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Effects of Compression Garments on Performance and Recovery in Endurance Athletes
Abstract
Athletes specializing in different endurance sports at various levels of
performance wear compression garments to improve their performance and facilitate
recovery. The purpose of this chapter is outline the effects of compression
garments on performance and recovery in endurance disciplines. A computerized
research of the electronic databases PubMed, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, and Web
of Science (performed in December 2015) and articles published in peer-reviewed
journals were analyzed. Studies examining effects on performance, recovery,
physiological, and/or psychological parameters during or after endurance sports
comparing experimental (compression) and control (non-compression) trials were
investigated. A total of 55 articles involving 788 participants were included.
Compression garments exerted no significant improvements on performance in
running (400 m–42.195 km), triathlon, ice speed skating, cross country skiing, and
kayaking. Maximal and submaximal oxygen uptake, blood lactate concentrations,
blood gas analysis, cardiac parameters, and body temperature were not altered in
most of the considered studies during endurance exercise. Also in most studies,
perceived exertion as well as perceived temperature were not affected by compression.
Compression clothing significantly increased cycling performance, post
exercise blood lactate elimination and reductions in blood lactate concentration
during running, cycling, and cross country skiing. Three studies observed improved
muscular oxygenation following and during endurance exercise. Furthermore,
compression garments reduced post-exercise muscle soreness following running
and cycling in eight studies. We conclude that compression clothing has no significant impact on performance parameters during running, ice speed skating,
triathlon, cross country skiing and kayaking. The wearing of compression clothing
might improve cycling performance, reduce post-exercise muscle pain following
running and cycling, and facilitate lactate elimination during recovery.
... More research in the field is required; however, interestingly, while the ergogenic effect of CG is not a consistent finding across all types of exercise, it does appear to be beneficial for cycling, suggestive that the mechanism may be intrinsically linked to the mode of exercise. 39,40 In the current study, while we found a time effect for plasma lactate, no other noteworthy differences were observed between conditions during the TT to tease out some of the potential mechanisms for such an improvement in performance. However, plasma lactate was significantly lower for the HC group compared with CON and LC at the +30-and +60-minute posthigh-intensity trial (ie, day 1). ...
... 11 We suspect that the higher compression levels may contribute to a continued arterial return, increasing venous return and stroke volume, and consequently, increasing cardiac output. 39 This would explain the slight increase in systolic blood pressure. Nevertheless, further research directly measuring alterations in stroke volume, cardiac output, and heart rate are required to confirm these speculations. ...
Purpose:
Compression garments are widely used as a tool to accelerate recovery from intense exercise and have also gained traction as a performance aid, particularly during periods of limited recovery. This study tested the hypothesis that increased pressure levels applied via high-pressure compression garments would enhance "multiday" exercise performance.
Methods:
A single-blind crossover design, incorporating 3 experimental conditions-loose-fitting gym attire (CON), low-compression (LC), and high-compression (HC) garments-was adopted. A total of 10 trained male cyclists reported to the laboratory on 6 occasions, collated into 3 blocks of 2 consecutive visits. Each "block" consisted of 3 parts, an initial high-intensity protocol, a 24-hour period of controlled rest while wearing the applied condition/garment (CON, LC, and HC), and a subsequent 8-km cycling time trial, while wearing the respective garment. Subjective discomfort questionnaires and blood pressure were assessed prior to each exercise bout. Power output, oxygen consumption, and heart rate were continuously measured throughout exercise, with plasma lactate, creatine kinase, and myoglobin concentrations assessed at baseline and the end of exercise, as well as 30 and 60 minutes postexercise.
Results:
Time-trial performance was significantly improved during HC compared with both CON and LC (HC = 277 [83], CON = 266 [89], and LC = 265 [77] W; P < .05). In addition, plasma lactate was significantly lower at 30 and 60 minutes postexercise on day 1 in HC compared with CON. No significant differences were observed for oxygen consumption, heart rate, creatine kinase, or subjective markers of discomfort.
Conclusion:
The pressure levels exerted via lower-limb compression garments influence their effectiveness for cycling performance, particularly in the face of limited recovery.
... Therefore, the total sample size of this systematic review is rather small compared to other systematic reviews. 33,34 CONCLUSION This systematic review aimed at identifying eligible studies to evaluate the effects of CGs on skeletal muscle physiology, performance, and recovery in young healthy adults. In conclusion, this review found that the CGs were effective during exercising for improved blood circulation and moderate intensity runs in term of skeletal muscle physiology-related outcomes. ...
... Most recently, it was concluded that compression clothing had no significant impact on performance variables during distance running and other endurance disciplines (e.g. ice speed skating, triathlon, cross country skiing, and kayaking) (Engel et al., 2016). ...
Limited practical recommendations related to wearing compression garments for athletes can be drawn from the literature at the present time. We aimed to identify the effects of compression garments on physiological and perceptual measures of performance and recovery after uphill running with different pressure and distributions of applied compression. In a random, double blinded study, 10 trained male runners undertook three 8 km treadmill runs at a 6% elevation rate, with the intensity of 75% VO2max while wearing low, medium grade compression garments and high reverse grade compression. In all the trials, compression garments were worn during 4 hours post run. Creatine kinase, measurements of muscle soreness, ankle strength of plantar/dorsal flexors and mean performance time were then measured. The best mean performance time was observed in the medium grade compression garments with the time difference being: medium grade compression garments vs. high reverse grade compression garments. A positive trend in increasing peak torque of plantar flexion (60º·s-1, 120º·s-1) was found in the medium grade compression garments: a difference between 24 and 48 hours post run. The highest pain tolerance shift in the gastrocnemius muscle was the medium grade compression garments, 24 hour post run, with the shift being +11.37% for the lateral head and 6.63% for the medial head. In conclusion, a beneficial trend in the promotion of running performance and decreasing muscle soreness within 24 hour post exercise was apparent in medium grade compression garments.
Purpose
The circular design process in contemporary fashion design, from two-dimensional (2D) sketching and pattern making to three-dimensional (3D) prototypes, can be facilitated by virtual prototyping. Virtual pressure representations on avatars provide visual and quantitative information regarding garment fit and comfort, which are particularly important for active wear. The purpose of this study is to investigate the benefits of using avatars in active poses from 3D body scans and the use of digital 3D tools for the design process and the prediction of fit of active wear.
Design/methodology/approach
This research initially explores virtual fit of cycling wear in active poses and compares the actual pressure values from humans with virtual pressure maps on custom avatars made from body scans in cycling poses across a range of sizes.
Findings
Similar fit results were achieved visually in both the standing and cycling poses. However, the comparisons showed no correlation between the actual and virtual pressure data. Of the 32 cases representing different combinations of the parameters of this research (four sizes, two garment types, four active poses), the differences were significant. The results suggest that, rather than providing a direct correlation with pressure values on the body, the main value of avatar data is in providing comparative visual support for fit evaluation.
Originality/value
The approach taken in this research, which considers the active pose and the size range, potentially contributes to the improvement of virtual fit technology, and its more effective use in apparel product development and fit evaluation.
The study aimed to analyze whether the high compression of unique, tight-fitting sportswear influences the clothing physiology comfort of the athlete. Three specific sportswear with different compression were tested on four subjects while they were running on a treadmill with increasing intensity. The compression effect of the sportswear on the body of the test persons, the temperature distribution of the subjects, and the intensity of their perspiration during running were determined. The results indicate that the compression effect exerted by the garments significantly influences the clothing physiology comfort of the athlete; a higher compression load leads to more intense sweating and higher skin temperature.
Compression socks have become a popular recovery aid for distance running athletes. Although some physiological markers have been shown to be influenced by wearing these garments, scant evidence exists on their effects on functional recovery. This research aims to shed light onto whether the wearing of compression socks for 48 hours after marathon running can improve functional recovery, as measured by a timed treadmill test to exhaustion 14 days following marathon running. Athletes (n = 33, age, 38.5 ± 7.2 years) participating in the 2012 Melbourne, 2013 Canberra, or 2013 Gold Coast marathons were recruited and randomized into the compression sock or placebo group. A graded treadmill test to exhaustion was performed 2 weeks before and 2 weeks after each marathon. Time to exhaustion, average and maximum heart rates were recorded. Participants were asked to wear their socks for 48 hours immediately after completion of the marathon. The change in treadmill times (seconds) was recorded for each participant. Thirty-three participants completed the treadmill protocols. In the compression group, average treadmill run to exhaustion time 2 weeks after the marathon increased by 2.6% (52 ± 103 seconds). In the placebo group, run to exhaustion time decreased by 3.4% (-62 ± 130 seconds), P = 0.009. This shows a significant beneficial effect of compression socks on recovery compared with placebo. The wearing of below-knee compression socks for 48 hours after marathon running has been shown to improve functional recovery as measured by a graduated treadmill test to exhaustion 2 weeks after the event.
