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Trees and Livelihoods in
Karamoja, Uganda
Anthony Egeru, Clement Okia and
Jan de Leeuw
December 2014
This report has been produced by the World Agroforestry Centre for Evidence on Demand
with the assistance of the UK Department for International Development (DFID) contracted
through the Climate, Environment, Infrastructure and Livelihoods Professional Evidence and
Applied Knowledge Services (CEIL PEAKS) programme, jointly managed by DAI (which
incorporates HTSPE Limited) and IMC Worldwide Limited.
The views expressed in the report are entirely those of the author and do not necessarily
represent DFID’s own views or policies, or those of Evidence on Demand. Comments and
discussion on items related to content and opinion should be addressed to the author, via
enquiries@evidenceondemand.org
Your feedback helps us ensure the quality and usefulness of all knowledge products. Please
email enquiries@evidenceondemand.org and let us know whether or not you have found
this material useful; in what ways it has helped build your knowledge base and informed your
work; or how it could be improved.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12774/eod_hd.december2014.egeruaetal
First published February 2015
© CROWN COPYRIGHT
Trees forming bushlands that provide
hunting grounds for young people and
trees shielding a water pan in
Nadunget Moroto district.
i
Contents
Executive Summary ................................................................................................... iii
SECTION 1................................................................................................ 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ........................................................................................... 1
1.2 Approach used in the review ................................................................. 3
1.3 Limitations of this review ....................................................................... 3
1.4 Understanding Karamoja as complex problem terrain .......................... 3
SECTION 2................................................................................................ 5
Tree benefits, role in resilience and threats in Karamoja ............................................ 5
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Provisioning services ................................................................. 5
2.1.2 Regulating services .................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Supporting services .................................................................... 7
2.1.4 Cultural services ......................................................................... 7
2.1.5 Role of Trees Portrait in Karamoja ............................................. 8
2.2 Role of trees in resilience in Karamoja................................................ 11
2.2.1 Contribution to resilience building ............................................ 11
2.2.2 Role of trees in agricultural production in Karamoja ................. 13
2.2.3 Traditional knowledge of trees in Karamoja ............................. 14
2.3 Threats to trees in Karamoja ............................................................... 14
SECTION 3.............................................................................................. 17
Tree based initiatives in Karamoja ........................................................................... 17
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 17
3.2 Tree-based initiatives in Karamoja ...................................................... 17
SECTION 4.............................................................................................. 20
Options for research and action in Karamoja ........................................................... 20
4.1 Opportunities for research .................................................................. 20
4.2 Options for Action ............................................................................... 22
Selected Annotated Bibliography ................................................................... 24
References ............................................................................................................... 29
List of Figures
Figure 1 Karamoja’s three livelihood zones ........................................................................... 1
List of Tables
Table 1 List of tree-based initiatives and actors in Karamoja sub-region ............................. 19
iii
Executive Summary
This report presents results of a rapid desk review of academic and grey literature on the
evidence relating to trees and livelihoods in Karamoja a region in north eastern Uganda. The
review identified the range of problems in the Karamoja sub-region; benefits of trees to
people and communities living in Karamoja; the role of trees in resilience building; role of
trees in agricultural production, traditional knowledge of trees in Karamoja; threats to trees,
drivers of development in Karamoja; tree-based initiatives in the sub-region; and
opportunities for action research in Karamoja. Using their experiences in the Karamoja sub-
region and other similar ecosystems in Africa, the authors provide insights of the contribution
of trees to livelihoods in Karamoja.
Karamoja sub-region is a semi-humid to semi-arid sub-region in north eastern Uganda
covering approximately 27,200 km2. It has a complex range of problems including: historical
injustices, misconceptions of the sub-region and its people, poor infrastructure climate
variability and change, existence of several agricultural risks, weather based vagaries, low
agricultural productivity, a declining pastoral production system, increasing environmental
degradation orchestrated by a number of mal-adaptations, and poor performance of the
region with respect to development indicators as compared to other parts of Uganda.
The climate in Karamoja sub-region is generally harsh with high rainfall variability and high
evapotranspiration. The sub-region’s rainfall regime ranges between 350-1000 mm per
annum. This precipitation is usually sporadic and falls in one rainy season. The sub-region
generally suffers from poor rainfall distribution rather than from low rainfall totals. However, it
is the intensity and the variability, particularly the existence of sporadic intense wet periods
followed by drought events that has always had debilitating impacts on the sub-region.
There is wide evidence to suggest that trees provide a range of services and benefits to the
people and communities living in Karamoja. Following the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (http://www.millenniumassessment.org) analysis, these are categorised into
four sub-groups: provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services.
This review reveals that the Karamojong1 derive a wide number of herbs and medicinal
products for humans and livestock from trees. Consequently, the Karamojong have high
levels of ethnopharmacological and enthanoveterinary knowledge. Firewood, charcoal,
building materials, gums, resins and extractives are also harvested from different tree
species within the sub-region. Further, trees provide forage and browse to livestock during
both dry and rainy seasons. Browse is particularly important during the dry seasons when
acacia pods are utilised.
The trees in the sub-region act as wind breaks against the strong winds that emerge from
the Turkana plains in Kenya; trees also help to control soil and water erosion. In places
where trees have been cleared, soil erosion is strongly evident, developing into gullies.
1 ‘Karamojong’ is a generic word used to describe the people of Karamoja sub-region. In its
depth however, it refers to the dominant plain dwelling people of Karamoja. The Karamojong
comprise five distinct Nilotic peoples (Karimojong-Matheniko, Pian and Bokora, Dodoth, Jie,
Labwor and Pokot) in the plains and five small Kuliak groups (Tepeth, Kadam, Ik-Tueso,
Nyangia and Mening) found along the mountains whose languages are unique and
unintelligible to the broader Karamojong. Despite generally being considered as part of the
Karamojong, the Pokot are however distinct. This is because they belong to the Southern
Nilotic with a close linkage to the Kalenjin sub-group.
iv
Trees in Karamoja help in soil fertility management as well as being important in early
warning through their phenological characteristics. In addition, the literature shows that trees
help conserve biodiversity, preserve cultural heritage, and promote peace in the sub-region.
These and a range of other benefits are similarly considered as potential components in
building the resilience of households and communities in Karamoja sub-region.
This review also notes that trees in Karamoja are under pressure. Threats include;
expansion of export-oriented charcoal and firewood from the sub-region; expansion of
cropland (especially encroaching into bushland/woody vegetation) to increase production;
and the breakdown in traditional institutions that supported conservation. These threats and
other challenges in the sub-region have driven development actors, including government,
civil society and humanitarian agencies, to undertake tree restoration interventions in the
Karamoja sub-region. These interventions have focused on tree planting, establishing tree
nurseries, distribution of seedlings, formation of community-based organisations, and
awareness campaigns on the dangers of environmental degradation. Interventions have
generally been driven by the understanding that trees are central to human survival in
Karamoja and that loss of tree cover in a semi-arid area like Karamoja will expose it to
desertification. Some interventions have also focused on protecting and/or regenerating
existing trees in the sub-region (e.g. use of famer managed natural regeneration) given that
tree planting frequently results in low survival rates of seedlings due to harsh conditions.
The review identified opportunities for action in the sub-region geared towards strengthening
natural resource management for income generation and livestock production among others.
With regard to opportunities for research, it is recommended that attention should focus on:
agricultural risks analysis, understanding tree-crop interactions and appropriate
combinations for the sub-region, developing tree-food security ecosystems and a community
resilience framework, exploring the utilisation of nutrient and fertility islands for tree-based
systems, understanding indigenous tree management systems, and exploring eco-
hydrological connections, complexities and tree systems in the sub-region. Other areas of
research include: valuating the role of trees in soil fertility management (fertilizer trees), and
selection and cultivation of indigenous fodder species.
The review recommends that opportunities for action to include among others; rehabilitation
of degraded rangelands using enclosures to enable native regeneration; promotion of
conservation agriculture with trees; undertake community- based forestry management and
management of trees in communal lands (Parklands); and promote sustainable harvesting of
valuable indigenous tree products in Karamoja with a particular focus on gum arabica, shea
butter, khat, desert date and sandalwood. Value chains for these tree products should be
developed with emphasis to local processing by women groups and market linkages to
provide income as well as enhance biodiversity conservation. Establishment of improved
fruit orchards for mangoes, oranges and other suitable fruits should be explored.
Furthermore, the use of hydrogels to enhance tree survival and establishment should be
integrated into on-going tree planting initiatives.
Whereas this was not a comprehensive study of trees and their influence on
livelihoods of people living in Karamoja sub-region, the review reveals that
trees have a vital role in Karamoja. Because the Karamonjong generally have a
close relation to their environment, they have a wealth of knowledge of trees
and their uses. In their bid to circumvent the challenges imposed by the
intermittent drought and other associated effects, the strategies adopted by
individuals and communities threaten the existence of trees and the general
health of the rangeland upon which they so much depend on.
1
SECTION 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Livelihoods in Karamoja are changing, gradually moving away from primarily relying on
pastoralism to relying on more diversified livelihoods, whether by default, impulse and/or
orchestrated by an outside force. This diversification can be seen in the rapid adoption of
crop-based agriculture (Egeru et al., 2014a), the proliferation of artisanal mining of gold,
marble and stones (Houdet et al., 2014), and the adoption of charcoal trade and brick
making (Burns et al., 2013). The option of greater access to livestock markets, which could
be pivotal for livelihoods, is impeded by trade prohibitions imposed due to frequent disease
outbreaks (Institute for International Cooperation and Development, 2010).
Karamoja is sub-divided into three livelihood zones (Figure 1); (i) the Sub-humid Wet-
Agricultural Zone, (ii) the semi-arid Agro-Pastoral Zone, and (iii) the Arid-Pastoral Zone.
