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Equitation Science
Abstract
Preface
This is a book for horse industry personnel, and indeed everyone who spends time with horses and ponies. It will help to ensure that humane, proficient horsemanship becomes more prevalent.
Many equine scientists, veterinarians, ethologists and behaviour therapists share the view that the current lack of science in equitation contributes to the prevalence of undesirable equine behaviours with human-related causes. The number of horses worldwide is large and growing. As a consequence, there is an increasing number of horse-owners, many of whom are new to horse-keeping, with little knowledge of how to train their animal. This has led to a rise in the number of associated horse-welfare problems culminating in high wastage rates. Such problems reflect the uninformed practices, poor training techniques, inappropriate use of training equipment and, in some cases, inhumane handling of horses. In addition, horse-related injuries are a major public health concern, with most occurring while the rider is mounted. Death rates from horse-related injuries are in the vicinity of one death per million head of population and in terms of injuries, horse-riding is more dangerous than motorcycle sports and equally as dangerous as rugby. Improving riders’ understanding of horse behaviour and subsequently reducing the number of ‘conflict behaviours’ horses develop will reduce the prevalence of such accidents. Furthermore, the increasing profile of ‘Natural Horsemanship’ and ‘horse whisperers’ has made horse industry personnel question some traditional practices, prompted them to consider how novel techniques operate and to question how the language relating to horse-training and riding relates to what is known through psychology, ethology and veterinary science. This book helps them in all of these three endeavours.
The title introduces ‘Equitation Science’, an emerging discipline that aims to provide an understanding of the behavioural mechanisms that underpin the human–horse interface. Equitation science is the measurement and interpretation of interactions between horses and their riders. Our book describes the first equine-training system that is totally based on what is referred to in the behavioural sciences as ‘learning theory’. This system explains training at all levels in a refreshingly simple, logical and illuminating way. The objective measurement of variables is important, so this book explains from first principles traditional and novel techniques to reveal what works, what does not, and why. Most importantly, it also explores the welfare consequences of training and competing with horses under different disciplines.
In contrast to the latest generation of horse whisperers, advocates of Equitation Science are not commercial purveyors of techniques, training certificates or merchandise. Equitation science has an extremely promising future since it is more humble, global, accessible and accurate, and less denominational, commercial, open to interpretation and misinterpretation than any formulaic approach. It has the potential to be the most enduring of all approaches used to train the horse.
The authors offer unique perspectives by being able to combine tertiary qualifications in veterinary medicine (PM), ethology (PM), zoology (AM), comparative cognition (AM) and animal welfare (PM) with significant experience in animal-training (AM & PM), elite equestrian competition (AM), clinical behaviour modification (AM & PM) and coaching (AM & PM).
Acknowledgements
We wish to acknowledge the tremendous support we have received over many years from our colleagues in academe and the horse industry. Early attempts to apply learning theory to horse training were made by AM (Horse Training the McLean Way) and PM (Why does my horse...?). Since then, the emerging discipline of Equitation Science developed rapidly following discussions between Debbie Goodwin, Natalie Waran and PM following the Havemeyer Foundation Workshop on Horse Behavior and Welfare in Iceland in 2002.
The first workshop on Equitation Science was held at the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh in 2004 where AM gave practical demonstrations of the application of ‘learning theory’ in-hand and under-saddle. As a result of the interest of approximately 30 equine scientists at this workshop, it was decided to launch the first symposium in Equitation Science at the Australian Equine Behaviour Centre the following year. Further symposia followed in Milan (2006), Michigan (2007) and Dublin (2008). In addition to the above-named colleagues, those who made notable contributions to the eventual establishment of the current International Society for Equitation Science (ISES) include Machteld van Dierendonck, Carol Hall, Elke Hartman, Michela Minero, Jack Murphy, Hayley Randle, Camie Heleski, Amanda Warren-Smith, Kathalijne Visser and Lisa Beard.
The formation of the ISES is a great step forward for horses and is a direct result of the growing worldwide interest in this area by equine scientists and equestrian professionals alike. The equestrians that we wish to acknowledge include Portland Jones, Manuela McLean, Jody Hartstone, Anjanette Harten, Warwick McLean and Niki Stuart
For their help with the current text, we wish to thank Bob Boakes, Hilary Clayton, Debbie Goodwin, Carol Hall, Camie Heleski, Machteld van Dierendonck, Katherine Houpt, Kathalijne Visser, Jan Ladewig, Leo Jeffcott, Daniel Mills, Jack Murphy, Niki Stuart, Julie Taylor, Natalie Waran, Amanda Warren-Smith and Mari Zetterquist-Blokhuis; all of whom reviewed at least one chapter each. Lynn Cole, Portland Jones, Lesley Hawson and Catherine Oddie gave invaluable advice on each chapter. Further editorial assistance was provided by Joseph Le Doux, Pierre Malou, Nicola Drabble, Laura Payne and Danielle McBain. The tables that appear in Chapter 3 are drawn from a paper co-written with Catherine Oddie and Francis Burton.
