern.Incasesof
monitorialcitizenship,weareexplicitlyandliterallytalkingaboutsurveillance.Andthis

happensonanunprecedentedscalethankstodrones'aerialcoverageandrangeofactivity
unencumberedbytraditionalprivacy-enhancingbarrierslikefences.

Someofthisisbeingaddressedthroughlegalandtechnicalpolicybarringdronesfromflying
inso-calledNoFlyZones.RecreationalandCommercialdronesarelimitedtoflyingoutsideof
fivemilesradiiofairportsandnotabove400feetor500feet,respectively.Drone
manufacturersarealsocomingtogethertocreateanationalNoFlyZone list,where
10
residentscanregistertheirpropertyaddressestobeaddedtothegeofencedatabases
incorporatedinparticipatingdrones'firmwareupdates.Thishasbecomeahighprofileissue
followingthecrash-landingofarecreationaldrone"toosmallforradartodetect"withinthe
WhiteHouse'sperimeter(SchmidtandShear2015).

Intermsofprivacyprotection,software-basedsystemsthatautomaticallykeepdronesclearof
placesmaybebettersolutionsthanrelyingonthejudgmentofhumanpilots.However,this
alsounderminestheabilityofcivilsocietytousethosesametechnologiesforcivilresistance
ormonitoringinplaceswherecorporateandpublicinterestsmaybecolludingsuchasinthe
caseoftheBPoilspillorfactoryfarms.

Inhumanitariancontexts,asLarrauri(2014)arguesinhermeditationontheethicsofdrone
use,consentiskeytotheuseofdronesinordertoensurethattheyprotecttheprivacyofthe
oftenmarginalizedpopulationsinthearea.Eveninperiodsofcrisis,it'sunclearwhetherthe
useofdronesforaidshouldsupercedetherespectofprivacyormoreideallytheparticipation
ofthelocalpopulation.
Drone Licensing laws
WhileNoFlyZonesregulatethelocations

ofdroneusage,dronelicensinglawsarelikelyto
influencewhoisallowedtooperatedronesandforwhatpurposes.IntheUnitedStates,
journalistshavetypicallybeenpreventedfromusingdronesunderpoliciesthatprohibitwhat
theFAAconsiderstobecommercialuses(Chapa2013;Barr2014).In2013,theFAAsent
cease-and-desistnoticestouniversitiesattemptingtotestjournalisticusesofdrones(O'Neil
2013).InFebruary2015,theU.S.FederalAviationAdministrationreleasedregulation
proposalsthatwouldrequiredroneoperatorsatleast17yearsoldtopassatestatanFAA
knowledgecenter,bevettedbytheTSA,andandreportinjuryordamage-relatedincidentsto
theFAA(FAA2015).

InKenya,theKenyaCivilAviationAuthorityhasannouncedthatallunlicenseddroneuseis
illegal,eventhoughnoKenyanpoliciesyetexistforlicensingdroneuse.Upcoming
regulationsareexpectedtobegovernedbythemilitaryandtheKenyandepartmentof
defense(Kariuki2015).Theseregulationshavealreadypreventedtheuseofdronesfor
anti-poachingmonitoringbytheOlPejetaConservancy(Kariuki2014),althoughsome
10http://www.noflyzone.org/

universitiesandcivilsocietygroupsareproceedingdespitethelackofregulations(Okune
2014).

Droneregulationswillhaveaprofoundeffectontherisksassociatedwithcivilsocietyusesof
drones.Trainingrequirementscanimprovesafety,buttheycanalsolimitaccess.Definitions
ofcommercialandhobbyistusescanbeappliedtolimitlegaluseofdronesbycivilsociety
actors.AswasthecaseintheDeepwaterHorizonoilspill,safetyandprivacyconcernscan
motivateregulationsthatpreventaerialphotographyandsensorsfrombecomingacritical
resourceforcitizenpowerandparticipation.
Preserving Participatory Values in Scaled Drone Infrastructures

Ledgard'sworkoncargodronesimagineswidespreaddroneinfrastructuresacrossAfrica 
11

Inthispaper,wepresentparticipatoryvaluesanddesignprinciplesforcivicdronedesignand
usage.Throughout,wehavemadetheassumptionthatdronesareoperatedbyindividualsor
smallcommunitygroupswhohavenear-completeagencyoverthepiloting,objectives,and
overalluseofindividualdrones,evenifthedatamightbesharedandaggregatedbyawide
networkofactors.Intheshortterm,thisislikelytobehowdroneswillbeused.Inthelonger
term,small-scale,un-coordinateddoneoperationmaybereplacedbylargerinfrastructuresof
dronessimilartocurrentairtransportsystems,communicationsinfrastructures,ordynamic
allocationinfrastructuressuchasvirtualmachinesormicro-labor.
11https://medium.com/message/build-cargo-drones-get-rich-9b858dffaba