Each of these livelihood zones has defining attributes. The wet agricultural zone runs down
the western part of the sub-region and receives the highest rainfall total in the region – on
average 800 to 1200 mm per annum. The agro-pastoral zone represents the crop-livestock
mixed farming system and runs through much of central to northern Karamoja with annual
rainfall averaged at 500 to 800 mm, which is often poorly distributed. The arid-pastoral zone
occurs in the eastern part of the sub-region, covering parts of Kotido, eastern Moroto and
Amudat. This zone is characterised by variable, poorly distributed and low rainfall not
exceeding 700 mm per annum (GoU, 2009). Unlike the rest of the country, with two rainy
seasons and two planting seasons, Karamoja has only one rainy season and one planting
season (OPM, 2009). Karamoja is also characterised by high spatial-temporal variability in
rainfall with a lack of a smooth transition from one extreme event to the other (Egeru et al.,
2014b).
Figure 1 Karamoja’s three livelihood zones
2
For a considerable period of time, the perception of Karamoja within government and among
development partners was that the population is i) extremely poor, ii) has livelihoods that are
very vulnerable to frequent droughts and iii) follows pastoral livelihoods that are not viable in
the long term (Levine, 2010). Further, the sub-region has been considered as a development
challenge. Karamoja is also represented as an exceptional situation, disconnected from ‘the
rest of Uganda’ in cultural and economic terms and desperately needing to ‘catch up’ with
the rest of Uganda (Kratli, 2010). These perceptions have echoed through over the decades
from the colonial times to the present. During the colonial period, for example, the British
administration erected a sign-post at its headquarters in Moroto informing visitors that they
had reached the ‘heart of Africa’ (Akabwai and Ateyo, 2007). In the 1954 movie by Krogger
Babb, the Karamojong were portrayed as the ‘most primitive’ people ever filmed (Friedman,
1990). The British protectorate also introduced a forceful land acquisition and transfer
programme, followed by intensified exploitation apparently to control environmental
degradation caused by ‘overgrazing’. Consequently, within six years of the introduction of
the Karamoja Cattle Scheme in 1948; almost 60,000 cattle had been purchased out of
Karamoja (Mamdani, 1982). This represents part of the historical injustices and
marginalisation that the Karamojong have had to contend with since colonial times as well as
in post-Independence Uganda.
The population of Karamoja has been growing since the early 20th century. The Karamojong
constituted a small proportion of the 1,038,000 people of the northern region during the 1948
East African census (Martin, 1949). In the 1959 census, Karamoja’s population was
estimated at 171,945 people rising to 370,423 (1991 census), 723,538 (2002 census) and
988,429 in the 2014 census (UBOS, 2006; UBOS, 2014). Livestock remains a key livelihood
source in Karamoja augmented by subsistence crop cultivation. In the last Livestock Census,
Karamoja was reported to have up to 2.3 million cattle representing 19.8% of the national
cattle herd (MAAIF-UBOS, 2009). The sub-region has the highest density of cattle, sheep,
goats, donkeys and camels in Uganda (MAAIF-UBOS, 2009).
The Karamojong’s focus on livestock is often associated with poverty and backwardness.
Yet it has been shown that households in Karamoja that have livestock assets have better
food security than those that do not. According to Akabwai and Ateyo (2007) in a food
security assessment of the sub-region in 2007, approximately 70% of households in the
“food secure” category were those that owned livestock or poultry. Crop farming has been on
the rise in the last decade with a tenfold increase in subsistence farmlands (Egeru et al.,
2014a). This is despite strong evidence that livestock provides more food security than
growing crops in the semi-arid areas; the food crisis in these regions is actually a livestock
crisis (Kratli et al., 2013).
Multiple initiatives have been undertaken in Karamoja to improve food security, bring peace
and security, and build resilience of communities to climatic change and variability shocks.
The Government of Uganda (GoU) for example has undertaken a range of multi-million
dollar projects through initiatives and agencies such as: the Peace, Recovery and
Development Plan for Northern Uganda (PRDP), Karamoja Development Agency (KDA),
Northern Uganda Social Action Fund (NUSAF), Karamoja Action Plan for Food Security
(KAPFS), Karamoja Livelihoods Improvement Programme (KALIP), Agricultural Livelihoods
Rehabilitation Programme (ALREP), Karamoja Integrated Disarmament and Development
Programme (KIDDP) and the operationalisation of a fully-fledged Ministry for Karamoja
Affairs. Like in most of the pastoral regions in the Greater Horn of Africa, resilience building
is currently the major focus of both government and development and humanitarian actors in
the sub-region. However, a recent study by UNDP showed that there was a mismatch
between what is considered by the community as resilience contributing activities and the
funding and interventions provided by the actors (UNDP, 2014). Consequently, as other
actors seek to make a contribution towards resilience building using tree-integrated options,
3
it is imperative to undertake a rapid assessment of the role of trees in the livelihoods of
people in Karamoja sub-region. It is within this perspective that this rapid review was
commissioned to provide background information and evidence relating to trees and
livelihoods in Karamoja.
1.2 Approach used in the review
This review -is based on on-line searches and the research and field experiences of the
authors in the region and other similar agro-ecologies in drylands of Africa.
1.3 Limitations of this review
This review is a rapid desk assessment seeking to identify the evidence relating to trees and
livelihoods in Karamoja sub-region. It does not purport to provide a comprehensive and
rigorous analysis of the livelihood status of Karamoja sub-region. Owing to the limitations of
the literature on trees and livelihoods in Karamoja sub-region, the authors utilised their own
research and field experiences and observations in Karamoja and other dryland and agro-
pastoral areas of Africa to provide a better picture of the role of trees in Karamoja sub-
region. The authors also utilised grey literature from NGO reports and from on-line web
portals to further bridge the limited literature on trees and livelihoods in Karamoja.
1.4 Understanding Karamoja as complex problem terrain
The Karamoja sub-region represents a complex problem terrain as a range of issues interact
to make a one-off fit for all problems unattainable. As earlier observed, the sub-region has
had a long history of exclusion from the rest of Uganda and has experienced about three
and half decades of civil unrest orchestrated by a proliferation of small arms and armies, a
civil and administrative vacuum, crippled traditional institutions and intermittent extreme
climatic events which have pushed the community’s coping and adaptation strategies to the
limits. The challenges facing the sub-region include but are not limited to the following:
Covariant risks of drought include meso-shocks that often affect specific groups of
households in the sub-region, particularly those without livestock holdings. Macro-shocks
tend to affect the entire sub-region, particularly when there is a prolonged drought affecting
the entire region as was the case in the 1980 and 1984 drought events. Furthermore,
idiosyncratic shocks, also known as micro-shocks, often affect specific individuals and/or
households. In Karamoja, the elderly and the children are often hard hit by such shocks (e.g.
during the 1980 famine an estimated 20,000 to 50,000 deaths were reported, most of whom
were children). Irregular rainfall further explains the high (up to 70%) incidence of crop failure
and the associated disruption of water and pasture supplies (UNOCHA, 2008; Umana-
Aponte, 2011; Egeru et al., 2014b).
Karamoja sub-region is faced with agricultural risks - both farm-level risks and constraints
and supply chain risks. For example, the presence of the covariant risks of drought relating
to climate and weather variability leads to lower yields, crop-failures and loss of productive
assets such as livestock. Biological risks relating to pests and diseases also lead to yield
losses and income and food insecurity. Price risks often escalate the costs of other goods
and services in the sub-region. Poor infrastructure and limited connectivity particularly during
the wet seasons are part and partial of agricultural risks afflicting Karamoja (Anderson and
Robinson, 2009; Institute for International Cooperation and Development, 2010; Robinson
and Zappacosta, 2014).
High livestock disease burden in the region including the presence of peste de petits
ruminants (goat plague), and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), Brucellosis, and
4
ticks and other tick borne diseases. The pattern of disease outbreaks often leads to
considerable livestock deaths with quarantines being imposed. This affects household
incomes and often escalates the food insecurity situation in the Karamoja sub-region
(Institute for International Cooperation and Development, 2010; Robinson and Zappacosta,
2014).
There is a high dependence on vulnerable livelihood options including among others: crop
cultivation, unskilled wage labour, brewing, petty trade and livestock herding dominate the
sub-region.
The region and her people are faced with several historical misconceptions about their
culture and livelihoods. For example, pastoralism in Karamoja has been portrayed as
backward, a flawed way of life, Such skewed representations have played a silent yet
pervasive role in undermining pastoral livelihood by reproducing wrong policies, pre-empting
service provision and turning positive programmes into ‘white elephants’ (Kratli, 2001).
According Levine (2010), there is evidence that, contrary to a widespread misconception,
crop farming in the agricultural belt is less secure as a livelihood than pastoralism in the dry
belt, even for the poor.
Long history of neglect and exclusion from the wider Uganda. The sub-region has had to
contend with a systemic protracted marginalisation since colonial times. This became
ingrained among the wider Ugandan populace in the decision making cycles with the
infamous derogatory phrase “we shall not wait for Karamoja to develop” whenever anyone
was either delaying any process or decision making. This demeaning phrase, believed to
have first been made in 1963, further represents the isolation the Karamojong continued to
endure (Iyodu, 2010; Salonen, 2012). The marginalisation in Karamoja also reveals two
issues: the inability of the people to participate adequately in decision making processes and
the inability to profit from national benefits to the same degree as other Ugandans
(Mamdani, 1982; Kagan et al., 2009).
Insecurity and ‘perceived insecurity’, ‘restrictions on movement’ though there is growing
peace and security following the ‘successful’ disarmament programme in the sub-region. It is
important to note that the guns have relatively silent in Karamoja but the security situation
still relies on the heavy deployment of the Uganda Peoples Defence Forces (UPDF);
indicating a precarious position. The situation is partly precarious because of the mass of
youth who surrendered their guns and practically have little productive engagement for most
of the year; secondly, those who surrendered their guns became impoverished as their
ability to reconstitute and protect their herds was removed, the most affected being the
Bokora (Knighton, 2003; Ng, 2012).