Marathon running evokes parallel increases in markers of coagulation and fibrinolysis (i.e. hemostatic activation) immediately following strenuous, endurance exercise such that hemostatic balance is maintained. However, other factors incident to marathon running (i.e. dehydration, travel) may disproportionately activate the coagulatory system, increasing blood clot risk after an endurance event in otherwise healthy individuals. We investigated the effect of compression socks on exercise-induced hemostatic activation and balance in endurance athletes running the 2013 Hartford Marathon.
Adults (n = 20) were divided into compression sock (SOCK; n = 10) and control (CONTROL; n = 10) groups. Age, anthropometrics, vital signs, training mileage and finishing time were collected. Venous blood samples were collected 1 day before, immediately after and 1 day following the marathon for analysis of coagulatory (i.e. thrombin-antithrombin complex [TAT] and D-dimer) and fibrinolytic (i.e. tissue plasminogen activator [t-PA]) factors.
Plasma D-dimer, TAT and t-PA did not differ between groups at baseline (p > 0.16). There were no significant group × time interactions (all p ≥ 0.17), however, average t-PA was lower in SOCK (8.9 ± 0.7 ng/mL) than CONTROL (11.2 ± 0.7 ng/mL) (p = 0.04). Average TAT also tended to be lower in SOCK (2.8 ± 0.2 μg/L) than CONTROL (3.4 ± 0.2 μg/L) (p = 0.07).
Our results suggest that overall hemostatic activation (both coagulation and fibrinolysis) following a marathon tended to be lower with compression socks. Thus, compression socks do not adversely influence markers of hemostasis, appear safe for overall use in runners and may reduce exercise-associated hemostatic activation in individuals at risk for deep vein thrombosis.
The use of graduated compression stockings (GCS) in sport has been increasing in the last years due to their potential positive effects for athletes. However, there is little evidence to support whether these types of garments actually improve cardiorespiratory performance. The aim of this study was to examine the cardiorespiratory responses of GCS during running after three weeks of regular use. Twenty recreational runners performed three tests on different days: test 1) - a 5-min maximal effort run in order to determine the participants' maximal aerobic speed; and tests 2) and 3) - a fatigue running test of 30 minutes at 80% of their maximal aerobic speed with either GCS or PLACEBO stockings at random. Cardiorespiratory parameters (minute ventilation, heart rate, relative oxygen consumption, relative carbon dioxide production, ventilatory equivalents for oxygen and carbon dioxide, and oxygen pulse) were measured. Before each test in the laboratory, the participants trained with the randomly assigned stockings (GCS or PLACEBO) for three weeks. No significant differences between GCS and PLACEBO were found in any of the cardiorespiratory parameters. In conclusion, the present study provides evidence that running with GCS for three weeks does not influence cardiorespiratory parameters in recreational runners.
This article investigates whether there is currently sufficient scientific knowledge for scientists to be able to give valid training recommendations to longdistance runners and their coaches on how to most effectively enhance the maximal oxygen uptake, lactate threshold and running economy. Relatively few training studies involving trained distance runners have been conducted, and these studies have often included methodological factors that make interpretation of the findings difficult. For example, the basis of most of the studies was to include one or more specific bouts of training in addition to the runners’ ‘normal training’, which was typically not described or only briefly described. The training status of the runners (e.g. off-season) during the study period was also typically not described. This inability to compare the runners’ training before and during the training intervention period is probably the main factor that hinders the interpretation of previous training studies. Arguably, the second greatest limitation is that only a few of the studies included more than one experimental group. Consequently, there is no comparison to allow the evaluation of the relative efficacy of the particular training intervention. Other factors include not controlling the runners’ training load during the study period, and employing small sample sizes that result in low statistical power. Much of the current knowledge relating to chronic adaptive responses to physical training has come from studies using sedentary individuals; however, directly applying this knowledge to formulate training recommendations for runners is unlikely to be valid. Therefore, it would be difficult to argue against the view that there is insufficient direct scientific evidence to formulate training recommendations based on the limited research. Although direct scientific evidence is limited, we believe that scientists can still formulate worthwhile training recommendations by integrating the information derived from training studies with other scientific knowledge. This knowledge includes the acute physiological responses in the various exercise domains, the structures and processes that limit the physiological determinants of long-distance running performance, and the adaptations associated with their enhancement. In the future, molecular biology may make an increasing contribution in identifying effective training methods, by identifying the genes that contribute to the variation in maximal oxygen uptake, the lactate threshold and running economy, as well as the biochemical and mechanical signals that induce these genes. Scientists should be cautious when giving training recommendations to runners and coaches based on the limited available scientific knowledge. This limited knowledge highlights that characterising the most effective training methods for long-distance runners is still a fruitful area for future research.
Previous studies have not investigated the effects of a heat dissipating upper body compression garment (UBCG) during cycling in a hot environment. The present study examined the effects of a heat dissipating UBCG on thermoregulatory, cardiorespiratory and perceptual responses (thermal sensation and exertion scales), during cycling at a fixed workload (~50% VO 2peak ) and during active recovery (~25% VO 2peak ).
Thirteen untrained males (mean ± SD; age 21 ± 6 years, VO2 peak 53.7 ± 5.0 ml∙kg-- 1∙ min-- 1 ) completed two randomized cycling trials consisting of a 5 min rest on a cycling ergometer, followed by 4 bouts of 14 min at a fixed load + 1 min active recovery. Followed further by 10 min of active recovery. Testing occurred in a hot environment (~40 ± 0.4ºC, 35 ± 2 % relative humidity, ~2.5 m·∙s-- 1 air velocity) and volunteers wore either a UBCG or non--UBCG (CON).
Wearing UBCG resulted in significantly smaller reduction in heart rate (31 ± 11 bpm v s . 46 ± 15 bpm) and higher VO2 and VCO2 values (P<0.05) during 10 min recovery period. No differences in rectal, skin and body temperature were observed during the trial between garment conditions. Clothing wetness sensation remained significantly higher wearing CON (P<0.05) during exercise although no significant differences in weight loss or in sweat rate were observed.
These results suggest that wearing heat dissipating UBCG had no thermoregulatory benefits during exercise and it had impaired cardiorespiratory responses during active recovery when exercising in a hot environment.
Compression garments on the lower limbs are increasingly popular among athletes who wish to improve performance, reduce exercise-induced discomfort, and reduce the risk of injury. However, the beneficial effects of compression garments have not been clearly established. We performed a review of the literature for prospective, randomized, controlled studies, using quantified lower limb compression in order to (1) describe the beneficial effects that have been identified with compression garments, and in which conditions; and (2) investigate whether there is a relation between the pressure applied and the reported effects. The pressure delivered were measured either in laboratory conditions on garments identical to those used in the studies, or derived from publication data. Twenty three original articles were selected for inclusion in this review. The effects of wearing compression garments during exercise are controversial, as most studies failed to demonstrate a beneficial effect on immediate or performance recovery, or on delayed onset of muscle soreness. There was a trend towards a beneficial effect of compression garments worn during recovery, with performance recovery found to be improved in the five studies in which this was investigated, and delayed-onset muscle soreness was reportedly reduced in three of these five studies. There is no apparent relation between the effects of compression garments worn during or after exercise and the pressures applied, since beneficial effects were obtained with both low and high pressures. Wearing compression garments during recovery from exercise seems to be beneficial for performance recovery and delayed-onset muscle soreness, but the factors explaining this efficacy remain to be elucidated.
Aim:
This study aimed to compare the kinetics of muscle leg blood flow during three recovery treatments following a prolonged exercise: contrast water therapy (CWT), compression stockings (CS) or passive recovery (PR).
Methods:
Fifteen men came to the laboratory three times to perform a 45-min exercise followed 5 min after by a standardized 12-min recovery treatment in upright position, alternating between two vats every 2 min: CWT (cold: ~12 °C to warm: 36 °C), CS (~20 mmHg) or PR. The order of treatments was randomized. Blood flow was measured using Doppler ultrasound during the recovery treatments (i.e., min 3, 5, 7 and 9) in the superficial femoral artery distally to the common bifurcation (~3 cm) (above the water and stocking).
