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ORIGINAL PAPER
The Impact of Religious Commitment on Women’s
Sexual Self-Esteem
Dena M. Abbott
1
•Jeff E. Harris
1
•Debra Mollen
1
Published online: 13 July 2016
The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
Abstract Religious commitment is associated with decreased sexual activity, poor
sexual satisfaction, and sexual guilt, particularly among women. The purpose of this
paper was to investigate how religious commitment is related to sexual self-esteem
among women. Participants included 196 female undergraduate students, 87 % of
whom identified as Christian. Participants completed the Sexual Self-Esteem
Inventory for Women (SSEI-W), Religious Commitment Inventory-10, Revised
Religious Fundamentalism Scale, Brief Sexual Attitudes Scale, and a measure of
their perception of God’s view of sex. Results suggested that women with high
religious commitment held more conservative sexual attitudes. Significant rela-
tionships between religious commitment and two subscales (moral judgment and
attractiveness) of the SSEI-W revealed that women with high religious commitment
were less likely to perceive sex as congruent with their moral values and simulta-
neously reported significantly greater confidence in their sexual attractiveness. A
significant relationship between religious commitment and overall sexual self-es-
teem was found for women whose religion of origin was Catholicism, such that
those with higher religious commitment reported lower sexual self-esteem. A
hierarchical regression analysis revealed that high religious commitment and per-
ception that God viewed sex negatively independently predicted lower sexual self-
esteem, as related to moral judgment. Implications of the findings are provided.
&Dena M. Abbott
dabbott@twu.edu
Jeff E. Harris
jharris18@twu.edu
Debra Mollen
dmollen@twu.edu
1
Department of Psychology and Philosophy, Texas Woman’s University, 304 Administration
Drive, Denton, TX 76204, USA
123
Sexuality & Culture (2016) 20:1063–1082
DOI 10.1007/s12119-016-9374-x
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Keywords Sexual self-esteem Women’s sexuality Religion and sexuality
Psychology and sexuality
Introduction
Because sexual messages are often communicated through religious institutions or
religious authorities (Hunt and Jung 2009), religious commitment may have an
impact on the manner in which people perceive themselves sexually. As messages
about sex and sexuality vary greatly within and between faiths (Browning et al.
2006), these sexual self-perceptions likely differ based on the religion with which
one was raised and/or currently identifies, as well as the degree of religious
commitment to which one adheres. While some benefits of the impact of religion on
sexuality have been observed, given both the history of Christian denominations’
prescriptions regarding sex for women (Runkel 1998) as well as higher rates of
religiosity among women and prevalence of Christianity in the United States (U.S.)
(Pew Research Center 2015), it is possible that U.S. women’s sexuality may be
especially adversely affected by level of religious commitment.
To date, most of the research related to sex and religious commitment has been in
the context of exploring the relationship between religious beliefs and sexual
attitudes and behaviors in adolescent populations (Buzwell and Rosenthal 1996;
Edwards et al. 2008; Leonard and Scott-Jones 2010; Luquis et al. 2012; Penhollow
et al. 2005,2007; Zaleski and Schiaffino 2000). However, little is known about how
religion impacts sexual self-esteem, or the ways in which adult women subjectively
experience their sexuality (Mayers et al. 2003). The current study sought to explore
how and to what degree religious commitment impacted sexual self-esteem in a
sample of undergraduate women.
In an early meta-analysis of gender differences pertaining to sexuality, Oliver and
Hyde (1993) found that women reported less sexual permissiveness, more anxiety
and guilt related to sex, less frequent sex, and fewer sexual partners compared to
men. Women are more likely to endorse the idea that premarital sex is more
acceptable for men than women (Oliver and Hyde 1993). More recently, Petersen
and Hyde (2011) found that gender differences in sexual behaviors and attitudes
between men and women are often due in part to social expectations for women to
be more conservative sexually as well as strict regulations within certain societies or
institutions. Allen and Brooks (2012) found young college women were much more
likely compared to their male peers to retain their childhood religious beliefs and
were particularly conflicted about the message that sex outside of marriage was
wrong. Once married or in long-term committed relationships, women reported
greater emotional and physical satisfaction with sex than women in relationships
they expect to end (Waite and Joyner 2001). Therefore, the impact of conservative
sexual messages on religious women may be impacted by partnership status.