A rising shift towards charcoal production and firewood trade within the urban centres in the
sub-region and outside is also occurring (Egeru et al., 2014a; IUCN, 2014).
Unguided and uncoordinated development interventions; several actors and independent
implementation agendas. Of particular concern have been uncoordinated development
interventions that have in one way or the other perpetuated poverty and food insecurity,
imposed unrealistic technologies and practices that have even had worse off negative
impacts in Karamoja (Kratli, 2010; Flintan, 2013). In addition, Karamoja suffers from a range
of emergency programmes that have been initiated from time to time with rather seemingly
common goals but highly scattered in implementation, small in size with short-term funding,
high staff turnover and territorial divisions by authorities. Consequently, a longer term and
coherent view of development for the region has been hard to come by (Anderson and
Robinson, 2009).
5
SECTION 2
Tree benefits, role in resilience and threats in
Karamoja
2.1 Introduction
Trees play a significant role in the lives of the people of Karamoja on a daily basis. In a
round trip and consultative meeting2 in Karamoja sub-region, FAO’s Ben Chikamai observed
that the sub-region was sitting on a goldmine; he was referring to the luxuriant gum arabica
and amarula trees in Karamoja. The ecosystem services accruing from trees to the people of
Karamoja can be grouped as: provisioning that describe products obtained from
ecosystems; regulating services that refers to the benefits obtained from the regulation of
ecosystem processes; supporting, and cultural services that describes the non-material
benefits people obtain from ecosystems. Each of these ecosystem services has been
described in the following sub-regions.
2.1.1 Provisioning services
Trees in Karamoja provide herbs, medicines, pesticides and extractives (Acacia gerradi,
A. mellifera, A. nilotica, A.oerfota, A. abysinica, Albizia anthelmintica) (Obua et al., 2006;
Grade, 2008). The medicinal value of acacia trees species in the sub-region has been
documented by Grade (2008). For example, A. seyal treats diarrhoea, A. Senegal is believed
to treat rinder pest, trypanosomiasis, and childbirth pains, and A. nilotica believed to cure
pneumonia. Several introduced tree species (long term - Azadirachta Indica) and recently
introduced -- Moringa oleifera) are utilised in Karamoja for medicinal purposes (Grade et al.,
2009). In addition, on Mt. Kadam, Khat (miraa) is harvested and traded in Moroto,
Nakapiripirit, Namalu and Mbale towns.
Trees in Karamoja provide firewood and charcoal for both domestic and sale; particular
tree species are important firewood providers; locally preferred trees for firewood in
Karamoja include Ekoromwai (A. xanthophloea), Ekapelimen (A. nilotica), and Eseperwai
(Ormocarpum trichocarpum) and for charcoal include: Eperu (Tamarindus indica), Ekorete
(Balanite aegypticus), Ekoromai (A. seyal) (Obua et al., 2006).
Building materials are principally provided by trees and grasses given that a majority of
semi-permanent homesteads (manyattas) have walls and roofs made of wood structures.
The Karamojong also invest highly on security by building a one meter thick perimeter ring
fence around the homestead, this fence is made of wood. Trees preferred for this purpose
include: Ekodokodoi (A.senegal), Ekorete (Balanite aegypticus), Ekale (Ziziphus mauritana),
Ekoromwai (A. xanthoplea), and Esilang (Ziziphus abyssinica) among others (Obua et al.,
2006; Egeru per. Observation).
2 Ben Chikamai from the Food and Agricultural organisation (FAO) coordinating network for
gums and resins was in Karamoja sub-region studying the viability of gum Arabica. As part of
his activities, he met with President Yoweri Kaguta Museveni at Soroti State Lodge on
September 22, where they discussed various possibilities of harnessing resins in Karamoja as
well as establishing an Alloe Vera boiling plant in the region.
6
Trees provide gums, resins and extractives for the Karamojong. Ekodokodoi (A. Senegal)
is traded in small volumes; other gum producing acacias include A. gerrardii, A. seyal, A.
sieberiana, A. tortilis, and A. nilotica. These gums are used for purposes such as trapping
birds and rodents and mosquito repellents (Egadu et al., 2006). Lothiru (Orthisiphon sp.) is a
herb species with a pungent scent that is often used as a mosquito repellent (Egeru, 2014).
Trees provide important forage and browse for livestock particularly goats, sheep and
camels. Cattle may browse on trees during periods of herbaceous forage deficits. There are
over 110 browse forage species in Karamoja, most of which are acacia species. A.
camplacantha and A. nilotica are important because they provide both leaves and pods.
Others include; A. Senegal, A. seyal, A. drepanolobium, A. tortilis, and Indigofera erecta
among others (Egeru, 2014).
Trees provide food options, most importantly during periods of drought. The
Karamojong have up to 126 plant-based hunger food sources. B. aegyptica (Ekorete) finds
all three of its parts edible in times of hunger; the leaves may be cooked as a vegetable, the
edible fruit mesocarp is sucked as candy and the hard, woody endocarp seed coat may be
cracked open and the inner kernel (Abalit) pounded, soaked, cooked and used as oil-rich
seed ‘famine food’ (Grade, 2012). Leaves, tubers, roots and nuts are often harvested for
consumption, for example, leaves (ngozat leaves in Tepes), roots and tubers (regnat/reggen,
bitter roots of opat tree) (Weatherby, 2012). The Karamojong also benefit from a range of
fruits and extractive juices obtained from trees for example tamarind indica fruits and marula
tree fruits (Etengu, 2006). Other wild edible plants foraged by humans in Karamoja
particularly during the dry seasons include ebisinai, edwol, esoboliat, ebabui plus fruits like
ngimongo, ngakalio, ngiru, ngacok, and adilat among others (Ayoo et al., 2013).
Support for honey production, wild honey harvesting is undertaken especially during the
dry seasons. Recently, domesticated production using improved bee hives is on the rise.
Bee hives have been observed in Nadunget near Moroto airstrip, other beehives have been
observed at the Agro pastoral farmer field schools (APFS) in Nabilatuk, Nakapiripirit district.
The honey and wax coming from Karamoja is noted to be of high quality because it comes
from the acacia and aloe flowers all of which have medicinal value. The Ik community in
Kaabong district that also depend on honey and some sub-counties in Amudat are already
involved in processing honey for income generation (Ayoo et al., 2013).
2.1.2 Regulating services
Trees in Karamoja are important wind breaks for the strong winds and sunshine/heat
(Grade et al., 2010). The sub-region generally lies to the west of Turkana thus intercepting
strong winds that emerge from the Turkana plains particular during the dry season. The
regeneration and planting of trees to protect the overly open water dams from strong winds
to reduce evaporation losses has been recommended for the Karamoja sub-region
(Elokaokich, 2001; Chow, 2010). This is very important in an area like Karamoja where the
rate of evaporation exceeds precipitation.
Trees are culturally known to protect the soil from run-off and making the soil fertile.
In some locations such as in Kotido some soils are known as ‘cool soils’ because they are
under the A. camplyacantha and A. nilotica trees along the Dopeth river banks; these soils
are associated with high productivity. When the soils are exhausted, trees are left to cover
the land through natural regeneration; often such landscapes get colonised by A. melliferra
particularly in Kotido district (Egeru 2014, Egeru et al., 2014a).
Meanwhile, dams are shielded from siltation by trees, shrubs and other vegetative
matter. During periods of drought, potential water locations are identified by the existence of
particular tree species such as Ficus exasperata and Kigelia africana; thus, trees are
7
important traditional ‘geo-reference points’ for water locations in the Karamoja as trees
traditionally follow water courses with deciduous woodlands marking areas with higher
rainfall and water (Dyson-Hudson, 1962).
Trees are important early warning systems among the pastoral and agro-pastoral
communities. The phenology and change patterns in liaison with the behavioural
characteristics of animals are utilised for early warning. For example; the presence of large
game near communities precedes a drought and Tamarind trees bearing unusual amounts
of fruits are an indicator of a bad year ahead (Powell, 2010).
2.1.3 Supporting services
Trees are important biodiversity centres in Karamoja sub-region by providing a range of
leaves, tubers and roots that are important food sources and supporting a range plant
species that provide herbs and medicines. Further, several trees support wildlife and birds in
the region; these also provide key food sources by supporting the hunting expeditions of the
Karachunas (youth). Wildlife such as dik-diks, antelopes, duikers, warthogs and rodents
(locally referred to as ‘black bananas’) are hunted in the rangelands in Karamoja (Egeru per.
observation, 2013). In Matheniko game reserve around Kobebe valley dam, swarms of
different bird species such as egrets, Abdim’s Stork, Yellow billed stork and Sacred Ibis have
been observed (The Naturalists, 2013).
Besides biodiversity conservation, trees in Karamoja enhance soil fertility, conserve soil
moisture and act as wind breaks. It is common to observe crop-cultivators in Karamoja,
especially in Nakapiripirit and Napak leaving some trees standing in their gardens to break
reduce wind speed that would potentially destroy sorghum. Euphorbia trucalli is also planted
around most of the gardens near manyattas particularly in Kotido to tame winds, erosion and
livestock (Egeru per. observations, 2013). In a country study on indigenous fruit trees (IFTs)
in East Africa, Okia et al. (2008) have shown that IFTs are retained on the farm because
they are believed to enhance soil fertility due to their nitrogen fixing ability, water retention
and soil erosion control. Further, some of the tree species such as Albizia coriaria (Ecailait)
have been documented with the potential to increase soil nitrogen (e.g. Nsubuga et al.,
1984) and have also been documented as used for treating rinderpest and barren cows
(Grade, 2008).