Results:
Blood flow was significantly higher during CWT (P<0.01; +22.91%) and CS (P<0.05; +15.26%) than during PR. Although no statistical difference between CWT and CS was observed, effect sizes were larger during CWT (large) than during CS (moderate). No changes in blood flow occurred in the femoral artery between hot and cold transitions of CWT.
Conclusion:
During immediate recovery of a high intensity exercise, CWT and CS trigger higher femoral artery blood flow than PR. Moreover, effect sizes were greater during CWT than during CS.
Compression socks have become a popular recovery aid for distance running athletes. Although some physiological markers have been shown to be influenced by wearing these garments, scant evidence exists on their effects on functional recovery. This research aims to shed light onto whether the wearing of compression socks for 48 hours after marathon running can improve functional recovery, as measured by a timed treadmill test to exhaustion 14 days following marathon running.Athletes (n=33, age = 38.5 ±7.2yrs) participating in the 2012 Melbourne, 2013 Canberra or 2013 Gold Coast marathons were recruited and randomised into the compression sock or placebo group. A graded treadmill test to exhaustion was performed 2 weeks prior and 2 weeks following each marathon. Time to exhaustion, average and maximum heart rates were recorded. Participants were asked to wear their socks for 48 hours immediately after completion of the marathon. The change in treadmill times (seconds) was recorded for each participant.33 participants completed the treadmill protocols. In the compression group average treadmill run to exhaustion time 2 weeks following the marathon increased by 2.6% (52s ±103s). In the placebo group run to exhaustion time decreased by 3.4% (-62s ±130s). P=0.009. This shows a significant beneficial effect of compression socks on recovery compared to placebo.The wearing of below knee compression socks for 48 hours after marathon running has been shown to improve functional recovery as measured by a graduated treadmill test to exhaustion 2 weeks following the event.
Many researchers have investigated the effectiveness of contrast water therapy (CWT) or compression stockings (CS) during recovery, using subsequent performance as the principal outcome measure. However, data in the literature are contradictory, mainly because of the methodology used. Purpose: Based on well-controlled performance measures, this study aimed to compare the effects of CWT, CS or passive recovery (PR) on subsequent performance. Methods: After inclusion based on reproducibility criteria (intra-participant variability in performance test lower than the expected differences between the recovery interventions, i.e. 1.5%), 12 competitive male cyclists (peak power output: 5.0 ± 0.2 W/kg; cycling practice: 4.9 ± 0.4 times/week; intra-participant variability: 1.2 ± 0.2%) came to the laboratory three times in a random crossover design. Each time visit, they performed a tiring exercise on a cycle ergometer, followed by a 5-min performance test during which the mean power output was recorded, separated by a 15-min recovery period during which a 12-min PR, CWT (1:2 (cold: 10-12°C to warm: 36-38°C) min ratio) or CS (~20 mmHg) was implemented. Results: Compared with PR (353.8 ± 13.1 W), performance was significantly higher after CWT (368.1 ± 12.3 W) and CS (360.5 ± 14.8 W). Moreover, performance was significantly higher after CWT than after CS. Conclusion: Athletes can use this information as a way of improving their performance in competition format using repeated high-intensity exercises in a short period of time, such as in mountain bike, track or BMX races. Moreover, these data reinforce interest for researchers to consider performance tests with high test-retest reproducibility, especially when small but real benefits are expected.
Many researchers have investigated the effectiveness of contrast water therapy (CWT) or compression stockings (CS) during recovery, using subsequent performance as the principal outcome measure. However, data in the literature are contradictory, mainly because of the methodology used. Purpose: Based on well-controlled performance measures, this study aimed to compare the effects of CWT, CS or passive recovery (PR) on subsequent performance. Methods: After inclusion based on reproducibility criteria (intra-participant variability in performance test lower than the expected differences between the recovery interventions, i.e. 1.5%), 12 competitive male cyclists (peak power output: 5.0 ± 0.2 W/kg; cycling practice: 4.9 ± 0.4 times/week; intra-participant variability: 1.2 ± 0.2%) came to the laboratory three times in a random crossover design. Each time visit, they performed a tiring exercise on a cycle ergometer, followed by a 5-min performance test during which the mean power output was recorded, separated by a 15-min recovery period during which a 12-min PR, CWT (1:2 (cold: 10-12°C to warm: 36-38°C) min ratio) or CS (~20 mmHg) was implemented. Results: Compared with PR (353.8 ± 13.1 W), performance was significantly higher after CWT (368.1 ± 12.3 W) and CS (360.5 ± 14.8 W). Moreover, performance was significantly higher after CWT than after CS. Conclusion: Athletes can use this information as a way of improving their performance in competition format using repeated high-intensity exercises in a short period of time, such as in mountain bike, track or BMX races. Moreover, these data reinforce interest for researchers to consider performance tests with high test-retest reproducibility, especially when small but real benefits are expected.
Purpose:
Compression garments are often worn during exercise and allegedly have ergogenic and/or physiological effects. In this study, we compared hemodynamics and running performance while wearing compression and loose-fit breeches. We hypothesized that in neutral-warm environment compression breeches impair performance by diminishing body cooling via evaporative sweat loss and redistributing blood from active musculature to skin leading to a larger rise in body temperature and prolonging recovery of hemodynamics after exercise.
Methods:
Changes in hemodynamics (leg blood flow, heart rate, and blood pressure during orthoclinostatic test), calf muscle tissue oxygenation, and skin and core temperatures were measured in response to 30 min running (simulation of aerobic training session) followed by maximal 400 m sprint (evaluation of running performance) in recreationally active females (25.1 ± 4.2 yrs; 63.0 ± 8.6 kg) wearing compression or loose-fit breeches in randomized fashion.
Results:
Wearing compression breeches resulted in larger skin temperature rise under the garment during exercise and recovery (by about 1 °C, P < 0.05; statistical power > 85%), while core temperature dynamics and other measured parameters including circulation, running performance, and sensations were similar compared to wearing loose-fit breeches (P > 0.05).
Conclusion:
Compared with loose-fit breeches, compression breeches have neither positive nor negative physiological and performance effects for females running in thermoneutral environment.
The efficacy of and mechanisms behind the widespread use of lower leg compression as an ergogenic aid to improve running performance are unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine whether or not wearing graduated lower leg compression sleeves during exercise evokes changes in running economy (RE) perhaps due to altered gait mechanics. Sixteen highly-trained male distance runners completed two separate RE tests during a single laboratory session, including a randomized treatment trial of graduated calf compression sleeves (CS; 15-20 mmHg) and a control trial (CON) without compression sleeves. RE was determined by measuring oxygen consumption at three constant submaximal speeds of 233, 268, and 300 m·min-1 on a treadmill. Running mechanics were measured during the last 30 seconds of each four-minute stage of the RE test via wireless tri-axial 10g accelerometer devices attached to the top of each shoe. Ground contact time (tc), swing time (tsw), step frequency (SF), and step length (SL) were determined from accelerometric output corresponding to foot strike and toe-off events. Gait variability was calculated as the standard deviation of a given gait variable for an individual during the last 30 s of each stage. There were no differences in VO2 or kinematic variables between CON and CS trials at any of the speeds. Wearing lower leg compression does not alter the energetics of running at submaximal speeds through changes in running mechanics or other means. However, it appears that the individual response to wearing lower leg compression varies greatly and warrants further examination.
This article presents a historical overview and an up-to-date review of hyperthermia-induced fatigue during exercise in the heat. Exercise in the heat is associated with a thermoregulatory burden which mediates cardiovascular challenges and influence the cerebral function, increase the pulmonary ventilation, and alter muscle metabolism; which all potentially may contribute to fatigue and impair the ability to sustain power output during aerobic exercise. For maximal intensity exercise, the performance impairment is clearly influenced by cardiovascular limitations to simultaneously support thermoregulation and oxygen delivery to the active skeletal muscle. In contrast, during submaximal intensity exercise at a fixed intensity, muscle blood flow and oxygen consumption remain unchanged and the potential influence from cardiovascular stressing and/or high skin temperature is not related to decreased oxygen delivery to the skeletal muscles. Regardless, performance is markedly deteriorated and exercise-induced hyperthermia is associated with central fatigue as indicated by impaired ability to sustain maximal muscle activation during sustained contractions. The central fatigue appears to be influenced by neurotransmitter activity of the dopaminergic system, but inhibitory signals from thermoreceptors arising secondary to the elevated core, muscle and skin temperatures and augmented afferent feedback from the increased ventilation and the cardiovascular stressing (perhaps baroreceptor sensing of blood pressure stability) and metabolic alterations within the skeletal muscles are likely all factors of importance for afferent feedback to mediate hyperthermia-induced fatigue during submaximal intensity exercise. Taking all the potential factors into account, we propose an integrative model that may help understanding the interplay among factors, but also acknowledging that the influence from a given factor depends on the exercise hyperthermia situation.