Despite the patriarchal nature of most major world religions (Browning et al.
2006; Hunt and Jung 2009), research indicates that women are more religious than
men (Pew Research Center 2015). Exploring sex differences in perceptions of sex,
Bonds-Raacke and Raacke (2011) found women more often noted religion as a
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means by which they dealt with stress and more frequently engaged with religious
media, such as television or radio shows. Compared to men, women simultaneously
report higher religiosity and lower sexual permissiveness (Brelsford et al. 2011) and
increased sexual constraints (Cochran and Beeghley 1991).
Sexual Self-Esteem
For the current investigation, we used Mayers et al.’s (2003) definition of sexual
self-esteem as a conceptualization of sexual self which may include evaluations of
sexual orientation, but also includes evaluations of one’s sexual appeal, compe-
tence, sexual behaviors, and/or value as a sexual being. In developing a measure,
Zeanah and Schwarz (1996) found sexual self-esteem was comprised of five
domains: the ability to enjoy sex with a partner (skill/experience); personal appraisal
of attractiveness to a partner (attractiveness); perception of agency in sexual acts
and managing sexual thoughts and feelings (control); the congruence of sexual
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors with personal moral standards (moral judgment);
and congruence of sexual behavior with personal aspirations (adaptiveness). Some
authors have referred to the construct of sexual self-esteem as sexual self-concept;
accordingly, we have retained the original term chosen by the authors of their
respective studies. High sexual self-esteem has been correlated with more positive
sexual experiences and relationships. In a 4-year longitudinal study, positive sexual
esteem among young adolescent women was associated with a steady increase in
sexual openness and a decrease in anxiety associated with sex over time. This
openness and decreased anxiety led to more frequent participation in sex that, in
turn, allowed young women to gain confidence and further bolster a positive sexual
self-concept (Hensel et al. 2011).
Researchers have shown that positive sexual self-esteem is also associated with
increased sexual satisfaction (Impett and Tolman 2006), frequent sexual commu-
nication (Oattes and Offman 2007), and safe sexual practices (Breakwell and
Millward 1997; Lou et al. 2010). To date, much of the research on sexual self-
esteem has primarily been centered on the experiences of adolescents and sexual
self-esteem’s impact on adolescents’ sexual risk-taking behaviors. Research exists
to suggest both a positive and negative relationship between sexual self-esteem and
sexual risk-taking. Research that has found a relationship between increased
religious commitment and an inhibition in sexual behaviors may contribute to the
perception of sexual behaviors among adolescents as negative and dangerous
experiences, rather than natural and positive parts of human development
(O’Sullivan et al. 2006).
Based on a study conducted with undergraduate students, Winter (1988) found
that sexual self-concept correlated positively with contraceptive use and higher
sexual self-concept was associated with use of more effective contraceptive
measures. Rostosky et al. (2008) identified a path from sexual risk-taking
knowledge to sexual self-efficacy mediated by sexual self-esteem such that those
with higher levels of sexual self-esteem reported higher levels of sexual self-
efficacy. As a result, adolescents with positive views of their sexual selves appear
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more likely to make responsible decisions regarding their sexual health (Rostosky
et al. 2008).
While some research supports the benefits of positive sexual self-esteem, other
studies note that it may increase sexual risk-taking, although risk-taking has often
been inadequately operationalized. Breakwell and Millward (1997), for example,
found a relationship between sexual responsibility and increased contraceptive use
in a sample of adolescent women. Buzwell and Rosenthal (1996) noted that
adolescents categorized as sexually competent, sexually adventurous, or sexually
driven were engaging in greater sexual risk-taking behaviors than those who were
sexually naı
¨ve or unassured. Though high risk behaviors included those that
involved an unsafe exchange of bodily fluids that may result in STIs, other
behaviors described as risky may not as clearly result in problematic outcomes when
sex is managed responsibly. For example, some authors have labeled as risky an
increased number of partners; some sexual activities, such as oral sex; casual sex
(Buzwell and Rosenthal 1996); and frequent sexual activity (Breakwell and
Millward 1997). Similarly and problematically, Pai et al. (2012) found a negative
relationship between sexual self-concept and sexual risk with sexual risk defined not
only as engagement in unprotected sex but also as a failure to delay dating and
failure to avoid sexual harassment (Pai et al. 2012), which tends to pathologize
normal adolescent behavior and may misattribute responsibility to those who
experience sexual harassment. We caution that although some research suggests that
positive sexual self-esteem may encourage sexual experimentation, the increased
frequency of sex, number of sexual partners, or engagement in sexual behaviors
may not necessarily be indicative of unsafe sexual practices.