2.1.4 Cultural services
Traditional and cultural heritage; trees provide a history of a clan, a community and
tradition. They are important land marks for boundaries between parishes, districts, tribal
groupings, and land demarcations between families and clans (Euphorbia tirucalli are
commonly used for land demarcations). Specific tree species are used for discharge of
justice and instilling discipline, e.g. a tree locally referred to as akali is used for caning wrong
doers within the community in Nakapelimoru sub-county, Kotido district (Egeru per
interviews with elders, 2013).
Cultural responsibility passed on from generation to generation among the Ngiyepan
clan. The Ngiyepan clan is said to have existed and exists among the Pian tribal grouping;
this clan is believed to be responsible for tree protection and shrine management with
women being at the forefront. During the periods when they were active, the shrines were
believed to have bigger trees and plenty of rain. Their role and presence has however been
observed to have dramatically declined; indicative of a cultural erosion in the sub-region.
Among the Ik people living in north eastern part of the Karamoja region around the Zulia
Mountains, it is traditionally held that God gave the Ik “nakut” (the digging stick) but gave the
Turkana and Dodos cattle. As such the Ik treasure trees as the major source livelihood as
8
they provide wild fruits and honey and to the Ik trees represent their cultural heritage
(Turnbull, 1987).
Trees are important arbiters for peace, security management and demonstration of
spiritual powers in the sub-region. Peace is often made under trees and shrines.
Testimonies have been shared of how traditional healers’ lives were spared by warriors of
opposing tribal communities because of the herbal concoctions they provided to save
livestock from those communities. In addition, the memories of buried spears and hoes were
discussed under the trees by elders, during peace-making ceremonies (Mirzeler and Young,
2000). The politico-religious leaders (ekeworan) may from time to time demonstrate their
spiritual powers by making fire from the wet branches of essegese tree (Mirzeler and Young,
2000).
2.1.5 Role of Trees Portrait in Karamoja
An agro-pastoral community in Lomejan village in
Kotido district planting while naturing Acacia
siamea trees (above). Two years later, the acacia
trees had grown (below).
A fruiting acacia with pods at CARITAS Kotido
offices(above). A goat feeds on the acacia pods
(below). These pods are essential for sustaining
broswers during the dry seasons.
9
A temporary shelter for harvesting of Catha edulis
(Khat) on top of Mt. Kadam (Gerald Eilu, 2014)
Processing Aloe tweedieae at Lorengendwat
(Francis Gachathi, 2014)
Nuts of shea butter tree. The shea nut belt in
Karamoja occurs in western Karamoja running
from Abim, Napak to Nakapiripirit districts
(Francis Gachathi, 2014)
Trees are felled for multiple purposes, for firewood
ferried by women & young girls (top), for manyatta
construction (middle) and for charcoal (bottom).
Quality Acacia resin taken from Kapedo (Francis
Gachathi, 2014).
10
Trees shield dams from sedimentation and
evapotranspiration. Lomogol dam in Kotido.
Trees offer opportunity for art and crafts at Lobel,
Kotido district.
A kid being treated by administering herbal
concoctions.
A child eating the fruit of Balanites aegyptiaca
(Ekorete) to wade off hunger.
Trees shield the ground from soil erosion and are
important wind breaks for the homesteads and
croplands. If not present erosion is increased.
11
2.2 Role of trees in resilience in Karamoja
In this sub-section, the role of trees in resilience building is provided. The sub-section also
provides a classification of how trees are utilised in the resilience development process in
Karamoja.
2.2.1 Contribution to resilience building
Trees provide a range of benefits both direct and indirect to people in Karamoja however, as
indicated in section 1.4, Karamoja sub-region faces a number of challenges and these
influence the resilience development process as they have an effect on the livelihood assets
(natural, social, financial, human, and physical capital) in the region. Further, they also
influence people’s visions, hopes and fears as well as the manner in which they recognise
and utilise trees for resilience building either directly or indirectly.
Karamoja’s trees and tree-based systems are easy to identify. Firstly, the agricultural-
cropping system is a tree-based system that is rapidly rising in the sub-region particularly in
the last decade alone (Egeru et al., 2014a). It is a common sight to observe isolated trees
interspersed within sorghum gardens in parts of Abim, some tree-based crops such as
Nyapena (Cajanus cajan) mixed with other crops also grown in Abim and in Karenga in
Kotido district. Secondly, are the grassland/thickets and shrubland systems that make the
pastoral rangeland. This system is particularly wide spread in the sub-region with the
dominance of grasslands, thickets/shrublands and rising gradient of bushlands (Egeru et al.,
2014a). Third, is a rather conspicuous forest/woodland system which observers often tend to
disapprove of their existence but these are mainly found on top of mountains and also act as
the water towers of the region. For example; Mt. Kadam central forest reserve, Mt. Moroto,
Mt. Labwor, Mt. Iriiri and Mt. Zulia (Mt. Zulia is a key a hunting ground for the Ik indigenous
community). There are also several other forest reserves in the region including: Akur,
Alerek, Ating, Kaabong, Kano, Lomej, Lopeichubei, Lotim-Puta, Lwala, Morongole,
Nangolibwel, Napono, Nyangea-Napore, and Timu among others. These forest reserves
occupy an estimated area of 322, 210 hectares (Rugadya et al., 2010).
Trees and tree-based systems contribute to resilience building at different levels along the
resilience development process. The resilience building process can be categorised into
three levels i.e. coping, adaptation and transformation; these levels, actions and processes
have operated in rather fuzzy continuum in Karamoja sub-region as we describe in the sub
sections that follow.
Coping
A growing concern in the Karamoja cluster is whether the pastoral and agro-pastoral
communities are adapting or simply coping to inherent shocks in the areas they occupy
(Wasonga et al., 2012). The classification of actions within the coping range that have been
identified (e.g. Levine, 2010; Browne and Glaeser, 2010; IUCN, 2014; Egeru et al., 2014a) in
Karamoja including among others; charcoal production and firewood trade, provision of
casual labour in urban centres, harvesting of wild fruits, roots and tubers, relying on
humanitarian assistance, commercialised raids3, brewing local beers, and movement and
3 Livestock raiding was traditionally used as a herd reconstitution and retaliation strategy in
Karamoja. However, raiding in the region took different trends with upsurge of guns from the
late 1970s (small fire arms mainly AK47 riffles). During the early 2000s, livestock raids
adopted a third dimension of commercial interest. These raids operated outside of the
informal governance system of the elders, and was necessitated by short-term livelihood
needs for some, and driven by profiteering for others. Raiding was organised at different
levels either in large groups, or small groups of youths, and may be managed by racketeers,
or richer cattle owners who loaned out weapons (Agade, 2010).
12
settling in wetter areas reveals a community that is coping. The prevalence and successive
occurrence of shocks have particularly made these forms of coping mechanisms more
pronounced in the sub-region (Browne and Glaeser, 2010). Trees and tree-based systems in
Karamoja play a vital role at this level for example through the provision of browse and
pasture which sustains livestock during recurrent droughts. This is because pasture and
browse (the last to be affected by a drought) are not affected in the same way as planted
crops such as sorghum (Levine, 2010). Whenever, a dry spell has affected Karamoja,
livestock has provided a secure fall-back position for livestock owning households thereby
buffering them against food insecurity compared to the non-livestock owning households
(Akabwai and Ateyo, 2007; Levine, 2010).
Coping represents the first and precarious stage in the resilience building process. This is
because it allows for the survival of the human population past the shock. However, as it can
be noted, some of the coping strategies relating to intensified natural resource extraction
such as cutting of trees for charcoal and fire wood sale, and poaching have a potential of
negative consequences particularly environmental and land degradation. Thus, this will
threaten the viability of livestock production, thereby increasing the region’s vulnerability and
the potential for conflict over control, access and use. It is this that introduces the bigger
challenge into the resilience building agenda for Karamoja sub-region.
Adaptation
When taken from its literal meaning, adaptation (adjustment in ecological, social, or
economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or
impacts) is both a process of adapting and to the condition of being adapted (Smit et al.,
2000). This occurs through different types which are differentiated according to numerous
attributes (Bryant et al., 2000). Commonly used distinctions are purposefulness and timing
(Smit and Pilifosova, 2003). Autonomous or spontaneous adaptations are considered to be
those that take place-invariably in reactive response to climatic stimuli as a matter of course,
without the directed intervention of a public agency (Smit and Pilifosova, 2003). On the other
hand, planned adaptations can either be reactive or anticipatory (undertaken before impacts
are apparent). In addition, adaptations can be short or long term, localised or widespread,
and they can serve various functions and take numerous forms (Smit and Pilifosova, 2003).
It is evident that some of the actions and options observed in Karamoja mirror adaptation in
action and in progress and trees play a role in one way or another. In this regard, the
realisation, strengthening and transition from simply relying on the extractive
enthanoveterinary knowledge to agroforestry of medicinal plants (Grade et al., 2008) in the
sub-region represents an action towards anticipatory adaptation with trees at the centre
stage. It is also worth noting that a range of institutions particularly non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) and humanitarian agencies (e.g. FAO, WFP, Mercy Corps, ACTED,
Welthugerhilfe, and CARITAS) are supporting tree-based livelihoods and have supported
some of the initial steps. Some tree species, e.g. acacia have been planted in Karamoja and
other wild landraces domesticated (Grade, 2008; Ferreri et al., 2011). However, it is
important to note that most of these efforts are fairly recent in the sub-region and thus most
participants in the projects are yet to experience the full benefits on these initiatives. Few
cases have reported success particularly where beekeeping was integrated as part of the
broader environment and rangeland management under the FAO farmer field schools in
Napak and Nakapiripirit districts and parts of Rupa (Okoth et al., 2013; Houdet et al., 2014).
