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Indochinese hog deer Axis porcinus annamiticus on the brink of extinction
Abstract and Figures
The Hog deer Axis porcinus has undergone dramatic range-wide declines, largely unnoticed. The species has been extirpated from Lao PDR, Vietnam, and Thailand; it has been reintroduced to a number of protected areas in the latter, some of which require ongoing management, (controlled burning to prevent succession and maintain grassland) and control of livestock in grasslands. Cambodia now holds the only known wild populations of the Indochinese subspecies Axis porcinus annamiticus. Surveys conducted in 2013 confirmed five very small populations of A. p. annamiticus in Cambodia, all of which are outside protected areas and under heavy pressure from surrounding human populations. The conservation priorities for A. p. annamiticus are 1) formalize effective long-term protection at two sites (Andoung Teuk and Kratie) to conserve A. p. annamiticus and its habitat, as approved by the government and supported by local communities; 2) eliminate hunting of A. p. annamiticus and maintain two stable/growing populations at Andoung Teuk and Kratie, supported by local communities, and; 3) establish a secure and functioning local conservation breeding programme for A. p. annamiticus and mitigate the potential effects of small population size on the A. p. annamiticus population. These measures need to be implemented as a matter of urgency if extinction of this taxon is to be averted.
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... The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) has listed A. p. annamiticus in Appendix-I and A. p. porcinus in Appendix-III to prohibit its international trade. The geographical limit of hog deer subspecies is still ambiguous, which hinders effective conservation and management (Brook et al. 2015;Timmins et al. 2015). Molecular genetic data may help in detecting populations of conservation concern, which are considered evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) (Conner and Hartl 2004). ...
... In Cambodia, hog deer were thought to be extinct until a reconnaissance survey by WWF in 2006 identified a small, isolated, and localized population of around 50-80 individuals of A. p. annamiticus in Kratie Province on the west bank of the Mekong River (Maxwell et al. 2007;Brook et al. 2015). In order to maintain genetic diversity in a small-sized vulnerable population, scientific population expansion is important through appropriate conservation and habitat restoration measures. ...
... In KLNP, approximately 100 individuals remained in the wild, whereas population size data in Thailand and Cambodia are unclear (Timmins et al. 2015). From the 1970s to late 90s, there has not been any record of hog deer in Cambodia, which raised suspicions of its extinction (Brook et al. 2015;Timmins et al. 2015). The hog deer in Kratie Province was only rediscovered in 2006, suggesting that they have persisted in a small and most likely isolated population (Brook et al. 2015). ...
The hog deer (Axis porcinus) is an endangered cervid with drastic population declines. There are two recognized subspecies of hog deer: A. p. porcinus, ranging from Punjab Province in Pakistan, Nepal and the Northern part of India to Myanmar, and A. p. annamiticus found in Indo-China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. The current geographic range of A. p. annamiticus is still ambiguous. We analyzed variation in the mitochondrial DNA control region (mtDNA CR) to investigate the intra-species structure, differentiation, and demographic history of hog deer from Cambodia (Kratie Province), which we compared with the populations from India and Thailand. We also generated divergence time estimates using a concatenated dataset of complete Cyt b and partial CR. The CR data showed that Cambodian hog deer are genetically differentiated from the mainland Indian and Thai populations, forming a distinct basal clade. The time of divergence indicates that the Cambodian lineage split from the other two hog deer lineages around 0.51 Mya, during the Late Pleistocene. The results also suggest strong phylogeographic structure among hog deer: lineage A extends from Terai Arc (foothills of the Himalayas) to Assam, India (A. p. porcinus), lineage B from Manipur, India to Thailand (A. p. annamiticus), and lineage C is only known from Kratie Province, Cambodia. Lineage A exhibited a higher level of genetic diversity than lineages B and C, with recent demographic stability. Thus, the hog deer population in Kratie Province appears to be a distinct lineage that should be treated as an evolutionarily significant unit.
... The Hog Deer (Axis porcinus), went through a drastic decline during the mid and late twentieth Century [6]. It was once widespread; however, the population has declined quickly across its geographic range. ...
... In the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 hog deer is protected under Schedule I. A. porcinus faces a genuine reduction in number, particularly in Pakistan because of habitat destruction and hunting pressure. Although, A. porcinus is an endangered species it is one of the least studied and ignored mammalian species [6]. ...