Sexual Attitudes
Sexual attitudes refer to the ways in which individuals think and feel about multiple
dimensions of sex and sexuality, such as premarital sex or homosexuality. Often,
these attitudes are linked to one’s behaviors, as sexual behaviors may be driven by
more emotional components such as attitudes (Hendrick et al. 2006). Therefore,
sexual attitudes may inform sexual self-esteem, but they are a distinct construct that
includes both specific and broad attitudes about sex. Sexual permissiveness in
particular may contribute to women’s perceptions of themselves as sexual beings.
Kimberly et al. (2013) found strong, negative relationships between sexual attitudes,
including permissiveness, and religious commitment, such that higher sexual
attitude scores predicted lower levels of religious commitment.
Studies of the relationship between sexual attitudes and religious commitment
suggest that religious individuals’ sexual attitudes are more conservative (Kimberly
et al. 2013; Lefkowitz et al. 2004). Religious women have been shown to lack desire
for casual sex (Njus and Bane 2009) and oppose types of sex that are not
procreative, including masturbation (Davidson et al. 2004). When religious women
engage in non-procreative sexual behaviors, they report increased sexual guilt
(Cowden and Bradshaw 2007; Davidson et al. 1995).
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Women attending church more regularly have greater levels of guilt related to
petting, initial sexual experience, and current sexual behavior. Women also reported
more negative perceptions of non-procreative sexual activities, such as oral-genital
sex and anal intercourse (Davidson et al. 2004). This guilt may be more salient for
women who perceive sex as contradicting religious teachings more frequently than
men. Research exploring sex differences in sexual attitudes among religious
individuals found that 41 % of men but no women endorsed intercourse as an
acceptable behavior at the beginning of a relationship. In the context of a dating
relationship, 47 % of religious men and just 18 % of religious women endorsed
sexual intercourse as an acceptable practice (Leonard and Scott-Jones 2010).
While the relationship between sexual attitudes and religious commitment has
been explored, to the authors’ knowledge, the relationship between sexual attitudes
and sexual self-esteem among women has not yet been explored. Given that
conservative sexual attitudes limit the types of sexual behaviors women perceive as
appropriate and likely limit those in which they engage, and religious women
experience guilt related to their sexual behaviors, less permissive views of sex may
negatively impact women’s sexual self-esteem.
Sex and Level of Religious Commitment
Religious commitment is measured in a variety of ways such as assessing one’s
beliefs, church or religious service attendance, and internal experiences (Hill and
Hood 1999). Although slight differences in definition may exist, terms such as
religiosity, religiousness, and religious commitment are often used interchangeably
in the literature. Fundamentalism is an aspect of religiousness that refers to the
degree to which one is extreme in his or her adherence to a particular faith
(Ysseldyk et al. 2010) and perceives that faith to be the only true set of religious
teachings (Altemeyer and Hunsberger 2004).
Similar to studies of sexual self-esteem, studies related to sex and religious
commitment often explore the relationship between religious commitment and
adolescents’ sexual behaviors. Research suggests that higher levels of religious
commitment are associated with fewer sexual partners (Barken 2006), abstinence
(Edwards et al. 2008; Luquis et al. 2012), and decreased hooking up behavior
(Penhollow et al. 2007). High religious commitment’s ability to delay sex is often
framed as beneficial. However, little is known about women’s experiences of their
sexual selves, in the context of their religion, once they become sexually active.
Exploring the relationship between religiosity and sexual behavior in college
students, Penhollow et al. (2005) found those reporting less frequent church
attendance and fewer religious feelings were more likely to engage in a variety of
sexual behaviors. In a study of Mexican adolescents, Catholic girls reported having
engaged in first intercourse later than Catholic boys and nonreligious adolescents.