Strenuous physical activity can result in exercise induced muscle damage. The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of a lower limb compression garment in accelerating recovery from a marathon run. Twenty four subjects (female n= 7, male n= 17) completed a marathon run before being assigned to a treatment group or a sham treatment group. The treatment group wore lower limb compression tights for 72 h following the marathon run, the sham treatment group received a single treatment of 15 min of sham ultrasound following the marathon run. Perceived muscle soreness, maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) and serum markers of Creatine Kinase (CK) and C-reactive protein (C-RP) were assessed before, immediately after and 24, 48 and 72 h post marathon. Perceived muscle soreness was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in the compression group at 24 h post marathon when compared to the sham group. There were no significant group effects for MVIC, CK and C-RP (p > 0.05). The use of a lower limb compression garment improved subjective perceptions of recovery, however there was no significant improvement in muscular strength, nor was there a significant attenuation in markers of exercise induced muscle damage and inflammation.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the opinions of experienced cyclists on perceived influence of a posture-cueing shirt with compressive properties on their comfort and recovery.
Twenty experienced cyclists wore a compressive shirt during rides and as a postride recovery shirt; cyclists rated their perceived experiences during rides and recovery. They completed 2 separate questionnaires specific to riding or recovery; scores ranged from - 3.0 (negative influence) to + 3.0 (positive influence), addressing posture, discomfort, breathing, and recovery. Data analysis included frequencies and t tests to compare groups.
Cyclists completed 53 rides, averaging 95.48 km (SD = 31.72 km), wearing the shirt and reported a perceived benefit (mean score = 1.17, SD = 0.25). For their postride recovery perceptions, scores averaged 1.99 (SD = 0.48) for perceived benefits for recovery. No differences in scores were identified between male and female cyclists during rides (t = - 0.28, P > .05); however, female riders perceived greater benefit during recovery (t = - 2.24, P < .05). There were no correlations with scores and cyclist age, experience, or ride distances during rides or recovery (r = 0.02-0.35).
A posture-cueing, compressive shirt was rated to have a perceived benefit by experienced cyclists for riding posture, postride posture, spine discomfort, and postride recovery. This study did not evaluate physical or physiologic variables to confirm these perceptions.
The purpose of this experiment was to investigate skeletal muscle blood flow and glucose uptake in m. biceps (BF) and m. quadriceps femoris (QF) 1) during recovery from high intensity cycle exercise, and 2) while wearing a compression short applying ~37 mmHg to the thigh muscles. Blood flow and glucose uptake were measured in the compressed and non-compressed leg of 6 healthy men by using positron emission tomography. At baseline blood flow in QF (P = 0.79) and BF (P = 0.90) did not differ between the compressed and the non-compressed leg. During recovery muscle blood flow was higher compared to baseline in both compressed (P<0.01) and non-compressed QF (P<0.001) but not in compressed (P = 0.41) and non-compressed BF (P = 0.05; effect size = 2.74). During recovery blood flow was lower in compressed QF (P<0.01) but not in BF (P = 0.26) compared to the non-compressed muscles. During baseline and recovery no differences in blood flow were detected between the superficial and deep parts of QF in both, comp
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of a compression garment as DOMS prevention.
This was accomplished by provoking a DOMS in 15 athletes, running on a treadmill at 73% of their maximal aerobic velocity, during 40 minutes with a 10% negative slope; wearing the compression garments on one thigh, protected thigh (PT), and not in the contralateral thigh, control thigh (CT).
A clinical and MRI diagnosis of DOMS was performed. Biopsies in both vastus lateralis were done, and the amount and severity of the DOMS was estimated by measuring intracellular albumin, and lymphocytes CD3+ and neutrophils intra/interfibrilar infiltrates, 48h after the induced damaging exercise.
There was less total injury in the PT than in the CT, a 26.7% average. These data indicate that this compression garment is an effective method to reduce the histological injury in DOMS.
KEY WORDS: albumin, biopsy, eccentric, inflammatory cells, muscle.
Abstract The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of wearing compression socks (CS) on performance indicators and physiological responses during prolonged trail running. Eleven trained runners completed a 15.6 km trail run at a competition intensity whilst wearing or not wearing CS. Counter movement jump, maximal voluntary contraction and the oxygenation profile of vastus lateralis muscle using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) method were measured before and following exercise. Run time, heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration and ratings of perceived exertion were evaluated during the CS and non-CS sessions. No significant difference in any dependent variables was observed during the run sessions. Run times were 5681.1±503.5 and 5696.7±530.7 s for the non-CS and CS conditions, respectively. The relative intensity during CS and non-CS runs corresponded to a range of 90.5-91.5% HRmax. Although NIRS measurements such as muscle oxygen uptake and muscle blood flow significantly increased following exercise (+57.7% and + 42.6%,+59.2% and + 32.4%, respectively for the CS and non-CS sessions, P<0.05), there was no difference between the run conditions. The findings suggest that competitive runners do not gain any practical or physiological benefits from wearing CS during prolonged off-road running.
This study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of compression stockings to prevent muscular damage and preserve muscular performance during a half-ironman triathlon.
Thirty-six experienced triathletes volunteered for this study. Participants were matched for age, anthropometric data and training status and placed into the experimental group (N = 19; using ankle-to-knee graduated compression stockings) or control group (N = 17; using regular socks). Participants competed in a half-ironman triathlon celebrated at 29 ± 3 °C and 73 ± 8 % of relative humidity. Race time was measured by means of chip timing. Pre- and post-race, maximal height and leg muscle power were measured during a countermovement jump. At the same time, blood myoglobin and creatine kinase concentrations were determined and the triathletes were asked for perceived exertion and muscle soreness using validated scales.
Total race time was not different between groups (315 ± 45 for the control group and 310 ± 32 min for the experimental group; P = 0.46). After the race, jump height (-8.5 ± 3.0 versus -9.2 ± 5.3 %; P = 0.47) and leg muscle power reductions (-13 ± 10 versus -15 ± 10 %; P = 0.72) were similar between groups. Post-race myoglobin (718 ± 119 versus 591 ± 100 μg/mL; P = 0.42) and creatine kinase concentrations (604 ± 137 versus 525 ± 69 U/L; P = 0.60) were not different between groups. Perceived muscle soreness (5.3 ± 2.1 versus 6.0 ± 2.0 arbitrary units; P = 0.42) and the rating of perceived effort (17 ± 2 versus 17 ± 2 arbitrary units; P = 0.58) were not different between groups after the race.
Wearing compression stockings did not represent any advantage for maintaining muscle function or reducing blood markers of muscle damage during a triathlon event.
The low oxidative demand and muscular adaptations accompanying eccentric exercise hold benefits for both healthy and clinical populations. Compression garments have been suggested to reduce muscle damage and maintain muscle function. This study investigated whether compression garments could benefit metabolic recovery from eccentric exercise. Following 30-min of downhill walking participants wore compression garments on one leg (COMP), the other leg was used as an internal, untreated control (CONT). The muscle metabolites phosphomonoester (PME), phosphodiester (PDE), phosphocreatine (PCr), inorganic phosphate (Pi) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) were evaluated at baseline, 1-h and 48-h after eccentric exercise using 31P-magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Subjective reports of muscle soreness were recorded at all time points. The pressure of the garment against the thigh was assessed at 1-h and 48-h following exercise. There was a significant increase in perceived muscle soreness from baseline in both the control (CONT) and compression (COMP) leg at 1-h and 48-h following eccentric exercise (p < 0.05). Relative to baseline, both CONT and COMP showed reduced pH at 1-h (p < 0.05). There was no difference between CONT and COMP pH at 1-h. COMP legs exhibited significantly (p < 0.05) elevated skeletal muscle PDE 1-h following exercise. There was no significant change in PCr/Pi, Mg2+ or PME at any time point or between CONT and COMP legs. Eccentric exercise causes disruption of pH control in skeletal muscle but does not cause disruption to cellular control of free energy. Compression garments may alter potential indices of the repair processes accompanying structural damage to the skeletal muscle following eccentric exercise allowing a faster cellular repair.