Photographs were supplied by Manuela McLean, Andrew McLean, Elke Hartmann, Julie, Wilson, Julie Taylor, Christine Hauschildt, Amelia Martin, Minna Tallberg, Philippe Karl, Sandy Hannan, Amanda Warren-Smith, Greg Jones, Pierre Malou, Sandra Jorgensen, Christine Hauschildt, David Faloun, Georgia Bruce, Roz Neave, Susan Kjaergard, Portland Jones, Carol Willcocks, Becky Whay and Eric Palmer. The book is not a manual and is not intended to endorse any particular gear or technique. This may explain the representations of horses on the cover. While we have made every possible effort to contact the rights owners of other images used in this book, there have been cases where it has not been possible to trace the relevant parties. If you believe that you are the owner of an image or images used in this book and we have not contacted you prior to publication, please contact us via the publisher.
... Much of the behavioral research that has been done with equids has focused on social learning (Krueger et al. 2014;Rørvang et al. 2015), cognition and perception (Gabor and Gerken 2010;Hanggi 2005;Matsuzawa 2017;Osthaus et al. 2013; for a review see Brubaker and Udell 2016), and reinforcement (Leblanc and Duncan 2007). Equine cognition studies, however, rarely have been conducted in typical, dynamic training environments (Cooper 2007;McGreevy and McLean 2010). This is a known issue with academic research, and, on the flip side, scholars have lamented the dearth of learning theory knowledge among most equine practitioners (Creighton 2007;Ladewig 2007;McCall 2007). ...
... The experimental obstacle including ground component that needed to be stepped over as well as a hanging tarp that moved freely above the horses as they crossed. The horse with hypothesis-naïve rider is in the process of one crossing on the task where learning criterion for success was completing eight crossings in a single session was approaching the obstacle (McLean 2005;McGreevy and McLean 2010). The ground researcher timed the training sessions and directed the rider when to start and stop each work and rest period. ...
This field experiment examined whether the well-documented benefit of spaced over massed training for humans and other animals generalizes to horses. Twenty-nine randomly selected horses ( Equus ferus caballus ) repeatedly encountered a novel obstacle-crossing task while under saddle. Horses were randomly assigned to the spaced-training condition (2 min work, 2 min rest, 2 min work, 2 min rest) or the massed-training condition (4 min work, 4 min rest). Total training time per session and total rest per session were held constant. Days between sessions ( M = 3) were held as consistent as possible given the constraints of conducting research on a working ranch and safety–threatening weather conditions. During each training session, the same hypothesis-naïve rider shaped horses to cross a novel obstacle. Fifteen of 16 horses in the spaced-training condition reached performance criterion (94% success) while only 5 of 13 horses in the massed-training condition reached performance criterion (39% success). Horses in the spaced-training condition also initiated their first obstacle-crossing faster than horses in the massed-training condition and were faster at completing eight crossings than horses in the massed-training condition. Overall, task acquisition was higher for horses undergoing spaced training despite both groups experiencing the same total work and rest time per session. These findings generalize the learning-performance benefit observed in human spaced practice to horses and offer applied benefit to equine training.
... When an event involves multiple species as active participants this has implications in terms of site design, safety and use. Horses are large and at times unpredictable animals (McGreevy & McLean, 2010), and so any event that involves large numbers of horses needs to take special account of how the interactions between humans and horses take place in ways to ensure safety, comfort and ease for human and equine participants. Riding is a so-called risk activity, and event organisers need to be prepared for accidents to either horse and/or rider, which could involve serious injury. ...
... On an international level, there are currently serious issues to do with horse welfare affecting endurance riding and events (Horsetalk, 2019). This is set in an over-arching discussion of what 'proper' horse management and riding might entail (McGreevy & McLean, 2010;Tellington-Jones, 2006), and indicates an additional level of complexity to multispecies events, not to mention a moral imperative to consider the experiences of nonhuman animals we involve in our leisure events and practices. ...
Events are all about experiences, and event managers and designers are encouraged to explore innovative and creative ways to engage and excite customers, creating satisfaction and loyalty. These experiences are not always solely human phenomena, although event studies as an academic field has yet to acknowledge this multispecies aspect and remains firmly anthropocentric. In this paper, we introduce more-than-human perspectives to event studies to illustrate how moving beyond humanist paradigms can open up alternative insights and add to the richness of understanding about event experiences. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork conducted at equestrian ‘endurance riding’ events both in the UK and Australia, we apply a multispecies lens to the investigation of event experiences. In equestrian events, the experiences of human participants are profoundly shaped by those of the equine participants, and the interactions between the two. Endurance riding offers an interesting example of one ‘contact zone’ between human and nonhuman, as horse and human work together to create sporting performance, travelling through varied landscapes and environments. In such ways, horses are co-creators of event experiences, actively shaping and helping create those encounters, whether they be memorable or mundane. By decentring human experience, more-than-human perspectives open up possibilities for exploring and understanding the richness of event experiences that involve multiple actors and species.