Greater church attendance and consideration of religious values when making
decisions about sex predicted greater endorsement of the importance of female
virginity (Espinosa-Hernandez et al. 2015). Owen et al. (2011) found no significant
impact of religiosity on frequency of hooking up after controlling for other factors
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such as alcohol use and depressive symptoms. Some research has demonstrated that
benefits of religiosity among adolescents, such as decreased number of sexual
partners, may not exist in in the Black community (Barken 2006). Though a great
deal of data exists to support level of religious commitment as a deterrent of risky
sexual behavior among adolescents, it may be overgeneralized and fail to consider
possible covariates such as family structure (Miller et al. 2001) and sex education
(Lindberg and Maddow-Zimet 2012).
Zaleski and Schiaffino (2000) found that religious individuals, whether
extrinsically or intrinsically oriented, engaged in less sexual activity. Similarly,
religiousness appears to reduce harmful health-related behaviors including engage-
ment by girls and women in sexual behaviors while abusing substances (Toussaint
2009). However, studies of religion and sex, particularly among adolescents, often
define safe sex as abstinence or infrequent sexual activity (Breakwell and Millward
1997; Buzwell and Rosenthal 1996). Zaleski and Schiaffino (2000) found
adolescents with high religious identification who were sexually active reported
less frequent condom use. Ahrold et al. (2011) found similar negative attitudes
toward condom use in those who were fundamentally religious.
Lefkowitz et al. (2004) found decreased sexual activity among emerging adults
with higher levels of religiosity. More religious participants were also more likely to
perceive condoms and condom use negatively and question the ability of condoms
to prevent pregnancy and STIs (Lefkowitz et al. 2004). Indeed, Davidson et al.
(2004) observed more religious young women were less likely to plan sexual
experiences and use condoms when participating in oral-genital sex. However, as
adolescents age and become involved in relationships they describe as committed,
they are more likely to engage in sex despite level of religious commitment
(Leonard and Scott-Jones 2010). Therefore, although more religious adolescents
may be abstinent, negative perceptions of contraception may become dangerous as
they age and enter adulthood and become more sexually active.
Studies have shown that religiosity may be associated with deleterious effects on
one’s sexual satisfaction. In a sample of unmarried older adults, McFarland et al.
(2011) found that more religious individuals were less likely to engage in sexual
activity, a relationship stronger in women. Interestingly, among the married sample,
religiosity was not related, as hypothesized, with greater frequency of sex or sexual
satisfaction regardless of the level of happiness in the marriage. Thus, in this study
religiosity was not predictive of an improved sex life, but did predict decreased
sexual activity among unmarried individuals (McFarland et al. 2011). Rowatt and
Schmitt (2003) found that individuals with intrinsic religious motivation, those who
internalize religious teachings and values, were more sexually restricted and desired
less sexual variety than those with extrinsic religious motivation, those who engage
in religious activities in order to gain benefits such as community but adhere
minimally to religious teachings. Intrinsically religious and fundamentally religious
women also report lower frequency of sexual fantasy (Ahrold et al. 2011). In a study
of sexual fantasy experiences among conservative Christians, participants reported
their behavior as morally unacceptable and engaging in sexual fantasizing provoked
guilt and anxiety (Gil 1990). These findings suggest potentially decreased sexual
satisfaction among religious women.
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Perception of God’s View of Sex
Research suggests that one’s attitudes about sex are shaped by religious beliefs and
messages from within the religious community. In order to relieve distress
associated with discrepancies between one’s faith and sexual practice, some gay
Christians find peace with their identities by providing alternative interpretations for
biblical texts that have traditionally been used to condemn them (Yip 2005).
Clinicians are encouraged to make those in faith-based communities aware of
positive depictions of sex and sexuality present in the bible (Haffner 2004).
Therefore, the interpretation of religious texts may play a significant role in
determining perceptions of others’ sexual behavior.
In a study of religiosity and sexual behavior in college students, a negative
relationship was found between God’s positive view of sex and giving oral sex
within the previous month, sexual intercourse within the previous month, and any
participation in anal sex. However, these results were only significant for men.
Generally, women who abstained from sexual intercourse had very low scores on
the measure of God’s positive view of sex (Penhollow et al. 2005).
Given that one’s interpretation of religious messages about sex impacts sexual
behavior, perception of God’s view of sex may impact the sexual self-esteem of
women and was included as a variable in the current investigation.