Inthisdrone-iverse

of"donkeysinthesky"(Ledgard2014)manyoftheassumptionsofthis
paperaretransformed.Imagine,forexample,anetworkofsemi-autonomousdronesthatare
managedlikeacommoncarrierresource,throughacentralswitchboardofdroneallocation.
Perhapslocaldroneownerscancontributeadronetothenetwork,orperhapsitisrunbya
smallnumberofmajorplayersinallregionsexceptthefringesofthedronesystem.Tocarry
outaroutinedroneuse,anoperatorsimplyallocatesatask,whichisthencarriedoutthrough
thedronenetworkonwhicheverdroneisbestsituatedtocarryoutthattask.Inthisscenario,
theoperatordoesnotknowwhatdroneisused,playsnoroleinflyingit,andmerelywaitsfor
thesuccessfulretrievalofinformationorcompletionofthetask.Insomecases,likethe
acquisitionofaerialfootage,wecouldimaginethattheallocationofataskisfurther
abstractedtoarequestforinformation.Ifthedronesystempossessesrecentenough
imagery,nodroneneedactuallybesentinordertofulfilthesurveillancetask.Wecouldalso
imagineinfrastructuresofstandardizedpayloadsthatarecompatiblewithawiderangeof
aerialplatforms;toenhancethefunctionalityofthedronenetwork,oneneedonlytodesign
newformsofpayloads(sensing,delivery,agriculture,decoration,rescue,drone-interception,
games)thatarethenallocatedtodronesinthenetworkon-demand.

Inthedrone-iverse,barrierstoparticipationareloweredwhileissuesofcommunityownership,
privacy,andcivildisobediencearetransformed.Communitieswouldnolongerberequiredto
developtheresourcesandcapacitiestobuild,maintain,andoperatetheirowndrones.More
communitiescouldusethem,andthelearningoutcomesmightbelost.Thedrone-iverse
wouldalsoofferopportunitiesforunprecedentedscaleandcoordinationamongcivilsociety
actors.Inthisnetwork,thecostofcoordinatingwell-calibratedsensorsystemsacrossregions
forlarge-scaledatacollectionandtransparencymightbecomeverylowindeed.Ontheother
hand,suchahighlycoordinatedsystemmightbedisproportionatelycontrolledbyprivateor
governmentinterests,shiftingthebalanceinthe"coevolutionaryrace"awayfromlocal
groups,withNoFlyZonesrigorouslycontrolled,unauthorizedfootagecensored,andcivil
societyusesofdroneselectronicallysurveilled.Inthiscommercialcontext,droneuseby
activistsagainstcorporatetermsofservicecouldalsocarryoverly-reaching,cybercrime-like
penaltiessimilartousesoftheU.S.ComputerFraudandAbuseActagainst"hacktivists"
(Sauter2014).Inthisvisionofscaleddroneuse,theprivacyandvisibilityconcernsofdrones
mightalsobemagnified,offeringnovisibleindicationatallofthepurposeoroperatingentity.
Thesamedroneusedtomonitorafactoryfarmcouldbeusedthenextdaytodrop
threateningmessagesoverthehomesoftheactivistsmonitoringthefarm.

Conclusion
Grassroots/participatorymappingandmonitorialcitizenshiparesometimestermed
"sousveillance"todistinguishtheirpracticesfromsurveillance.Insousveillance,thepowerto
surveilisredistributedbycitizensowningtheirownwearablerecordingdevicesthatcan
"watchthewatchers"(Rheingold2004).Smartphonesarethemostcommonofthese
technologies,butcaneasilybeextendedtodigitalcamerassuspendedfromballoonsorkites.

Thereisanimplicitassumptionthatifthesetechnologiesareaccessibletoallthenthereisa
righttocounter-surveil,especiallyagainstinstitutionalactorslikethepoliceandthemilitary.
Thehopeisthatdifferentialsocio-politicalpowercouldsomedaybeoffsetbya"right"to
inversesurveillancebythedisempowerediftheyhaveaccesstomonitorialtools.

Butdronesaredifferent.Theymightdistortthevaluesofcivicpracticesandeven
sousveillancebecauseoftheirscale,associationwithmilitaryactivity,andrequirementof
advancedtechnologicalskillstodesign,build,anduse.Theseleadtodifficultquestionsabout
privacy,consent,andrepresentationofmarginalizedcommunities.

Participatorydesignoffersapotentialpaththroughsomeoftheseconcerns:guiding
advocatesofcivilsocietydroneusetoincorporatecommunitymembers(users)throughevery
stageofdesignanddeployment,includingdatainterpretationandencouragingcontributions
backtoasharedcommons.Thisvisionforcivicdronesmayallowthemtoplayanethicaland
effectiveroleingoverningourpubliccommons.

It'simportanttocaveatthisclaimbyacknowledgingthepracticallimitationsofparticipatory
designprocesses,whichstemfromthe"enormousamountoftime,resources,and
institutionalcommitment"necessarytopullitoff(Spinuzzi2005,169).Whenparticipantsdon't
showupitslowstheprocessandcanundermineitslegitimacyovertime.Andbecauseit
reliesonaportfoliooftechniquesandbroadoutlineofstagesofparticipation,thereareno
simple,specificmethodstocheckoffandensurerigor.

Whateverthefutureholdsfordroneuseincivilsociety,wehopedesignersstrivetomake
dronescivicbyadoptingthevaluesandexemplarsofparticipatorypractice.

 

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