Purpose
To evaluate the effectiveness of different recovery strategies on repeat cycling performance where a short duration between exercise bouts is required.
Methods
Eleven highly trained cyclists (mean ± SD; age = 31 ± 6 y, mass = 74.6 ± 10.6 kg, height = 180.5 ± 8.1 cm) completed 4 trials each consisting of three 30-s maximal sprints (S1, S2, S3) on a cycle ergometer, separated by 20-min recovery periods. In a counterbalanced, crossover design, each trial involved subjects performing 1 of 4 recovery strategies: compression garments (COMP), electronic muscle stimulation (EMS), humidification therapy (HUM), and a passive control (CON). The sprint tests implemented a 60-s preload (at an intensity of 4.5 W/kg) before a 30-s maximal sprint. Mean power outputs (W) for the 3 sprints, in combination with perceived recovery and blood lactate concentration, were used to examine the effect of each recovery strategy.
Results
In CON, S2 and S3 were (mean ± SD) –2.1% ± 3.9% and –3.1% ± 4.2% lower than S1, respectively. Compared with CON, COMP resulted in a higher mean power output from S1 to S2 (mean ± 90%CL: 0.8% ± 1.2%; possibly beneficial) and from S1 to S3 (1.2% ± 1.9%; possibly beneficial), while HUM showed a higher mean power output from S1 to S3 (2.2% ± 2.5%; likely beneficial) relative to CON.
Conclusion
The authors suggest that both COMP and HUM may be effective strategies to enhance recovery between repeated sprint-cycling bouts separated by ~30 min.
Purpose:
To establish the thermal and performance effects of wearing a lower-body graduated compression garment (GCG) in a hot environment (35.2°C ± 0.1°C) with a representative radiant heat load (~800 W/m²) in contrast to a control (running shorts) and sham condition (a compression garment 1 size larger than that recommended by the manufacturer), with the latter included to establish any placebo effect.
Method:
Eight participants (mean ± SD; age 21 ± 2 y, height 1.77 ± 0.06 m, mass 72.8 ± 7.1 kg, surface area, 1.89 ± 0.10 m²) completed 3 treadmill tests at a fixed speed for 15 min followed by a self-paced 5-km time trial. Performance (completion time) and pacing (split time), thermal responses (aural, skin, and mean body temperature, cardiac frequency), and perceptual responses (rating of perceived exertion [RPE], thermal sensation, thermal comfort) were measured.
Results:
Performance in the compression group was not different than in either sham or control at any stage (P > .05); completion time 26.08 ± 4.08, 26.05 ± 3.27, and 25.18 ± 3.15 min, respectively. At the end of the 5-km time trial, RPE was not different; it was 19 ± 1 across conditions. In general, thermal and perceptual responses were not different, although the radiant heat load increased site-specific skin temperature (quadriceps) in the garment conditions.
Conclusion:
GCG did not enhance performance in a hot environment with a representative radiant heat load. The sham treatment did not benefit perception. GCG provided no evidence of performance enhancement.
Purpose:
To evaluate whether upper-body compression affects power output and selected metabolic, cardiorespiratory, hemodynamic, and perceptual responses during three 3-min sessions of double-poling (DP) sprint.
Method:
Ten well-trained male athletes (25 ± 4 y, 180 ± 4 cm, 74.6 ± 3.2 kg) performed such sprints on a DP ski ergometer with and without a long-sleeved compression garment.
Result:
Mean power output was not affected by such compression (216 ± 25 W in both cases; P = 1.00, effect size [ES] = 0.00), although blood lactate concentration was lowered (P < .05, ES = 0.50-1.02). Blood gases (ES = 0.07-0.50), oxygen uptake (ES = 0.04-0.28), production of carbon dioxide (ES = 0.01-0.46), heart rate (ES = 0.00-0.21), stroke volume (ES = 0.33-0.81), and cardiac output (ES = 0.20-0.91) were also all unaffected by upper-body compression (best P = 1.00). This was also the case for changes in the tissue saturation index (ES = 0.45-1.17) and total blood content of hemoglobin (ES = 0.09-0.85), as well as ratings of perceived exertion (ES = 0.15-0.88; best P = .96).
Conclusion:
The authors conclude that the performance of well-trained athletes during 3 × 3-min DP sprints will not be enhanced by upper-body compression.
Abstract While the effect of lower body compression garments on performance and physiological responses are well documented, no studies have examined the effect of upper body compression garments (UBCG) on upper-body dominant exercise. This study examined the effects of wearing UBCG on performance and physiological responses during simulated flat-water kayaking. Five male (mean values±s: 21.8±2.8 years; 83.5±9.2 kg; 63.0±5.5 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1)) and two female (mean values±s: 25.0±4.2 years; 71.4±2.7 kg; 51.0±4.8 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1)) elite flat-water kayakers completed a six-step incremental test followed by a four-minute maximal performance test (4minPT) in both UBCG and control (no shirt or sports training bra) conditions in a randomized counter-balanced order. Heart rate and oxygen consumption ([Formula: see text]O2) as well as performance measures (power, distance covered, stroke rate) were recorded during the tests, and blood lactate was measured immediately after each incremental step and three minutes following the 4minPT. Near-infrared spectroscopy-derived measures of blood flow and oxygenation of the flexor carpi radialis were monitored continuously for all tests. No significant differences between the UBCG and control conditions were evident for any performance, cardiorespiratory or oxygenation measure across the incremental step test and 4minPT. It was concluded that wearing UBCG did not provide any significant physiological or performance benefits during simulated flat-water kayaking.
The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of compression garments on recovery following damaging exercise. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted using studies that evaluated the efficacy of compression garments on measures of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), muscular strength, muscular power and creatine kinase (CK). Studies were extracted from a literature search of online databases. Data were extracted from 12 studies, where variables were measured at baseline and at 24 or 48 or 72 h postexercise. Analysis of pooled data indicated that the use of compression garments had a moderate effect in reducing the severity of DOMS (Hedges' g=0.403, 95% CI 0.236 to 0.569, p<0.001), muscle strength (Hedges' g=0.462, 95% CI 0.221 to 0.703, p<0.001), muscle power (Hedges' g=0.487, 95% CI 0.267 to 0.707, p<0.001) and CK (Hedges' g=0.439, 95% CI 0.171 to 0.706, p<0.001). These results indicate that compression garments are effective in enhancing recovery from muscle damage.
Background:
Compression garments are increasingly popular in long-distance running events where they are used to limit cumulative fatigue and symptoms associated with mild exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD). However, the effective benefits remain unclear.
Objective:
This study examined the effect of wearing compression stockings (CS) on EIMD indicators. Compression was applied during or after simulated trail races performed at competition pace in experienced off-road runners.
Methods:
Eleven highly trained male runners participated in 3 simulated trail races (15.6 km: uphill section 6.6 km, average gradient 13%, and downhill section 9.0 km, average gradient -9%) in a randomized crossover trial. The effect of wearing CS while running or during recovery was tested and compared with a control condition (ie, run and recovery without CS; non- CS). Indicators of muscle function, muscle damage (creatine kinase; CK), inflammation (interleukin-6; IL-6), and perceived muscle soreness were recorded at baseline (1 h before warm-up) and 1, 24, and 48 h after the run.
Results:
Perceived muscle soreness was likely to be lower when participants wore CS during trail running compared with the control condition (1 h postrun, 82% chance; 24 h postrun, 80% chance). A likely or possibly beneficial effect of wearing CS during running was also found for isometric peak torque at 1 h postrun (70% chance) and 24 h postrun (60% chance) and throughout the recovery period on countermovement jump, compared with non-CS. Possible, trivial, or unclear differences were observed for CK and IL-6 between all conditions.
Conclusion:
Wearing CS during simulated trail races mainly affects perceived leg soreness and muscle function. These benefits are visible very shortly after the start of the recovery period.
Objective:
To assess the effect of graduated compression stockings (GCS) on lower leg volume and leg complaints in runners during and after exercise.
Design:
Cross-sectional study.
Setting:
Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre and an outdoor running track in Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
Patients or other participants:
Thirteen Dutch trained recreational runners.
Intervention(s):
Participants used a GCS on 1 leg during running.
Main outcome measures:
(1) Lower leg volume of both legs was measured at baseline, directly after running, and at 5 minutes and 30 minutes after running using a validated perometer. (2) Leg complaints were reported on questionnaires at set intervals.