Relying on trees and tree-based systems for production of alternative goods and services
also represents a means by which the communities in Karamoja are beginning to diversify
their livelihood sources by increasing their participation in a wide range of welfare improving
activities. This indicates a process of slowly moving the community from highly extractive
activities that were enumerated under the coping with a potential to escalate household
13
and/or community vulnerability. Further, the pastoral households in the region are
introducing and increasing camel production with a view of taking advantage of the abundant
browse forage in the sub-region but also exploit their biological and physiological adaptation
to harsh environmental conditions. The camels will be able to browse the upper part of trees
which are out of reach for goats, sheep and cows. The shift in preference from cattle to
camels in the face of increased climate variability has also been reported among the Borana
of Kenya (Kagunyu and Wanjohi, 2014). From the 2008 Livestock Census results, the camel
population in Karamoja was estimated to have reached 32,030 animals representing 97.4%
of the national camel herd (MAAIF-UBOS, 2009). This has been viewed as positive
development since camels are more adapted to dry conditions, produce more nutritious milk
and generally their sale fetches more money compared to cows.
Transformation
Transformation is a higher order level action in the resilience building process/agenda. This
is because transformation requires crossing thresholds to new development trajectories. As
such, transformational change at smaller scales enables resilience at larger scales and the
capacity to transform at smaller scales draws on resilience from multiple scales whilst
making use of crises as windows of opportunity for novelty and innovation, and recombining
sources of experience and knowledge to navigate social–ecological transitions (Folke et al.,
2010). The transformation can either be deliberate or forced; both of these transformations
are occurring in Karamoja. Due to the number of pastoral drop-outs arising from livestock
raids that pitched in the sub-region in the early 2000s and the subsequent disarmament that
curtailed the ability to reconstitute herds through raids, adoption of crop cultivation increased
tremendously in the region over the last decade (Egeru et al., 2014b). The pastoral drop-
outs became an easy target for crop production promotional efforts; while on one hand it was
a deliberate transformation, on the other hand it was a forced transformation arising from the
provided option.
Another transformation occurring in Karamoja is that propagated through the FAO agro-
pastoral farmer field schools (APFS) in various districts within the sub-region. In these
APFS, participants are taught how to tend to gardens, prepare tree seed beds, raise
nurseries, manage bee hives, kitchen gardening and tree market orientation. In addition, as
the traditional institutions are weakening, communities are realising the need to have
coordination and action towards environmental management and conservation for posterity
thus, community based organisations and non-governmental organisations are being formed
to champion such interests. For example, four organisations have been formed at
community level with a focus on enthanoveterinary application. These include: Bokora
Traditional Livestock Healers Association (BTLHA), Pian Traditional Livestock Healers
Association (PTLHA), Karamoja Ethnoveterinary Information Network (KEVIN) and
Karamoja Christian Ethnoveterinary Programme (KACHEP); this represents a transformation
process in the resilience building process with trees having a central role. Out of these
organisations, more than 70 healer communities are involved in conservation of medicinal
plants mainly in Pian and Bokora (Grade, 2008).
2.2.2 Role of trees in agricultural production in Karamoja
The role of trees in agricultural production has in one way or the other been highlighted in
previous sub-sections particularly relating to the regulating, provisioning and supporting
services. Where trees have been maintained in Karamoja they have been reported to
minimise degradation (the reduction in productive potential of the resource base for
agriculture at landscape level through control of soil erosion and conservation of soil
moisture). Although not undertaken within Karamoja, a study in the neighbouring Soroti
district showed that Borassus aethiopum contributes to the improvement of organic matter
and soil moisture, increased growth and grain yield of finger millet (Ajotu, 2013). Borassus
14
aethiopum has been observed in some parts of Karamoja sub-region particularly around
Lorengchora in Napak district and between the Labwor ranges and Abim district town in
Abim district (Egeru per. Observation). Trees contribute to agricultural production primarily
through; provision of a productive and profitable component in the system through supply of
forage and herbs, reducing the amount and intensity of processes and events that cause
land degradation, and modifying the microclimate.
2.2.3 Traditional knowledge of trees in Karamoja
The Karamojong live with trees on a daily basis, if it is not for human consumption, their
livestock will be feeding on, and/or they will be singing and praising their livestock in relation
to where they have grazed and what they have grazed on and the anticipated benefits on
animal body condition, milk yield and reproductive potential. In addition, they may simply be
relaxing under trees or utilising trees to treat water and/or make fire. Such is the intricate
relationship between the Karamojong and trees. Owing to this interconnected relationship,
the Karamojong have vast traditional ecological knowledge on trees and their uses. This
knowledge also extends to the tree growth forms, growth periods (wet vs. dry season),
locations, livestock as well as preferences by humans. Grade (2008) undertook an
enthanoveterinary study that documented trees of medicinal value in Karamoja. Further,
Egeru (2014) has shown extensive detail of the local ecological knowledge of up to 110
browse forage species in Karamoja sub-region.
Other trees and plants of medicinal value in Karamoja sub-region; in addition to the ones
listed in the section on the benefits of trees include: A. spirocarpa (Etirir) believed to treat
abscess, Acacia sp. (Ewalongor) for treating goat pox, Acacia sp. (Eminit) administered in
the event of rinderpest, Albizia amara (Ekwakwa) for abscess, and Albizia anthelminitica
(Ekapangiteng) for treating bloat and cough in livestock (Grade, 2008). In addition to all the
acacia species noted above, other browse forage species utilised in Karamoja sub-region
include: Triumfetta anua (Ekwangayaro), A. oerfota (Epet), Caparis tormentosa
(Erogorogoite), Leucas martinicensis (Ekwangpen), Grewia mollis (Ekalie), and Cissus
quadrangularis (Egigith) (Egeru, 2014).
2.3 Threats to trees in Karamoja
Hunger is a common issue when working with local communities in Karamoja. It represents
the different experiences and realities of the poverty, desperation and a need that requires
immediate, moderate to long-term solutions. At the immediate level, the need to leverage on
the natural resources to survive past the biting pangs of hunger is creating a nexus of threats
to trees in Karamoja. In general, the threats to trees in Karamoja include but are not limited
to:
Expanding charcoal and firewood supply belt eastward from adjacent Teso and Lango
sub-regions to Karamoja particularly to the districts of Abim, Napak and Nakapiripirit.
Coupled with a destitute situation prevailing in the sub-region, the Karamojong have become
easy bait from the profiteering businessmen/women based in the Mbale, Soroti and Lira
towns as well as from growing business acumen from within the region. A bag of charcoal is
purchased from the Karamoja at approximately UGX 15,000 (USD 6) and is retailed in Mbale
or Kampala at approximately UGX 50,000 (USD 20). Therefore, the on-slot on trees in the
region is fast, indiscriminate and competitive despite the presence of rules banning the
production of charcoal.
Indiscriminate expansion of croplands in the sub-region with horizontal incremental
land production rather than increased production per unit area is causing rapid
disappearance of considerable tree cover in Karamoja (Egeru et al., 2014a). In the last
15
decade (2000-2013) croplands in the Karamoja sub-region were found to have increased by
tenfold mainly affecting the grasslands and woodlands. Farming as practiced in Karamoja is
mainly through slash and burn (IUCN, 2014) which is unsustainable as farmers open new
land upon decline on productivity of the current farmlands.
The sub-region is also faced with unregulated harvesting of trees and tree resources. In
Mt. Moroto and Mt. Kadam for example, there is wide scale unregulated harvesting of
Khat/miraa (Catha edulis), in addition, there is unsustainable debarking of the Podocarpus
(podo) trees for both local and commercial purposes. This despite the fact that this tree
(Podocarpus) is red listed by IUCN, indicating that the species requires targeted actions to
be protected. The Podocarpus tree on Mt. Moroto is cut for various purposes including:
timber, making beehives, and during land clearance for cultivation (Eilu, 2014).
Slash and burn garden preparation in Lopotuk in Karamoja (IUCN, 2014)
Bushland encroachment is also affecting the existence of trees in Karamoja. The explosion
of some tree species such as A. mellifera, A. oerfota and the current entry of Prosopis
juliflora will further affect the native tree species in the sub-region. As noted earlier, the
increase in bushlands in Karamoja relates to the absence of grazing in those locations which
was caused by limited access to such grazing sites as a result of insecurity.
Pests, particularly increased termite activity in the region in the recent past, have been
observed. However, overwhelming levels have not yet been reached except where termites
have devastated maize and sorghum plants. Historical accounts show that caterpillars
attacks have often occurred in Karamoja (Weatherby, 2012) with the most recent caterpillar
attack reported in Karita, Losidok, Lokales, Katabok, Loburin, Loroo, Achorichor, and Abiliep
in Amudat district destroying edible tree leaves and crops (UNDP, 2014).
Breakdown in traditional institutions; the Karamojong traditionally had a strong elders’
council and elders’ roles were defined in guiding the community. However, the advent of the
gun changed the balance of power, the gun dictated who had power and control; as such
young men became unruly leading to a shift from the traditional systems (Mirzeler and
Young, 2000). Even in the post disarmament period, the elders have never regained their
position in the Karamojong society; this has meant that the guidance, rules and caveats that
were always placed by the elders in conservation of natural resources are now little
respected. It is this divide and weakening of traditional institutions that is making the drive for
charcoal burning easily acceptable and exercised among the youthful population. This is
also indicative of the a silent increase in individual interests as opposed to the traditional
communal interests that guided the pastoral way of life in the sub-region.