... Each of these individuals had participated in a range of equine assisted learning and therapy workshops and trainings. While activities varied from week to week and were based on principles of equitation science (25) and natural horsemanship, the curriculum was not situated in one particular field or perspective. Various underlying principles from the aforementioned models were combined with those based on the developmental stress system literature, or leg until the desired behavior or the equine is fulfilled (i.e., moving away from the pressure). ...
This study examined associations between adolescents' (N = 59; Mage = 11.63) diurnal and momentary activity of the Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) axis as marked by salivary cortisol, and affective and behavioral responses to their first, mounted equine assisted learning (EAL) activity. The introduction to riding occurred during the fifth week of an 11-week EAL program for at-risk and typically developing adolescents. Before the 11-week program began, participants collected 6 salivary cortisol samples at prescribed times (wakeup, 4 p.m., bedtime) over 2 days, from which indices of diurnal cortisol activity were derived. Six weeks later, on the day of their first mounted activity in week five, participants provided three salivary cortisol samples, reflecting their basal cortisol level at the end of their regular school day, and their cortisol levels linked to the beginning and end of their first ride. Participants reported on positive and negative emotion immediately before mounting the horse, and immediately after dismounting, using an 11-item survey. Using a 43-item checklist, three independent observers rated participants' behavior throughout the 90-min session. Regression analyses showed that adolescents with higher cortisol levels immediately before mounting reported higher levels of negative emotion (B = 0.350, p = 0.041) and lower levels of positive emotion (B = −0.697, p = 0.013), while basal levels and potential dysregulation of cortisol diurnal patterns were controlled. Greater cortisol reactivity in response to 10 min of riding was linked to higher negative (B = 2.95, p = 0.001), and lower positive emotion (B = −3.73, p = 0.007) after dismounting. Higher levels of pre-ride negative emotion (B = 5.50, p = 0.046), and lower levels of post-ride positive emotion (B = −5.17, p = 0.027), and an increase in cortisol reactivity in response to riding (B = 0.242, p = 0.049), predicted higher levels of negative behavior during the 90-min session that day. These findings show that participants' HPA axis activity informs their program experience and behavior. Results suggest that EAL facilitators need to employ strategies to down regulate adolescents' physiological and affective arousal during mounted sessions to prevent and redirect negative behavior.
Horses' muscular tension during acute stress remains unexplored. Our aim was to assess muscular, behavioral, cortisol, and hematocrit responses to social isolation (ISO), novel object exposure (NOV), and sham clipping (CLIP). Altered stress responses were expected. Eight mature Standardbred horses (four mares and four geldings) were exposed to acute stressors and a control period (CON) in a balanced, replicated 4×4 Latin Square experimental design with 3 min treatment periods and 10 min washout periods. Surface electromyography collected from the masseter, brachiocephalas, cervical trapezius, and longissimus dorsi was processed to derive average rectified value (ARV) and median frequency (MF) during the initial, middle, and final 30 s of treatments. ARV and MF data were log transformed then analyzed using a mixed model, repeated measures ANOVA along with plasma cortisol and hematocrit. Behavior data were analyzed using a negative binomial distribution mixed model ANOVA. CLIP resulted in greater (p < 0.05) log ARV in the masseter (1.5 + 1.5%, mean + SD) and brachiocepahlas (2.2 + 2.0%) than CON (-1.2 + 1.4%, 0.1 + 1.5%). ISO resulted in greater (p < 0.05) log ARV in the masseter (0.2 + 1.3%) and cervical trapezius (0.6 + 1.3%) than CON (-1.2 + 1.4%, -1.0 + 1.7%). ISO increased (p < 0.05) the total number of stress-related behaviors and hematocrit. No changes in cortisol were observed. We suggest that muscular tension can be used as an indicator of acute stress in horses. Incorporating muscle activity into an array of measurements may provide a more nuanced understanding of stress responses.