Results:
(1) In both experiments, the legs with GCS showed a reduction in mean (± SEM) leg volume directly after running, as compared with the leg without GCS: -14.1 ± 7.6 mL (P = .04) for the 10-km running track and -53.5 ± 17.8 mL (P = .03) for the maximum exercise test. This effect was not observed at 5 and 30 minutes after running. (2) No differences in leg complaints were reported in either experiment.
Conclusions:
The GCS prevented an increase in leg volume just after the running exercise. However, this result was not accompanied by a reduction in subjective questionnaire-reported leg complaints. The practical consequences of the present findings need further study.
Purpose
Compression garments have been commonly used in a medical setting as a method to promote blood flow. Increases in blood flow during exercise may aid in the delivery of oxygen to the exercising muscles and, subsequently, enhance performance. The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of wearing lower body compression garments during a cycling test.
Methods
Twelve highly trained cyclists (mean ± SD age 30 ± 6 y, mass 75.6 ± 5.8 kg, VO2peak 66.6 ± 3.4 mL · kg ⁻¹ · min ⁻¹ ) performed two 30-min cycling bouts on a cycle ergometer in a randomized, crossover design. During exercise, either full-length lower body compression garments (COMP) or above-knee cycling shorts (CON) were worn. Cycling bouts involved 15 min at a fixed workload (70% of VO2max power) followed by a 15-min time trial. Heart rate (HR) and blood lactate (BL) were measured during the fixed-intensity component of the cycling bout to determine the physiological effect of the garments. Calf girth (CG), thigh girth (TG) and perceived soreness (PS) were measured preexercise and postexercise.
Results
COMP produced a trivial effect on mean power output (ES = .14) compared with CON (mean ± 95% CI 1.3 ±1.0). COMP was also associated with a lower HR during the fixed-workload section of the test (−2.6% ± 2.3%, ES = −.38). There were no differences between groups for BL, CG, TG, and PS.
Conclusion
Wearing compression garments during cycling may result in trivial performance improvements of ~1% and may enhance oxygen delivery to the exercising muscles.
Rugg, S and Sternlicht, E. The effect of graduated compres-sion tights, compared with running shorts, on counter movement jump performance before and after submaximal running. J Strength Cond Res 27(4): 1067–1073, 2013— The purpose of this study was to determine if wearing gra-duated compression tights, compared with loose fitting run-ning shorts, would increase and or help sustain counter movement jump (CMJ) height after submaximal running. Fourteen competitive runners (6 women and 8 men) partici-pated in this study. The subjects' mean (6SD) for age, height, body mass, percent body fat, resting heart rate, and maximal heart rate were 28.2 6 14.0 years, 174.7 6 8.6 cm, 70.2 6 14.9 kg, 15.5 6 8.1%, 67.2 6 7.4 b.min 21 , and 186.5 6 9.5 b.min 21 , respectively. During testing, subjects wore a Polar RS400 heart rate monitor. Each trial consisted of 15 minutes of continual treadmill running with 5 minutes performed at 50%, 70%, and 85% of the subject's heart rate reserve. Using a Vertec vertical leaper, each subject performed 3 CMJ, both pre-and postrun trials, with the mean value used to measure relative leg power. In addition to the CMJ height data, each subject rated their level of per-ceived exertion (RPE), and their comfort level, after the post-run trials. The mean postrun CMJ height in graduated compression tights of 60.3 6 19.4 cm was significantly greater (at the p , 0.05 level) than both the prerun with tights of 57.7 6 19.4 cm (4.5% increase) and the postrun running shorts of 57.7 6 19.6 cm (4.5% increase). In addi-tion, the subjects reported a significantly lower level of perceived exertion and greater comfort values while wearing the graduated compression tights. The results of the present study support the use of graduated compression tights for maintenance of lower limb muscle power after submaximal endurance running.
Purpose:
To evaluate the effectiveness of different recovery strategies on repeat cycling performance where a short duration between exercise bouts is required.
Methods:
Eleven highly trained cyclists (mean ± SD; age = 31 ± 6 y, mass = 74.6 ± 10.6 kg, height = 180.5 ± 8.1 cm) completed 4 trials each consisting of three 30-s maximal sprints (S1, S2, S3) on a cycle ergometer, separated by 20-min recovery periods. In a counterbalanced, crossover design, each trial involved subjects performing 1 of 4 recovery strategies: compression garments (COMP), electronic muscle stimulation (EMS), humidification therapy (HUM), and a passive control (CON). The sprint tests implemented a 60-s preload (at an intensity of 4.5 W/kg) before a 30-s maximal sprint. Mean power outputs (W) for the 3 sprints, in combination with perceived recovery and blood lactate concentration, were used to examine the effect of each recovery strategy.
Results:
In CON, S2 and S3 were (mean ± SD) -2.1% ± 3.9% and -3.1% ± 4.2% lower than S1, respectively. Compared with CON, COMP resulted in a higher mean power output from S1 to S2 (mean ± 90%CL: 0.8% ± 1.2%; possibly beneficial) and from S1 to S3 (1.2% ± 1.9%; possibly beneficial), while HUM showed a higher mean power output from S1 to S3 (2.2% ± 2.5%; likely beneficial) relative to CON.
Conclusion:
The authors suggest that both COMP and HUM may be effective strategies to enhance recovery between repeated sprint-cycling bouts separated by ~30 min.
To assess original research addressing the effect of the application of compression clothing on sport performance and recovery after exercise, a computer-based literature research was performed in July 2011 using the electronic databases PubMed, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science. Studies examining the effect of compression clothing on endurance, strength and power, motor control, and physiological, psychological, and biomechanical parameters during or after exercise were included, and means and measures of variability of the outcome measures were recorded to estimate the effect size (Hedges g) and associated 95% confidence intervals for comparisons of experimental (compression) and control trials (noncompression). The characteristics of the compression clothing, participants, and study design were also extracted. The original research from peer-reviewed journals was examined using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) Scale. Results indicated small effect sizes for the application of compression clothing during exercise for short-duration sprints (10-60 m), vertical-jump height, extending time to exhaustion (such as running at VO2max or during incremental tests), and time-trial performance (3-60 min). When compression clothing was applied for recovery purposes after exercise, small to moderate effect sizes were observed in recovery of maximal strength and power, especially vertical-jump exercise; reductions in muscle swelling and perceived muscle pain; blood lactate removal; and increases in body temperature. These results suggest that the application of compression clothing may assist athletic performance and recovery in given situations with consideration of the effects magnitude and practical relevance.
Abstract. In addition to statistical validation of an intervention in the context of experimental and quasi-experimental designs for hypothesis testing, the practical relevance of an intervention plays a major role. Practical relevance is considered a measure of an experimental effect with respect to various practical issues. Cohen's effect size has become the standard for assessment. However, empirical studies show that effect sizes should not be interpreted statically, but rather dynamically. Furthermore, it seems that prior experience, the target group, the way questions are posed and the context of the study influence the outcome. In the future, in addition to statistical validation, greater consideration should be given to effect sizes to allow a qualitative assessment of a measure's practical relevance. However, the applicable study context and theoretical criteria of the respective research domains must be taken into account.
Key Words: statistical validation, practical relevance, effect size, strength training.
Purpose:
Compression garments have been commonly used in a medical setting as a method to promote blood flow. Increases in blood flow during exercise may aid in the delivery of oxygen to the exercising muscles and, subsequently, enhance performance. The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of wearing lower body compression garments during a cycling test.
Methods:
Twelve highly trained cyclists (mean ± SD age 30 ± 6 y, mass 75.6 ± 5.8 kg, VO2peak 66.6 ± 3.4 mL · kg-1 · min-1) performed two 30-min cycling bouts on a cycle ergometer in a randomized, crossover design. During exercise, either full-length lower body compression garments (COMP) or above-knee cycling shorts (CON) were worn. Cycling bouts involved 15 min at a fixed workload (70% of VO2max power) followed by a 15-min time trial. Heart rate (HR) and blood lactate (BL) were measured during the fixed-intensity component of the cycling bout to determine the physiological effect of the garments. Calf girth (CG), thigh girth (TG) and perceived soreness (PS) were measured preexercise and postexercise.
Results:
COMP produced a trivial effect on mean power output (ES = .14) compared with CON (mean ± 95% CI 1.3 ±1.0). COMP was also associated with a lower HR during the fixed-workload section of the test (-2.6% ± 2.3%, ES = -.38). There were no differences between groups for BL, CG, TG, and PS.