16
Low survival of planted trees; tree planting initiatives have recorded low survival of trees
planted. Part of the problem has been planting tree species, which are not ecologically
adapted to the ecology of Karamoja. Low survival rates apply to other tree seedlings of
species such as Teak (Tectona grandis), Grevillea robusta, Eucalyptus grandis, and
Markhamia lutea that have been planted under the auspice of Welthungerhilfe (Lokoru and
Ullerich, 2014). Additionally, timing of planting and source of planting materials are other
reasons for the low survival. Little attention has been paid to indigenous trees naturally
growing in Karamoja and other similar environments, yet some of these are already playing
a demonstrated role in supporting livelihoods through provisioning and service functions. An
example is Balanites aegyptiaca (Desert date), whose fruits and leaves are a reliable source
of food for both humans and livestock in Karamoja and neigbouring Teso sub-regions for 4 -
5 months during the dry season (Okia, 2010). Low survival rates also apply to other tree
seedlings such as Teak (Tectona grandis), Grevillea robusta, Eucalyptus grandis, and
Markhamia lutea that have been planted under the auspice of Welthungerhilfe (Lokoru and
Ullerich, 2014).
17
SECTION 3
Tree based initiatives in Karamoja
3.1 Introduction
Tree-based initiatives have been presented as one of the most reliable and sustainable
livelihood diversification options for semi-arid regions with meaningful returns to labour and
investments (Tougiani et al., 2009; Prasad et al., 2014). This section presents a list of tree-
based initiatives and actors in Karamoja sub-region.
3.2 Tree-based initiatives in Karamoja
As pastoralists and agro-pastoralists, the Karamojong have traditionally retained and
managed selected trees on their landscape. Tree growing efforts are becoming an important
aspect in the Karamoja sub-region as several actors (Table 1) strive to build the community
resilience in this sub-region.
Name of
Organisation
Beneficiary
communities
Tree based
Reference
CARITAS Kotido district
Moroto district
Napak district
community managed and
CARITAS Kotido managed
tree nurseries
10000 trees planted (e.g.
Acacia Senegal, Azadiracta
indica (neem), Tamnalia
cattapa, Pondo, Teak,
Grevillia, grafted mangoes
and citrus)
over 500 households
supported
Planting of fruit trees
Planting of trees with timber
production potential
Supports apiary production
for the youth
Grange (2010)
Egeru Anthony (per.
Observation)
WFP Moroto/Napak
districts
Kotido district
Environmental conservation
intervention undertaken under
the SAFE project
awareness campaign on the
dangers of environmental
degradation
140880 trees planted in
Moroto district
10,938 trees planted in Kotido
district
1.5 million seedlings gum
Arabica were to be distributed
by the end of 2012 in
Karamoja sub-region
support to schools for raise
Bizzarri and Barbelet
(2011)
18
Name of
Organisation
Beneficiary
communities
Tree based
Reference
kitchen gardens and tree
planting in Kotido,
Nakapiripirit and Kaabong
districts
FAO Nakapiripirit/Moroto/
Napak/Kotido/Kaabo
ng districts
community managed tree
nurseries
Apiary production
all activities largely managed
through agro-pastoral farmer
field schools (APFS)
Okoth et al. (2013)
Dan Church Aid Amudat, Moroto,
Nakapiripirit, Napak
districts
fruit tree cultivation
school based tree action
planning
community wide natural
resource management
sensitisation
Korugyendo and
Akureje (2012)
Nabuin ZARDI Nakapiripirit district
Government of Uganda zonal
research institute focusing on
semi-arid research
field demonstrations for
various fruit, and fodder trees
Egeru Anthony (per.
Observations)
MADEFO Nakapiripirit district
and Moroto district
Focus on land degradation
awareness campaigns
advocates and supports
adoption of live fences
promotes tree planting
through food for work scheme
Grange (2010)
GTZ Napak, Moroto
districts
Irrigated agriculture in
Nakicumet
fruit trees
trees of commercial value
pond fisheries
Egeru Anthony (per.
Observations)
SVI Napak, Moroto,
Nakapiripirit districts
supported documentation of
Kadam and Napak forest
values and threat analysis
supported capacity building in
fruits, honey, vegetables,
medicinal herbs, glue and
gum arabica skills
development
established training and
demonstration facilities in
Namalu in Nakapiripirit and
Iriir in Napak district
supports environmental
conservation efforts in Moroto
and Nakapiripirit districts
http://www.kampala.c
ooperazione.esteri.it/
utlkampala/EN/partne
r/ONG/svi.html
ADRA Lorenchora in
Napak district
Training farmers on tree
planting and nursery bed
management for
environmental awareness
and protection
ADRA Newsletter,
2011
BTLHA, PTLHA,
KEVIN and
KACHEP
Napak/Moroto/Naka
piripirit districts
among the Pian and
Bokora communities
focus on enthanoveterinary
conservation of trees
strengthened domestication
and conservation medicinal
Grade (2008)
19
Name of
Organisation
Beneficiary
communities
Tree based
Reference
plants
Welthugerhilfe Nakapiripirit, Moroto
districts
tree seedling nursery
preparation
planting of teak, Grevillia
robusta, eucalyptus, neem,
cassia
Lokoru and Ullerich
(2014)
Several community based organisations
(CBOs) in the region including among
others: Omina’s Damon Tree Planting
Group (Moroto district), Namukur
Women’s Group- Nacheele (Kaabong
district), Lokopo Women’s Development
Group and Lotome Women
Empowerment Group (Napak district),
Looborio Tree Nursery (Nakapiripirit
district)
tree planting
cereal banking
environmental conservation in
general
Indigenous
information Network
http://indigenous-info-
kenya.net/wp-
content/uploads/2011
Table 1 List of tree-based initiatives and actors in Karamoja sub-region
20
SECTION 4
Options for research and action in Karamoja
4.1 Opportunities for research
This review focused on identifying evidence relating to trees and livelihoods in Karamoja
sub-region, Uganda. In light of the complex development terrain, the problems and potential
opportunities facing the sub-region, the role of trees in the livelihood of the communities, and
the range of actors involved in food security and resilience building in Karamoja, the
following are worthy noting as potential thematic research areas:
Agricultural risks analysis
While the risks faced by farmers and pastoralists in Karamoja are perceivably known; it is
vital to understand the nature of these risks at the local level. This is particularly important for
the case of Karamoja so as to avoid the risk of initiating tree-based interventions that will
have a similar orientation that is too focused on ‘technical’ targets, defined in abstract terms
with little connection to the production systems and the societies of producers in Karamoja.
In undertaking this analysis, farm-level risks and constraints, supply chain risks, and
agricultural risk management as exercised in the region and how they may impact tree
growing need to be critically explored.
Tree-crop interactions studies
Since there is increased crop cultivation in the sub-region, there is need to undertake long-
term analysis of benefits relating to retaining/planting and managing trees on farms to
rehabilitate land, control soil erosion, conserve soil moisture and manage
watersheds/catchments. The focus should be to understand what trade-offs have to be
made against the impact of tree competition with subsistence crops (which provide
immediate benefits to the community and is the focus of many actors since it offers
immediate success stories yet it does not provide a long-term success storyline), potential
commercial crops, and the potential of tree-based systems to increase livestock productivity
in Karamoja. The underlying assumption will be that the incentive to adopt tree-based
systems would be higher if tree competition can be offset by economic returns gained from
the tree products and by the beneficial effects which trees confer on crop yields, livestock
and resource sustainability.
Reconciling the hydro-ecological differentials on tree introductions in Karamoja; the thinking
behind this is that trees will co-exist with crops and livestock, it therefore becomes
imperative to analyse the implications of the potential increase of water use on the medium
and longer-term water budgets. This research would then address issues pertaining to the
source of water used by trees, the rate of water depletion below the crop rooting zone and
the prospects for deep recharge within the Karamoja agro-ecologies. Seeking to understand
this dimension of facts will help provide direction to the adoption of tree-based options.
Developing a framework for trees-food security-ecosystems and community
resilience
During the review process it was observed that there was a lack of integrated framework for
analysing the beneficial effects of trees at community level. It is therefore suggested that a
framework of methodological innovations in collaborative actions to integrate tree-based
21
options in wider community development interventions and linkage to policy processes is
developed as a tool kit for dryland farming systems.
Utilising nutrient and fertility islands in Karamoja
The practice of moving livestock between different grazing lands according to seasons with
resting grounds at the central kraals for protection and maintenance of a milking herd at the
homesteads (manyattas) creates localised nutrient rich deposits which become islands of
fertility. There is no information regarding the productive potential of these fertility islands
and gradients. Most of the fertility islands are abandoned when homesteads are moved; how
these nutrients can either be directly utilised and/or recovered to support farming needs to
be studied. Further, how these fertility islands influence the agro-ecology of the areas also
needs to be investigated.
Evidencing indigenous tree management systems
It is evident that a mixed form of agroforestry is exercised in the Karamoja sub-region; first,
there is the use of the traditional agroforestry practices through managing scattered trees
deliberately left in the gardens and/or near homesteads, secondly through conserving the
multi-purpose wild trees in rangeland locations in Karamoja, and thirdly through adopting
new tree introductions into the sub-region. There is limited information available on the
traditional indigenous agroforestry systems and practices available in Karamoja that could
perhaps be adopted and utilised as an effective entry for catalysing appropriate agroforestry
practices. Further, in the review of different projects implemented, there was emphasis on
exotic fruit tree varieties but there is no justification as to whether these varieties were
adapted to ecological conditions of Karamoja sub-region. There are no indications as to why
there is limited preference for locally adapted dryland trees; these issues are worthy an
investigation.
Eco-hydrologic connectivity and complexities
In the foregoing review, it was observed that Karamoja is experiencing a series of complex
changes including rapid agriculturalisation with reductions in grasslands, changes in fire
regimes, woody encroachment, deforestation, soil erosion, and creation of multiple dam
structures among others. These changes are slowly but gradually transforming the
ecosystem processes in the semi-arid area. In this particular theme focus could be geared
towards understanding how the transformative landscape change occurring in the region is
impacting on evapotranspiration and catchment discharge, analyse of how exogenous forces
are weakening/have weakened the stabilising feedbacks and how such state changes can
be reversed, seek to explain the self-organising water-limited ecohydrological systems in
Karamoja, and explain the ecohydrological connectivity existing in Karamoja so as to better
understand and predict how landscapes and ecosystems in Karamoja respond to
environmental change among others.