Vision, hearing, olfaction, taste, and touch comprise the sensory modalities of most vertebrates. With these senses, the animal receives information about its environment. How this information is organized, interpreted, and experienced is known as perception. The study of the sensory abilities of animals and their implications for behavior is central not only to ethology but also to animal welfare. Sensory ability, perception, and behavior are closely linked. Horses and humans share the five most common sensory modalities, however, their ranges and capacities differ, so that horses are unlikely to perceive their surroundings in a similar manner to humans. Understanding equine perceptual abilities and their differences is important when horses and human interact, as these abilities are pivotal for the response of the horse to any changes in its surroundings. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge on the sensory abilities of horses. The information is discussed within an evolutionary context and also includes a practical perspective, outlining potential ways to mitigate risks of injuries and enhance positive horse-human interactions. The equine sensory apparatus includes panoramic visual capacities with acuities similar to those of red-green color-blind humans as well as aural abilities that, in some respects exceed human hearing and a highly developed sense of smell, all of which influence how horses react in various situations. Equine sensitivity to touch has been studied surprisingly sparingly despite tactile stimulation being the major interface of horse training. We discuss the potential use of sensory enrichment/positive sensory stimulation to improve the welfare of horses in various situations e.g. using odors, touch or sound to enrich the environment or to appease horses. In addition, equine perception is affected by factors such as breed, individuality, age, and in some cases even color, emphasizing that different horses may need different types of management. Understanding the sensory abilities of horses is central to the emerging discipline of equitation science, which comprises the gamut of horse-human interactions. Therefore, sensory abilities continue to warrant scientific focus, with more research to enable us to understand different horses and their various needs.
Despite the considerable risk of veterinary occupational injury due to adverse horse behaviour, limited information is available about the prevalence of unwanted equine behaviours or common approaches to managing them. An understanding of learning theory may affect veterinarians’ approaches to dealing with unwanted equine behaviours; however, learning theory is not widely taught. The aim of this study was to document the challenges equine veterinarians face when working with difficult horses and define their approaches to managing them, including their understanding of the processes through which horses learn. A link to an online survey was distributed via email amongst UK equine veterinarians. Descriptive and Kruskal–Wallis statistical analyses were performed. We found that 95% of equine veterinarians reported working with difficult horses on at least a monthly basis, resulting in 81% of them sustaining at least one injury in the last 5 years. The most popular methods of dealing with unwanted behaviours were physical and chemical restraint. 46% of those surveyed had never received any tuition on the processes through which horses learn. Despite 79% believing they had at least a moderate understanding of equine learning theory, they performed poorly when tested, with only 10% able to get at least five out of six questions correct. Further education on the subject of learning theory may be beneficial.
In the horse, inappropriate management and training, as well as pain, frustration, fear and anxiety can result in undesirable behaviours. Common undesirable behaviours include pawing, striking, rearing, kicking, bolting, bucking, shying, napping, freezing, biting and bite threats, as well as a range of oral and locomotive stereotypic behaviours. Many of these behaviours are dangerous for the human handlers and can be unhealthy and harmful for the horse; for safety and welfare reasons, they must be rapidly addressed. An online survey was completed by 943 horse industry participants from 31 countries. The survey was conducted to gain greater insight into the perceived prevalence of undesirable behaviours in horses; options considered in the management of horses displaying undesirable behaviours; attitudes towards the use of prescription and over‐the‐counter (OTC) behaviour‐modifying agents; and owner attitudes towards the role of veterinarians and equine behaviourists. The results of this survey suggest that undesirable behaviours are common. Agents with a nonspecific sedating effect were the most common agents suggested by veterinarians and used by horse‐owners. Horse‐owners indicated a greater use of α2 agonists for the management of undesirable behaviours associated with riding horses. Many owners in this survey indicated they would consider seeking advice from veterinarians (83.2%) and behaviourists (58.0%) if they had a horse that was ‘consistently difficult or uncooperative to handle or ride’. The majority (97.3%) of nonveterinarian equine behaviourists would seek the input of a veterinarian to investigate physical causes for undesirable horse behaviour. Twenty‐two percent of veterinarians would refer a case to a behaviour expert to address the behavioural component, whilst most veterinarians (77.6%) would devise a behaviour modification and retraining programme themselves. It is hoped that information from this survey can be used to improve existing horse management practices and have a positive impact on animal welfare.
Domestic horses are equid members of the class Mammalia, order Perissodactyla, and family Equidae. Horses are obligate herbivores, with nutritional requirements as listed in a table. Adequate space is necessary for exercise, exploration, flight, sharing resources, play, and rolling. Company is essential for all horses, including stallions. Company provides opportunities for mutual grooming and play and allows horses to stand head‐to‐tail to remove flies. Unhandled horses may respond to humans as they would to predators, whereas handled horses' responses depend on their previous interactions with humans. Horses can suffer from several diseases as listed in another table. The best method of euthanasia of horses is usually sedation followed by either cranial shooting or the injection of an overdose of pentobarbitone into the jugular vein. Behavioural signs of distress can include increased locomotory activity, vigilance behaviours, neighing, snorting, pawing, nibbling walls and buckets, defaecation, rearing, kicking stable walls or doors, and high‐stepping 'prancing'.
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