Hog deer (Axis porcinus) is one of the least studied animal species in Pakistan. It belongs to Order Artiodactyla and the family Cervidae. IUCN classified Axis porcinus as an endangered species in 2008. The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of varying environmental exposure, genders, and seasonal changes on captive hog deer (A. porcinus) at Lahore Zoo, Safari Zoo, and Jallo Park in Lahore, Pakistan. Non-invasive techniques were used to monitor stress levels in hog deer. For sample collection, four definite months belonging to two seasons' winter and summer were considered. A total of 48 urine and faecal samples were collected from both male and female hog deer. Seasonal fluctuations have been found to have a significant impact on faecal and urinary cortisol levels. Higher cortisol levels were found in both male and female hog deer in the summer season at all three visited sites. Fluctuations in environmental exposure at three research sites had a significant impact on faecal and urinary cortisol levels. Higher levels of cortisol were found in both male and female hog deer at Jallo park and Lahore Zoo, as compared to Safari Zoo. It was concluded that lower cortisol levels at Safari Zoo might be due to better environmental conditions and more flexible enclosure size and interaction of various species of deer. Temperature affected hog deer cortisol levels in summer, as higher levels were measured in summer compared to winter. In addition, sex did not predict any stress levels in hog deer. It has been suggested that a large enclosure size can control levels of cortisol in hog deer.
... The Hog Deer (Axis porcinus), went through a drastic decline during the mid and late twentieth Century [6]. It was once widespread; however, the population has declined quickly across its geographic range. ...
... In the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 hog deer is protected under Schedule I. A. porcinus faces a genuine reduction in number, particularly in Pakistan because of habitat destruction and hunting pressure. Although, A. porcinus is an endangered species it is one of the least studied and ignored mammalian species [6]. ...
Hog deer (Axis porcinus) is one of the least studied animal species in Pakistan. It belongs to Order Artiodactyla and the family Cervidae. IUCN classified Axis porcinus as an endangered species in 2008. The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of varying environmental exposure, genders, and seasonal changes on captive hog deer (A. porcinus) at Lahore Zoo, Safari Zoo, and Jallo Park in Lahore, Pakistan. Non-invasive techniques were used to monitor stress levels in hog deer. For sample collection, four definite months belonging to two seasons’ winter and summer were considered. A total of 48 urine and faecal samples were collected from both male and female hog deer. Seasonal fluctuations have been found to have a significant impact on faecal and urinary cortisol levels. Higher cortisol levels were found in both male and female hog deer in the summer season at all three visited sites. Fluctuations in environmental exposure at three research sites had a significant impact on faecal and urinary cortisol levels. Higher levels of cortisol were found in both male and female hog deer at Jallo park and Lahore Zoo, as compared to Safari Zoo. It was concluded that lower cortisol levels at Safari Zoo might be due to better environmental conditions and more flexible enclosure size and interaction of various species of deer. Temperature affected hog deer cortisol levels in summer, as higher levels were measured in summer compared to winter. In addition, sex did not predict any stress levels in hog deer. It has been suggested that a large enclosure size can control levels of cortisol in hog deer.
... Hog deer (Axis porcinus) were once widespread in temporal floodplains and wet grasslands near rivers throughout most of lowland Southeast Asia (Biswas and Mathur 2000;Odden et al. 2005;Maxwell et al. 2006), mainly feeding on grasses (Francis and Barrett 2008). During the last two decades, numbers collapsed due to poaching, habitat loss and wildlife trade (Brook et al. 2015;Timmins et al. 2015), resulting in the species being categorized as Endangered by the IUCN (Timmins et al. 2015). Hog deer's widespread disappearance has further ecological consequences as it is an important prey species for tiger (Panthera tigris) (Støen and Wegge 1996). ...
... van Berkel et al.), and loss of the few remaining patches of tall grassland will undoubtedly lead to local hog deer extinction within decades. Since the area harbours one (and probably the largest) of the only two known populations of A. p. annamiticus in Cambodia (Brook et al. 2015), we believe that conservation efforts in this region need acute reinforcement. Efforts should include strict preservation of remaining prime habitat, raising local and regional awareness, restricting dog presence in the habitat and frequent patrolling to actively safeguard all conservation measures. ...