Tree-based systems characterisation and suitability analysis
Considering that different forms of tree-based systems are identifiable in Karamoja; there is
need to identify, classify and characterise the tree based systems in the sub-region.
Thereafter, determine the areas where the most promising tree-based systems can be
introduced. Further, there is need to undertake projections of how these areas are likely to
change in the medium and longer terms.
Viability of conservation agriculture with trees in Karamoja
Conservation agriculture with trees has been demonstrated to be effective in tripling cereal
yields in semi-arid areas of Southern Africa. It is therefore important to determine the viable
of such a low cost option in agro-pastoral zone of Karamoja. In addition, most of these are
nitrogen fixing (fertilizer) trees which are already common in Karamoja (e.g. Faidherbia
albida). The study will also explore how some of these trees can be part of valuable livestock
22
feed particularly for the milking herds. Earlier reports urged USAID/Food for Peace
implementers in Karamoja to join ICRAF’s efforts in re-greening/conservation agriculture.
Options for enhancing tree survival and reducing termite damage
Research into the use of hydrogels to enhance tree survival and establishment is semi-arid
environment should be perused. In addition, effectiveness of indigenous and other methods
for controlling termite damage on planted trees deserve to be explored and integrated into
on-going tree planting initiatives. The Forestry Resources Research Institute (NaFORRI) in
Uganda is already in advanced stages in refining these technologies.
4.2 Options for Action
Capacity and institutional building for collaborative Community-Based Forestry
Management
Given the rich traditional ecological knowledge of the trees and tree systems in Karamoja, it
is imperative for DFID/ICRAF to support capacity building initiatives to enhance and
institutionalise community based management of forest reserves and parkland trees in the
region through supporting management transfer and user rights of common property
resources to the communities. The elders who are slowly regaining their authority following
disarmament need to be supported to play a leading role in this regard.
Support innovative financing for tree growing and conservation
In seeking to meet their basic needs, communities in Karamoja rely on the extractive
benefits of trees that are often destructive to tree existence in the sub-region. In order to shift
from this front, it is suggested that development actors in Karamoja should explore the
establishment of community environment fund as a tool to catalyse social, economic and
ecological resilience in the sub-region. This innovative financing can be an extension of the
current village and savings loan’s associations (VSLAs) which have some operational
existence in region. Learning experiences can be shared with the IUCN experiences from a
similar arrangement in Lango sub-region Uganda.
Rehabilitation of degraded rangelands and woodlands
The review observed that the region is faced with multiple forms of degradation. It is
recommended immediate focus be undertaken to rehabilitate degraded areas using
enclosures. An alternative approach is the use of Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration
(FMNR). Pastoralists have traditionally used enclosure management for considerable
periods of time based on landscape heterogeneity approach. Revitalising this management
approach is will help to reduce degradation. This is because there are success stories
coming from parts of Tanzania and Ethiopia’s Tigray region in using a similar approach.
ICRAF and World Vision are already piloting FMNR in Nakapelmoru sub-county.
Promote sustainable harvesting, processing and marketing of indigenous tree
products
The review revealed that Karamoja has a wide range of valuable trees (e.g. Acacias, desert
date, sandalwood, shea butter, tamarind, Borassus palm, and marula) but these are under-
utilised. Yet others are unsustainably harvested (e.g. Khat). It is therefore recommended
sustainable harvesting, production and utilisation of these trees is championed. Further, it
will be essential to create meaningful value chains for sustainably integrating these trees and
attendant products as part of the valuable economic foothold in the livelihood systems in the
region.
Support integrated household tree-based production systems
It was observed that the Karamojong generally are not used to growing and planting trees
but at the same time, there is a growing and valuable honey production in the sub-region. It
23
is therefore recommended that an integrated household tree based production system is
championed in which trees with near term economic value including among others Jatropha
curcas and Casta oil trees as well as bee keeping can be initialised for early production
action while integrating trees with longer term maturity periods but with sustainable
economic value such as dryland orchards of mangoes and Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal for
gums and resins.
Improved fruit orchards
Establishment of improved fruit orchards for mangoes, oranges and other suitable fruits
should be explored. This has potential to contribute towards nutrition and income security,
especially in the semi-humid areas of Karamoja.
Innovative learning platforms
It is evident from the review that there is scarcity in success stories of how trees have
contributed to livelihoods and livelihood transformation in Karamoja. It is recommended that
development actors in Karamoja explore and prioritise supporting innovation learning
platforms for pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in the sub-region. This could be executed
through the operationalisation of community to community exchanges with farmers and
pastoral communities within East Africa where such successes stories can be bench
marked. This learning approach will also be part and partial of learning for change, which
can open up and build networks for sustainability.
Support fertilizer trees for soil and water management
Karamoja is noted as exercising both pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems. As
such water, soil and forage are important production resources in the region. It is
recommended that DFID and ICRAF support the process of evaluating fertilizer trees
utilisation in soil and water management as well as explore how some of the same trees can
be part of valuable livestock feed particularly for the milking herds. Earlier reports showed
that Mercy Corps urged USAID/Food for Peace Implementers in the region to join ICRAF’s
efforts in re-greening/conservation agriculture and further build the capacity of the technical
staff to this effect. In doing this, focal farmers need to be identified, targeted and supported
to test, adapt and take to scale the locally appropriate agro-forestry re-greening and
conservation agriculture practices.
24
Selected Annotated Bibliography
Reference
Type literature and
research type Summary
Anderson, I. M and Robinson, W.I. (2009). Uganda.
10th EDF Karamoja Livelihoods Programme (KALIP).
Technical Reference guide. Kampala, Uganda
Grey literature from a
systematic review
This technical guide is a document providing a framework for the
implementation of Karamoja Livelihoods Programme (KALIP) considering
the signed financing agreement between the Government of Uganda and
the European Commission. The document is intended as a Reference
Guide to the Project Management Unit (PMU) and implementation team in
establishing the interventions to be considered in the field and to facilitate
the detailing of the annual and overall work plans for KALIP.
Ayoo, S., Opio, R., & Kakisa, O.L. (2013). Karamoja
situational analysis. CARE International in Uganda,
Kampala Uganda.
Grey literature from a
systematic review
This supplementary situation analysis report documents socio-economic
and conflict dynamics and how it has impacted the vulnerable groups
especially women and girls in the Karamoja sub-region. The review was
commissioned by CARE International in Uganda.
Browne, S and Glaeser, L. (2010). Karamoja region
food security assessment: Uganda. A special report
by FEWS NET
Grey literature from
primary and empirical
interviews
This assessment report focused on the evolution and status of food
insecurity in Karamoja, through the collection and analysis of information
on coping strategies, local capacity to withstand shocks, and the use and
importance of external assistance, especially food aid. The assessment
sought to answer two primary questions; (i) how are people sustaining
themselves in the face of consecutive shocks? and ii) how significant is
relief assistance, particularly food aid, in supporting people’s livelihoods?
The report was prepared by the Famine Early Warning System Network
(FEWS NET).
Chow, J.T. (2010). Karamoja Productive Asset
Program (KPAP). Small Earth Dam Technical
Assessment Report. ACF International, Kampala
Uganda
Grey literature based on
a primary and empirical
analysis
This report presents the outcome of a technical evaluation of small earth
dams in Karamoja Productive Assets Programme (KPAP) was conducted
in 2010. It notes that very few dams were built with much forethought to
the fundamental technical and siting criteria essential for a properly
functioning earth dam.
Institute for International Cooperation and
Development, C&D. (2010). Livestock disease
surveillance in Karamoja. The importance of early
detection of diseases and epidemics for livestock
dependent communities. Kampala, Uganda
Grey literature from
secondary research,
theoretical and
conceptual, primary and
empirical
This report documents several experiences of actors involved in livestock
disease surveillance in Karamoja in close collaboration with Institute for
International Co-operation and Development (C&D). C & D is a non-profit
organisation operating in Karamoja since 1979.
Knighton, B. (2003). The State as Raider among the Academic coming from This paper provides an analytical perspective new world order. It
25
Reference
Type literature and
research type Summary
Karamojong: ‘Where there are no Guns, they use the
Threat of Guns’. Africa, 73(03), 427-455.
analytical research,
primary interviews and
observations
specifically expositions the atrocities committed during the disarmament
exercise and illustrates some of the challenges arising from expected
instant shift from one cultural dispensation to another that is less
understood and appreciated.
Egadu, S. P., Mucunguzi, P., & Obua, J. (2007). The
population of Acacia tree species producing gum
arabica in the Karamoja region, Uganda. African
Journal of Ecology, 45(3), 236-241.
Academic
Arising from primary and
empirical data collection
and analysis
This study provides and understanding of the population status of the
different Acacia tree species producing gum arabica in the undisturbed,
grazed and cultivated habitats in the Karamoja region, Uganda. The study
observed the existence of poor regeneration rates of acacia species in the
region.
Egeru, A., Wasonga, O., Kyagulanyi, J., Majaliwa,
M.G.J., MacOpiyo, L., and Mburu, J., (2014a).
Spatio-temporal dynamics of forage and land cover
changes in Karamoja sub-
region, Uganda.
Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice Journal,
2014, 4:6.
Academic based on
primary and empirical
analysis
This study presents spatio-temporal dynamics of pastoral grazing
resources in Karamoja. It identified herbaceous and woody forage
species in different grazing land cover types, quantified forage in different
grazing land covers, analysed long-term land use/cover change (from
1986 to 2013) and determined the relationship between Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and herbaceous biomass.