Conclusion:
Wearing compression garments during cycling may result in trivial performance improvements of ~1% and may enhance oxygen delivery to the exercising muscles.
Compression shorts have become a very popular item of sports apparel. Few data exist about whether they influence athletic performance. The purpose of this study was to determine whether compression shorts affected vertical jump performance after different fatigue tasks (i.e., endurance, strength, and power). In addition, experiments on the influence of a compression garment on joint position sense at the hip and muscle movement velocity upon landing impact was also studied. Healthy college age men and women participated in the various studies. Subjects were thoroughly familiarized with the jump tests and all other experimental techniques. Jumps were performed on an AMTI force plate which was interfaced to a computer with customized software used to determine jump power. Ten consecutive maximal counter movement jumps with arms held at waist level were performed. The compressive garment had no effect on the maximal power of the highest jump in either men or women. The compressive garment significantly enhanced mean power output in the jump test both before and after different fatigue tasks. The compressive garment enhanced joint position sense at the hip at 45°and 60°of flexion. A compression garment also significantly reduced the vertical velocity of muscle movement upon landing. These data indicate that compression shorts do not improve maximal jump power output. However, an enhanced mean power output during the repetitive maximal jump test was observed when wearing a compression garment. The performance improvement observed may be due to reduced muscle oscillation upon impact, psychological factors, and/or enhanced joint position sense.
This study aimed to investigate the effect of wearing graduated compression garments during recovery on subsequent 40-km time trial performance. In a randomized single-blind crossover experiment, 14 trained multisport male athletes (mean ± SD: age 33.8 ± 6.8 years, 40-km time 66:11 ± 2:10 minutes:seconds) were given a graduated full-leg-length compressive garment (76% Meryl Elastane, 24% Lycra) or a similar-looking noncompressive placebo garment (92% Polyester, 8% Spandex) to wear continuously for 24 hours after performing an initial 40-km time trial in their normal cycling attire. After the 24-hour recovery period, the compression (or placebo) garments were removed, and a second 40-km time trial was then completed to gauge the effect of each garment on subsequent performance. One week later, the groups were reversed and testing procedures repeated. The participant's hydration status, nutritional intake, and training were similar before each set of trials. Performance time in the second time trial was substantially improved with compression compared with placebo garments (1.2 ± 0.4%, mean ± 90% confidence interval). This improvement resulted in a substantially higher average power output after wearing the compression garment compared with that after wearing the placebo garment (3.3 ± 1.1%). Differences in oxygen cost and rating of perceived exertion between groups were trivial or unclear. The wearing of graduated compressive garments during recovery is likely to be worthwhile and unlikely to be harmful for well-trained endurance athletes.
High skin temperatures reduce the thermal gradient between the core and the skin and they can lead to a reduction in performance and increased risk of injury. Graduated compression stockings have become popular among runners in the last years and their use may influence the athlete’s thermoregulation. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of graduated compression stockings on skin temperature during running. Forty-four runners performed two running tests lasting 30 minutes (10 minutes of warm-up and 20 minutes at 75% of their maximal aerobic speed) with and without graduated compressive stockings. Skin temperature was measured in twelve regions of interest on the lower limbs by infrared thermography before and after running. Heart rate and perception of fatigue were assessed during the last minute of the running test. Compression stockings resulted in greater increase of temperature (p=0.002 and ES=2.2, 95%CI [0.11-0.45 °C]) not only in the body regions in contact (tibialis anterior, ankle anterior and gastrocnemius) but also in the body regions that were not in contact with the garment (vastus lateralis, abductor and semitendinosus). No differences were observed between conditions in heart rate and perception of fatigue (p>0.05 and ES<0.8). In conclusion, running with graduated compression stockings produces a greater increase of skin temperature without modifying the athlete’s heart rate and perception of fatigue.
Study design:
Case-control study; ecological study.
Objectives:
To examine the efficacy of wearing compression stockings to prevent muscle damage and to maintain running performance during a marathon competition.
Background:
Exercise-induced muscle damage has been identified as one of the main causes of the progressive decrease in running and muscular performance found during marathon races.
Methods:
Thirty-four experienced runners were pair-matched for age, anthropometric data, and best race time in the marathon, and randomly assigned to a control group (n = 17) of runners who wore conventional socks or to a group of runners who wore foot-to-knee graduated compression stockings (n = 17). Before and after the race, a sample of venous blood was obtained, and jump height and leg muscle power were measured during a countermovement jump. Serum myoglobin and creatine kinase concentrations were determined as blood markers of muscle fiber damage.
Results:
Total race time was not different between the control group and the compression stockings group (210 ± 23 and 214 ± 22 minutes, respectively; P = .58). Between the control group and the compression stockings group, postrace reductions in leg muscle power (-19.8% ± 17.7% versus -24.8% ± 18.4%, respectively; P = .37) and jump height (-25.3% ± 14.1% versus -32.5% . 20.4%, respectively; P = .27) were similar. At the end of the race, there were no differences between the control group and the compression stockings group in serum myoglobin (568 ± 347 ng·mL(-1) versus 573 ± 270 ng·mL(-1), respectively; P = .97) and creatine kinase concentration (390 ± 166 U·L(-1) versus 487 ± 227 U·L(-1), respectively; P = .16).
Conclusion:
The use of compression stockings did not improve running pace and did not prevent exercise-induced muscle damage during the marathon. Wearing compression stockings during long-distance running events is an ineffective strategy to avoid the deleterious effects of muscle damage on running performance.
Level of evidence:
Therapy, level 2b.
Most sporting compression stockings possess a graduated pressure profile. However, it remains unclear whether the graduated pressure profile is an essential feature for reducing the development of muscle fatigue. This study sought to examine the effect of the pressure profile of compression stockings on the degree of muscle fatigue of lower leg muscles induced by submaximal running exercise. 15 male subjects performed 30-min treadmill running in 1 control and 4 compression stocking conditions with the following profiles; 1) graduated low pressure, 2) graduated high pressure, 3) uniform pressure distribution, and 4) localized pressure just over the gastrocnemius muscle belly. Before and immediately after the exercise, T2-weighted magnetic resonance images of the right lower leg were obtained without testing garments. T2 values of the triceps surae and tibialis anterior were calculated from the images. T2 was significantly increased after the running in all conditions. The magnitude of T2 increase was significantly greater in the control than in other 3 conditions except for the one with graduated low pressure, whereas there were no significant differences among the latter 3 conditions. The findings suggest that a graduated pressure profile is not an essential feature of compression stockings for reducing the development of muscle fatigue during submaximal running exercise.
Aimed:
The purpose was to examine the changes in tissue oxygen saturation (StO2) with calf compression sleeves - before, during and after a cycling exercise.
Methods:
11 athletes came to the laboratory two times, to complete the same session with or without calf compression sleeves, in a randomized order. The session included a 15--min incremental cycling exercise: 3 min at each intensity - 40, 80, 120, 160 and 200 W, preceded (baseline) and followed (recovery) by a 10--min period at rest in seated position. Calf StO2 was recorded using near infrared spectroscopy during the three last min of the baseline period, during the cycling exercise and during the recovery period.
Results:
Baseline StO2 was significantly increased with the compression sleeves (p < 0.001;; +24.8 ± 3.5 %). During the cycling exercise, StO2 was significantly increased with the compression sleeves only at 40 W (p < 0.05;; +8.2 ± 3.7 %) and 80 W (p < 0.05;; +7.9 ± 3.7 %). At 120 W (p = 0.23;+5.0 ± 4.0 %), 160 W (p = 0.38;; +3.9 ± 4.1 %) and 200 W (p = 0.81;; --0.1 ± 4.9 %), no significant difference was found with compression sleeves. During the recovery period, StO2 was significantly increased with the compression sleeves (1 to 10 min: p < 0.001; +10.5 ± 1.3 %).
Conclusion:
This study shows that wearing calf compression sleeves increases StO2 at rest (before and after an exercise) and at low intensities in cycling (40 W and 80 W). At high intensities (120 W and more), compression sleeves is not useful to increase StO2.
Purpose:
A novel technique of neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) via the peroneal nerve has been shown to augment limb blood flow which could enhance recovery following exercise. The present study examined the effects of NMES, compared to graduated compression socks on muscle soreness, strength, and markers of muscle damage and inflammation following intense intermittent exercise.