Hog deer (Axis porcinus) were once widespread throughout much of lowland Southern Asia, but numbers rapidly declined during the last two decades. In Cambodia, the species was considered extinct until 2006 when a small number of individuals (presumedly spp. annamiticus) was rediscovered along the western bank of the Mekong River, near Kratie. Since reliable data on this population are lacking, we conducted two camera trap surveys to investigate hog deer habitat use, activity patterns and density. In the first survey, camera traps were placed in a random regular grid covering all main habitat types in the region, enabling us to verify hog deer presence/absence and identify habitat use. We found that hog deer were confined to a remnant patch of tall moist grassland of approximately 2 km2, at least in the dry season. The follow-up survey was conducted exclusively in this tall grassland patch, in which we estimated hog deer activity patterns and density using kernel density estimation and a simplified version of the random encounter model (REM). Cameras were active for a total of 1770 camera trap days, during which 609 independent hog deer encounters were recorded. Density was estimated to be 41.8 (CI: 37.93–45.72) individuals km−2, equating to an estimated abundance of 84 individuals. Hog deer activity was mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. We conclude that the recently rediscovered hog deer population in Kratie province is extremely vulnerable to extinction due to its small size and its complete dependency on a tiny remnant patch of core habitat. Conservation and restoration actions to preserve and restore prime habitat are urgently required to prevent local extinction.
... Furthermore, following these introductions to Australia, a new subspecies of hog deer was described in South-East Asia, the Indochinese hog deer (Axis porcinus annamiticus: Heude 1888). Today, this subspecies is considered critically endangered and occurs in isolated populations in Cambodia and Thailand; however, in the past its distribution was more widespread (Brook, Nask, & Channa, 2015;Maxwell, Nareth, Kong, Timmins, & Duckworth, 2006). Hunters in Victoria have also previously reported two distinct "forms" of hog deer found throughout Gippsland, with one form described as being smaller with a stockier build (Bentley, 1978). ...
... The mitochondrial D-loop region was discovered to be monomorphic within the Victorian hog deer population, suggesting that the diversity at this region of the mitochondrial genome is very low. Similar findings have been reported for other species introduced to Australia belonging to the Order Artiodactyla; mitochondrial analysis of Banteng revealed that this species was monomorphic at one mitochondrial gene and two nuclear genes (Bradshaw et al., 2006), and analysis of the D-loop of Australian populations of dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) revealed only 13 haplotypes, which was considered low by the authors as the founder size of dromedary camels was <5,000 individuals, and their population size is now considered to be greater than 1 million animals (Spencer et al., 2012 (Brook et al., 2015;Humphrey & Bain, 1990;Maxwell et al., 2006). These distinct annamiticus haplotype differences between Cambodia and Thailand warrant further research to ascertain whether the Cambodian A. p. annamiticus haplotype is distributed elsewhere and is in need of conservation intervention. ...
Abstract In Australia, many species have been introduced that have since undergone drastic declines in their native range. One species of note is the hog deer (Axis porcinus) which was introduced in the 1860s to Victoria, Australia, and has since become endangered in its native range throughout South‐East Asia. There is increased interest in using non‐native populations as a source for genetic rescue; however, considerations need to be made of the genetic suitability of the non‐native population. Three mitochondrial markers and two nuclear markers were sequenced to assess the genetic variation of the Victorian population of hog deer, which identified that the Victorian population has hybrid origins with the closely related chital (Axis axis), a species that is no longer present in the wild in Victoria. In addition, the mitochondrial D‐loop region within the Victorian hog deer is monomorphic, demonstrating that mitochondrial genetic diversity is very low within this population. This study is the first to report of long‐term persistence of hog deer and chital hybrids in a wild setting, and the continual survival of this population suggests that hybrids of these two species are fertile. Despite the newly discovered hybrid status in Victorian hog deer, this population may still be beneficial for future translocations within the native range. However, more in‐depth analysis of genetic diversity within the Victorian hog deer population and investigation of hybridization rates within the native range are necessary before translocations are attempted.
... Cervinae, and Genus: Axis, was once widely distributed across South and Southeast Asia (Brook et al., 2015). However, in 2008, it was categorized as an endangered species by the IUCN Timmins et al., (2015) and protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. ...
The Hog deer (Axis porcinus) was known to inhabit the Yamuna floodplains of Delhi but became locally extinct due to the degradation of its characteristic habitats. A systematic restoration of floodplain wetlands, forest communities, and grasslands in the Yamuna Biodiversity Park of Delhi has led to the return of many species of animals, including the Hog deer.
... This subspecies distributes 275 in South China, Thailand, and Cambodia, formerly also Laos and Vietnam but may be extinct there now (Timmins et al., 2015). The truly native population is small in Cambodia (Maxwell et al., 2007;Brook et al., 2015), it may be problematic to reintroduce individuals but simultaneously promising for the global conservation of Hog deer. The Nanting river basin will be the potential sites of the reintroduction of 280 Hog Deer, and a conservation breeding program should be considered. ...