Egeru, A., Osaliya, R., MacOpiyo, L., Mburu, J.,
Wasonga, O., Barasa, B., Said, M., Aleper, D., and
Majaliwa, MGJ. (2014b). Assessing the spatio-
temporal climate variability in semi-Arid Karamoja
sub-region in north eastern Uganda. International
Journal of Environmental Studies, 71(4), 490-509.
Academic based on
primary and empirical
analysis
This study analyses climate variability in Karamoja and finds that Rainfall
exhibited a non-significant long-term trend. The climate of the area is
variable (coefficient of variation-CV >35.0%) with spatio-temporal oddities
in rainfall and temperature. A rise in minimum (0.9 °C), maximum (1.6 °C)
and mean (1.3 °C) temperature occurred between 1979 and 2009.
Flintan, F. (2013). Summary brief: Opportunities to
promote integrated planning in the drylands of Kenya,
Ethiopia and Uganda. REGLAP, Nairobi Kenya
Grey literature based on
systematic review
This article is
an edited extract of the report ‘
Plotting Progress: Integrated
Planning in the Drylands of Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda, which responds
to the many issues and challenges of integrated development planning.
The extensive report draws together and reviews current and recent
experience in planning processes in the drylands of Ethiopia, Kenya and
Uganda
Salonen, R. (2012). The light of the future.
Godparents News. Vol. 14. No.9. Grey literature based on
experiential learning
This article presents experiences of socio-cultural and political dynamics
in Karamoja. It addresses issues relating to social/ethnic exclusion,
popular democracy, and participation challenges in Karamoja sub-region.
Grade, J., Tabuti, J., & Van Damme, P. (2010) The IK
Bridge to Innovation through Endogenous
Development.
http://www.tropicallab.ugent.be/jeanpos2.pdf
Grey literature from
primary and empirical
research
This study uses participatory methods to document EVK, and to create
local infrastructure to endogenously develop ways to preserve, promote
and protect local EVK. The study provided information that was essential
in increasing sharing, conservation and protection of natural resources,
particularly medicinal plants; and to increase interest in EVK among both
the Karamojong and external parties.
26
Reference
Type literature and
research type Summary
Houdet J., Muloopa H., Ochieng C., Kutegeka S. and
Nakangu B. (2014). Cost Benefit Analysis of the
Mining Sector in Karamoja, Uganda. Kampala,
Uganda: IUCN Uganda Country Office
Grey literature from
primary and empirical
analysis
This study conducted an economic, social and environmental cost-benefit
analysis (CBA) of Large Scale Mining and Artisanal and Small-scale
Mining in the region, with a view to help inform policy makers, civil society,
mining companies, and development agencies on best bet policy, legal,
regulatory, investment and environmental frameworks for responsible and
equitable mining
IUCN. (2014). A rangeland’s management framework
for Karamoja, 2014-2018: A handbook for local
governments and partners. IUCN, Kampala Uganda
Grey literature from
primary assessment and
analysis
This hand book presents a rangelands management framework for
Karamoja for the period 2014-2018 under the initiative of IUCN. The
provides an explanation of threats to the rangeland health in Karamoja
and the operationalisation framework for rangeland management.
Kagan, S., Pedersen, L., Ollech, S., & Knaute, D.
(2009, February). The Karamoja Syndrome:
Transdisciplinary systems research informing policy
and advocacy. In 1st World Conference of
Humanitarian Studies, Groningen.
Grey literature,
theoretical and
conceptual
This study presents a systematic, transdisciplinary diagnosis of the
contemporary development situation among the pastoralist communities
of Karamoja. The study uncovers local and global structures of
unsustainable developments, identifying functional patterns (or clinical
pictures) of interaction between humans and nature. It further draws
together different perspectives from ecological, demographic, economic,
political, cultural, technological gender and other perspectives.
Kagunyu, A. W., & Wanjohi, J. (2014). Camel rearing
replacing cattle production among the Borana
community in Isiolo County of Northern Kenya, as
climate variability bites. Pastoralism, 4(1), 1-5.
Academic from primary
and empirical analysis
This study focused at understanding whether a pastoral community of the
Borana community would let go their cattle culture and embrace camel
production. The study finds that the Borana have changed their
preference from cattle to camel rearing. The study identified the
constraints in camel production in the region to include: diseases, raiding
and competition from other livestock. There is need to employ animal
health workers to bail out the pastoralists from threats of livestock
diseases, and to promote peace in the region.
Kratli, S. (2001). Educating nomadic herders out of
poverty? Culture, education and pastoral livelihood in
Turkana and Karamoja. Institute of Development
Studies, University of Sussex, UK.
Grey literature based on
primary and empirical
analysis
This study focused on understanding the relationship between culture and
poverty, and particularly how attention to aspects of culture can help
reduce poverty and improve the well-being of the poor. The study
identifies three major issues to include: (i) Mainstream society in Kenya
and Uganda represents pastoralism as a fundamentally flawed way of life;
(ii) There is a wide gap between pastoral livelihood and its representation
within the culture of mainstream society; and (iii) The general cultural
attitude towards pastoralism, based on this misrepresentation, plays a
silent but pervasive role in undermining pastoral livelihood by reproducing
wrong policies, pre-empting service provision, turning positive
programmes into useless or negative outcomes and preventing
27
Reference
Type literature and
research type Summary
communication and good circulation of knowledge.
Ferreri, J., Frei, B., Ross, B., & Stoker, C. (2011).
Pastoralists, peace and livelihoods: Economic
interventions to build peace in Karamoja, Uganda.
The Elliot School of International Affairs, pp. 61.
Grey literature based on
systematic review
This report reports on pastoralists, peace and livelihoods based on the
economic interventions to build peace in Karamoja undertaken by Mercy
Corps. It recommends that Mercy Corps programming in Karamoja be
based in four key development areas: village and community-level
investments, value-chain development, natural resource management
and development, and local capacity building. Specific interventions within
these areas are identified, and are based on the theory of change that
links economic security with broader issues of security and peace.
Mirzeler, M., and Young, C. (2000). Pastoral politics
in the northeast periphery in Uganda: AK-47 as a
change agent. The Journal of Modern African Studies
38, 3: 407-429.
Academic based on
analytical discourse
This study presents a discourse on the effects of firearms on the
relationship between the state and pastoral communities in contemporary
northeast Uganda. It argues that the transformation of local modes of
conflict by large-scale infusion of the AK-47 has had far-reaching effects
both on relationships with the Ugandan state and its local representatives,
and within Karamoja societies. The younger men who possess these
weapons elude the authority of the elders, and entertain ambiguous
relations with the state authorities, whom they may serve as auxiliaries or
resist.
Gachathi, F. (2014). The promise of drylands. Miti,
Issue No. 22, pp8-11
Grey literature based on
primary evidence, and
analytical discourse
This study focuses on the promise existing in the drylands based on the
potential of plant resources in Karamoja to generate wealth and uplift the
people’s living standards. It provides the usefulness on several plant tree
species existing in the sub-region.
Eilu, G. (2014). The forgotten mountains of Uganda.
Miti, Issue No. 22, pp14-16
Grey literature based on
primary evidence, and
analytical discourse
This study potential of two mountain ranges (Mt. Moroto and Mt. Kadam)
in Karamoja to realise economic benefits. It also identifies the range of
challenges existing on the extractive nature and utilisation of resources on
these mountains.
Lokoru, A. and Ullerich, D. (2014). Planting trees in
the ‘land of thorns’. Miti, Issue No. 22, pp21-23.
Grey literature based on
primary evidence, and
experiential learning
This article presents experiences of an NGO in establishing tree
plantations in central Karamoja.
Ng. J. (2012). The pastoralist as outlaw: exclusion
and violence in Karamoja, Uganda. pp. 54
Academic, thesis based
on an analytical
discourse
This study explores the discourse of Karamoja, a historically marginal and
conflict affected pastoralist region in Uganda, from a critical theoretical
framework. It draws on Hayden White’s critique of historical discourse that
deconstructs tropic devices and Giorgio‚ gamben’s paradigm of the state
of exception as theoretical tools for its own critique of narratives depicting
the problems in Karamoja.
28
Reference
Type literature and
research type Summary
Obua, J., Agea, J. G., Namirembe, S., Egadu, S. P.,
& Mucunguzi, P. (2006). The potential of Acacia
senegal for dryland agroforestry and gum Arabic
production in Uganda. Journal of the Drylands, 1(2),
186-193.
Academic based on
primary and empirical
analysis
This study provides an account of studies undertaken to determine the
agroforestry and gum arabic production potential of Acacia senegal in the
drylands of Luwero, Nakasongola and Karamoja districts of Uganda. It
shows that the density of A. senegal varied in Karamoja and was highest
in Jie county.
Okia, C.A., Opolot, V.I., Sekatuba, J., Katumba, B.M.,
& Esegu, J.F. (2008). Use and conservation of
indigenous fruit tree diversity for improved livelihoods
in Eastern Africa. National Forestry Resources
Research Institute (NaFORRI), Kampala, Uganda.
Grey literature based on
primary and empirical
analysis
This report presents the experience and results of the project "Use and
Conservation of Indigenous Tree Diversity for Improved Livelihoods in
Eastern Africa" that was aimed at improving livelihoods and increase
incomes of rural farmers through growing, processing and marketing
products from indigenous fruit trees.
Umana-Aponte, M. (2011). Long-term effects of a
nutritional shock: the 1980 famine of Karamoja,
Uganda. Center for Market and Public Organisation.
Working Paper No. 11/258
Grey literature based on
primary and empirical
analysis
This paper uses the 1980 famine in Karamoja, Uganda, as a natural
experiment to evaluate its possible long-lasting cognitive and health
effects. Results indicate a strong negative impact on the educational
attainment of adults exposed to the famine in utero or infancy.
29
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