Methods:
Twenty-one (age 21 ± 1 years, height 179 ± 7 cm, body mass 76 ± 9 kg,) healthy males performed a 90-min intermittent shuttle running test on three occasions. Following exercise, the following interventions were applied: passive recovery (CON), graduated compression socks (GCS) or NMES. Perceived muscle soreness (PMS) and muscle strength (isometric maximal voluntary contraction of knee extensors and flexors) were measured and a venous blood sample taken pre-exercise and 0, 1, 24, 48 and 72 h following exercise for measurement of creatine kinase (CK) and Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity and IL-6 and CRP concentrations.
Results:
PMS increased in all conditions immediately, 1 and 24 h post-exercise. At 24 h PMS was lower in NMES compared to GCS and CON (2.0 ± 1.6, 3.2 ± 2.1, 4.6 ± 2.0, respectively). At 48 h PMS was lower in NMES compared to CON (1.3 ± 1.5 and 3.1 ± 1.8, respectively). There were no differences between treatments for muscle strength, CK and LDH activity, IL-6 and CRP concentrations.
Conclusions:
The novel NMES technique is superior to GCS in reducing PMS following intense intermittent endurance exercise.
Existing studies have failed to provide evidence of a positive effect on exercise performance by wearing a compression short-tight covering only both thighs. This could be due to an inadequate pressure intensity that otherwise has a significant effect if applied on the crucial point in the thigh. This study aimed to examine the effect of pressure intensity of elastic compression short-tights on the metabolic state of thigh muscles during submaximal running.
Two groups of eleven male subjects performed treadmill running at 12 km/h in three conditions in each of experiment 1 (short-tights with a compression intensity at the thigh of 8 mmHg (LOW) and 15 mmHg (MID), and non-compression short as a control (CON1)) and experiment 2 (short-tights with 20 mmHg (MID-HIGH) and 25 mmHg (HIGH), and CON2). Before and immediately after the running exercises, T2-weighted magnetic resonance images of the right thigh were obtained without testing garments. From the images, skeletal muscle proton transverse relaxation time (T2) of each muscle in the thigh was calculated.
T2 was significantly increased after the treadmill running in all conditions in the hamstring and adductor muscles. In experiment 1, after the running T2 elevation was significantly smaller in MID than in CON1 for the biceps femoris, semimembranosus, adductor longus and adductor magnus muscles. In experiment 2, after the running T2 elevation was significantly lower in MID-HIGH than in CON2 and HIGH for the biceps femoris, semimembranosus, and adductor longus.
The findings suggest that wearing a compression short-tight with a pressure intensity of 15-20 mmHg at the thigh can reduce development of fatigue of exercising muscles during submaximal running exercise in healthy adult males.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of a compression garment as DOMS prevention. This was accomplished by provoking a DOMS in 15 athletes, running on a treadmill at 73% of their maximal aerobic velocity, during 40 minutes with a 10% negative slope; wearing the compression garments on one thigh, protected thigh (PT), and not in the contralateral thigh, control thigh (CT). A clinical and MRI diagnosis of DOMS was performed. Biopsies in both vastus lateralis were done, and the amount and severity of the DOMS was estimated by measuring intracellular albumin, and lymphocytes CD3+ and neutrophils intra/interfibrilar infiltrates, 48h after the induced damaging exercise. There was less total injury in the PT than in the CT, a 26.7% average. These data indicate that this compression garment is an effective method to reduce the histological injury in DOMS.
: There is a growing trend for runners to use compression stockings (CS) to improve performance. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of CS on physiological variables associated with running performance. Participants were ten NCAA Division III cross-country runners. The study utilized a randomized, crossover design with two conditions (with CS and without CS). Both conditions consisted of a maximal treadmill test that involved 3-minute stages of increasing speed and incline, separated by a minute and one-half walking recovery stage. Seven days later, the participants repeated the maximal test but switched CS condition. Heart rate (HR), blood lactate (BLa), blood lactate threshold (LT), maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and time to fatigue (TTF) were measured. Prior to, and during the maximal treadmill tests, the variables showed no significant difference (p < 0.05) between the CS conditions. BLa was lower while wearing CS when measured during recovery at the 1-minute (CS =13.3 ± 2.9 mmol[BULLET OPERATOR]L-1, non-CS = 14.8 ± 2.8 mmol[BULLET OPERATOR]L-1, p =0.03) and the 5-minute (CS = 11.0 ± 2.7 mmol[BULLET OPERATOR]L-1, non-CS = 12.8 ± 2.8mmol[BULLET OPERATOR]L-1, p = 0.02) periods. TTF was longer without CS (CS = 23.570 ± 2.39 min, non-CS = 23.93 ± 2.49 min, p = 0.04). These findings suggest that CS may not improve running performance, but could lend credence to certain manufacturers' claims of improved recovery, through lower BLa values following exercise.
Purpose:
The current investigation assessed tissue oxygenation and local blood volume in both vastus lateralis muscles during 3000-m race simulations in elite speed skaters on ice and the effects of leg compression on physiological, perceptual, and performance measures.
Methods:
Ten (6 female) elite ice speed skaters completed 2 on-ice trials with and without leg compression. Tissue oxygenation and local blood volume in both vastus lateralis muscles were assessed with near-infrared spectroscopy. Continuous measures of oxygen uptake, ventilation, heart rate, and velocity were conducted throughout the race simulations, as well as blood lactate concentration and ratings of perceived exertion before and after the trials. In addition, lap times were assessed.
Results:
The investigation of tissue oxygenation in both vastus lateralis muscles revealed an asymmetry (P < .00; effect size = 1.81) throughout the 3000-m race simulation. The application of leg compression did not affect oxygenation asymmetry (smallest P = .99; largest effect size = 0.31) or local blood volume (P = .33; 0.95). Lap times (P = .88; 0.43), velocity (P = .24; 0.84), oxygen uptake (P = .79; 0.10), ventilation (P = .11; 0.59), heart rate (P = .21; 0.89), blood lactate concentration (P = .82; 0.59), and ratings of perceived exertion (P = .19; 1.01) were also unaffected by the different types of clothing.
Conclusion:
Elite ice speed skaters show an asymmetry in tissue oxygenation of both vastus lateralis muscles during 3000-m events remaining during the long gliding phases along the straight sections of the track. Based on the data, the authors conclude that there are no performance-enhancing benefits from wearing leg compression under a normal racing suit.
The purpose of this study was to examine the physiological determinants of endurance cycling time trial performance in a heterogeneous group of competitive male road cyclists. 15 male cyclists who had all competed in cycling the preceding season were tested for the anthropometric variables height, body weight, leg length, ankle circumference and body fat percentage. They were also tested for maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), lactate threshold (LT), metabolic cost of cycling (CC), peak power output and average power output during a 30s Wingate test, 1RM and peak power in half-squats, and a time trial test (TT) on an ergometer. Heart rate (HR) and cadence (RPM) were continuously measured during all cycle tests. Pearson Bivariate correlation tests and single linear regression tests were performed to obtain correlation coefficients (r), effect size (F), standard error of estimate (SEE) and 95% confidence interval (CI). The single variable that correlated best with TT performance was power output at LT (r=0.87, p<0.01). SEE was 7.5%. LT expressed in %VO2max did not correlate significantly with TT performance. An equation representing both aerobic and anaerobic endurance capacity TT (w) = 0.95((VO2max / CC)TT %VO2max)+ 0.05(Wingate average) correlated strongly with TT laboratory performance (r=0.93, p<0.01, SEE = 5.7%). None of the strength, power or anthropometric variables correlated significantly with TT laboratory performance.
Context
Prior investigations using ice, massage, or exercise have not shown efficacy in relieving delayed-onset muscle soreness.
Objectives
To determine whether a compression sleeve worn immediately after maximal eccentric exercise enhances recovery.
Design
Randomized, controlled clinical study.
Setting
University sports medicine laboratory.
Participants
Fifteen healthy, non-strength-trained men, matched for physical criteria, randomly placed in a control group or a continuous compression-sleeve group (CS).
Methods and Measures
Subjects performed 2 sets of 50 arm curls. 1RM elbow flexion at 60°/s, upper-arm circumference, resting-elbow angle, serum creatine kinase (CK), and perception-of-soreness data were collected before exercise and for 3 days.
Results
CK was significantly ( P < .05) elevated from the baseline value in both groups, although the elevation in the CS group was less. CS prevented loss of elbow extension, decreased subjects’ perception of soreness, reduced swelling, and promoted recovery of force production.
Conclusions
Compression is important in soft-tissue-injury management.