We investigated the distributional range and population status of Hog deer through two-year camera trapping in Southwestern Yunnan Province and found that Hog deer have been extirpated from China due to habitat loss and illegal hunting. We recommend establishing a protected area in Nanting river watershed, to restore habitat and to reintroduce individuals from range of countries as the conservation priorities of the Regionally Extinct Hog Deer in China.
... A small and fragmented population of A. p. annamiticus is known to be found in Cambodia. This is presumed to be its last known wild stock 4,16,17 . Due to the bleak distribution of A. p. annamiticus, the western limit of its range could not be identified properly. ...
The population of the globally endangered hog deer (Axis porcinus) has declined severely across its geographic range. Intensive monitoring of its demographic and genetic status is necessary. Northeast India is a stronghold of the species; however, in recent years the population has been getting fragmented, and it is vulnerable to extinction. We examined the demographic and genetic structure of a small hog deer population in the floating meadows of Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), located on the western fringe of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot for conservation planning. We used a double-observer distance sampling method to derive the hog deer abundance and population structure. We also derived the genetic diversity of the population through microsatellite screening and bottleneck detection. Our study revealed that the abundance of the deer in the park was 1.82–4.32 individuals/km2. The adult male to female ratio and fawn to doe ratio were 36.2 ± 1.9 males/100 females and 16.5 ± 0.4 fawns/100 females, respectively. The mean number of alleles at 23 loci was 2.70 ± 0.18, the observed heterozygosity (HO) ranged from 0.26 to 0.63 (mean 0.42 ± 0.02), the expected heterozygosity (HE) ranged from 0.23 to 0.73 (χ = 0.51 ± 0.03), and the polymorphic information content (PIC) ranged from 0.2 to 0.67 (χ = 0.43 ± 0.03). The observed allelic distribution reveals that the population has not encountered any genetic bottleneck in the recent past. Although the population is declining, it still retains some rare alleles, and the genetic diversity is 50%. This diversity will probably not affect the short-term population growth but may affect the evolutionary potential by limiting the selection flexibility. Conservation measures coupled with a scientifically sound management regime may help the persistence of the population in the region at a time when the population still retains rare alleles and maintains reproductive fitness.
Habitat loss and degradation are currently the main anthropogenic causes of species extinctions. The root cause is human overpopulation. This unique volume provides, for the very first time, a comprehensive overview of all threatened and recently extinct mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes within the context of their locations and habitats. The approach takes a systematic examination of each biogeographic realm and region of the world, both terrestrial and marine, but with a particular emphasis on geographic features such as mountains, islands, and coral reefs. It reveals patterns useful in biodiversity conservation, helps to put it all into perspective, and ultimately serves as both a baseline from which to compare subsequent developments as well as a standardization of the way threatened species are studied.
The hog deer Axis porcinus formerly occurred in south-west China but has not been recorded there since 1965. To investigate the current status of the species in China, we conducted interviews, and transect and camera-trap surveys during October 2018–June 2020 to search for signs of hog deer across its historical range in the country. We interviewed 50 local inhabitants and surveyed 14 line transects in four counties of Lincang City, Yunnan Province. The camera traps were deployed in Nangunhe Nature Reserve (39.4 km of transects, 82 camera stations, 15,120 camera days) and Daxueshan Nature Reserve (41.1 km of transects, 68 camera stations, 13,554 camera days). We found no hog deer tracks and no hog deer were trapped by cameras. The floodplain grasslands preferred by hog deer along Nanting River have been transformed into agriculture plantations and human settlements. Our findings suggest that hog deer may have been extirpated from China, most likely as a result of habitat loss and overhunting. The conservation priorities for this species in China are the establishment of a protected area in the Nanting River watershed, restoration of habitat and reintroduction of individuals from range countries.
The energetic costs and the risk of injury in agonistic encounters can be reduced by prior assessment of opponents: it will generally pay low quality animals to avoid combat with one of high quality. Following this principle it is suggested that territory owners scent mark their territories to provide intruders with a means of assessment. When the odour of a competitor, or of a scent mark it is seen to have made, matches that of scent marks encountered in the vicinity, then the competitor is probably the territory owner. Since owners are generally high qualitv animals, and assuming they have more to gain by retaining a territory than an intruder has in taking it over, it will pay the owner to escalate and the intruder to give up early. The advantage to owners in markinq may thus be that by allowing themselves to be identified they reduce the costs of territory defence. Published information on the behavior of territory owners and intruders is consistent with predictions from this hypothesis. The hypothesis offers an explanation for a number of poorly understood behaviours including 'self-anointing' and scent markinig during agonistic encounters.
Los requerimientos energéticos de un animal dependen de su metabolismo basal, actividad y estado fisiológico. Se desconoce como es el gasto energético del venado cola blanca texano en zonas áridas y semiáridas. Por lo tanto es importante conocer como responden los individuos a los cambios en su ambiente, derivados principalmente de los cambios por la precipitación a lo largo del tiempo que afecta al alimento y la cobertura. Se analiza el gasto energético del venado cola blanca texano y su variación de acuerdo al tipo de comportamiento, sexo, época y año en el noreste de México. Este trabajo fue realizado en el Rancho San Francisco y en el Rancho Peñitas, en los Municipios de Lampazos, Nuevo León y Progreso, Coahuila, México. Se utilizó radiotelemetría siguiendo 10 machos y 14 hembras de venado (con collares con sensor de actividad) desde 1995 a 1998. Se pudieron registrar tres actividades principales: alimentación, desplazamiento y descanso. Se encontraron diferencias significativas entre las tres pautas de comportamiento, el mayor gasto ocurre con el descanso. La interacción época-año, y entre sexos solamente hubo diferencias en la pauta de alimentación. El gasto energético del venado cola blanca en zonas áridas si difiere entre sexos ya que los machos gastaron más energía (1726 ± 38 kcal/día/individuo) que las hembras (1556 ± 35 kcal/día/individuo). Los venados tuvieron un menor gasto energético para alimentarse y moverse en los años con condiciones de sequía más severa como 1995 y 1996, cuando el alimento es más escaso, lo que indica que los venados en estas zonas áridas tienen una estrategia conductual para tratar de ahorrar energía cuando las condiciones ambientales son desfavorables. Aunque en años secos como 1995 los venados gastan energía para actividades fundamentales como es la reproducción. Palabras Clave: energética, época fisiológica, metabolismo, pautas de actividad, radiotelemetría, México.
For Odocoileus virginianus on the George Reserve, Michigan, mean percent of time active for both sexes peaked in spring and fall with a pronounced low in January and February and a moderate low in June and July. Females were significantly more active than males during January through June. This seasonal pattern, and differences by sex, were consistent with seasonal and sexual differences in metabolic demand relative to food resources. During most months, deer exhibited a diel activity pattern with peaks at sunset and just after sunrise. The sexes did not differ in diel patterns except during September and October when males were more active at night and females more active by day. Deer activity decreased with snow depth, even at slight snow depths, probably because of changes in food availability. Deer activity was maximum at 6-16°C and decreased at both higher and lower temperatures. Effects of temperature varied with time of day, season, cloud cover, wind speed, and habitat. There were no marked shifts in use of vegetation types among spring, summer and fall. Winter habitat use differed strongly from that in the other 3 seasons, with grasslands, swamps and bogs used more and closed forests used less than during other seasons. Weather variables influenced habitat use only during winter. Increased use of swamps and decreased use of closed forests, open woodlands, and grasslands were associated with increasing snow depth. Swamps may facilitate deer aggregation to reduce the risk of predation under deep snow conditions. Deer used closed vegetation types during daytime and open types at dusk, night and dawn. Males made greater use of closed forests, females of open woodlands and grassland. Seasonal home ranges on the George Reserve (males 142 ha; females 45 ha) were smaller than reported elsewhere, probably because of high interspersion of habitat types. -from Authors
Revista Boliviana de Ecología y Conservación Ambiental
Tom Peake graduated from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne in 1993 with an honors degree in Zoology. He obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham in 1997, studying the potential for analysis of bird vocalization to provide information useful for conservation efforts. In 1998, he moved to the University of Copenhagen, where he has worked mainly on communication networks in birds and fish.
We monitored activity, mobility, and home ranges of female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) at the National Zoo's Conservation and Research Center (CRC), Front Royal, Virginia during the 1983 breeding season to determine how they contributed to the formation of tending bonds. Females continuously decreased their rates of activity (P = 0.02) and mobility (P = 0.02) from prerut until postrut. Females did not increase their activity or mobility rates while tending bonds were formed. Home-range sizes ranged from 0.068 km2 during the middle of the rut to 0.276 km2 at the end of the rut. Shortly before females were tended by males, they spent more time in the core areas of their home ranges than expected from their normal movement patterns (P = 0.001).