Rationale for Current Study
Hunt and Jung (2009) asserted that religion often serves as the gatekeeper of what is
deemed acceptable sexual practice. Most of the major world religions are situated
within patriarchy, a system linked with the history of oppression of women (Miller
2013). In consideration of this patriarchal structure, religious standards and
expectations around sex are typically particularly restrictive for women (Hunt and
Jung 2009). For women, traditional Christian religious views have often equated sex
with reproductive purposes contained within heterosexual marriage, ignoring
sensual gratification (Jantzen 2005). Even within heterosexual marriage, women
may struggle with sexual fulfillment as women’s sexual pleasure is often devalued
by the Christian church and only procreative, penile-vaginal sex is prescribed (Jung
2005). Although some Christians adhere to a more progressive interpretation of their
faith, with 70.6 % of people in the Unites States identifying as Christian (Pew
Research Center 2015), a significant number of U.S. women have likely experienced
restrictive messages regarding sex.
Most studies of religious commitment and sex are conducted with adolescent
samples in the context of sexual risk-taking. Although there is increasing interest in
sex-positivity, researchers more typically pursue scholarship focused on more
deleterious consequences of sex (Arakawa et al. 2013). Likewise, studies of sex and
religion often focus on the dangers of sex and the ability of religious commitment to
reduce participation in risky sexual behaviors (Barken 2006; Edwards et al. 2008;
Luquis et al. 2012; Penhollow et al. 2007). While some studies have explored the
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harmful role religious commitment may play in sexual satisfaction (McFarland et al.
2011; Rowatt and Schmitt 2003), sexual fantasy (Ahrold et al. 2011; Gil 1990), and
safe sex practices (Davidson et al. 2004; Lefkowitz et al. 2004), to the authors’
knowledge, there have been no published studies exploring the relationship among
religious commitment, fundamentalism, and sexual self-esteem in adult women, a
gap we intend to fill with the current investigation.
Hypotheses
As religion informs what is considered sexually appropriate and has traditionally
been less permissive of sexual behavior for women (Hunt and Jung 2009; Jantzen
2005; Jung 2005; Miller 2013), the purpose of the current study was to explore the
relationship between women’s religious commitment, religious fundamentalism,
sexual self-concept, sexual attitudes, and perception of God’s view of sex. As a
relationship between religiosity and negative perceptions of sexual behavior has
been established previously, we hypothesized that these perceptions would impact
how women perceive themselves sexually. Based on the extant research, we
generated the following hypotheses:
•Hypothesis 1: Women with higher religious commitment will have less sexually
permissive attitudes compared to women with low religious commitment.
•Hypothesis 2: Women with higher religious commitment will have lower sexual
self-esteem as compared to women with low religious commitment. This
hypothesis also predicted lower scores for all dimensions of sexual self-esteem
(perceived skill/experience, attractiveness, control, moral judgment, and adap-
tiveness) for women with greater religious commitment compared to women
with lower religious commitment.
•Hypothesis 3: Women with higher levels of religious fundamentalism will have
lower sexual self-esteem as compared to women with low religious fundamen-
talism. This hypothesis also predicted lower scores for all dimensions of sexual
self-esteem (perceived skill/experience, attractiveness, control, moral judgment,
and adaptiveness) for women with high levels of religious fundamentalism as
compared to women with lower levels of religious fundamentalism.
•Hypothesis 4: Women with less permissive sexual attitudes will have lower
sexual self-esteem as compared to women with more permissive sexual
attitudes. This hypothesis also predicted lower scores for all dimensions of
sexual self-esteem (perceived skill/experience, attractiveness, control, moral
judgment, and adaptiveness) for women with less permissive sexual attitudes as
compared to women with more open and permissive sexual attitudes.
•Hypothesis 5: If religious commitment predicts sexual self-esteem, the
relationship will be moderated by perception of God’s view of sex, such that
women with high levels of religious commitment whom believe God views sex
positively will have higher sexual self-esteem than those who believe God views
sex negatively. This hypothesis also predicted that religious commitment’s
relationship to all dimensions of sexual self-esteem (skill/experience,
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attractiveness, control, moral judgment, and adaptiveness) would be moderated
by perception of God’s view of sex.
Method
Participants
Female undergraduate college students (n=207) from a mid-sized public
university primarily for women in the United States Southwest were recruited via
the university’s SONA experiment management system. Eleven participants were
not included in the study due to duplicate entries or incomplete data for a final total
of 196 participants. Participants were currently enrolled in undergraduate level
psychology courses and voluntarily participated in this study in order to earn
required research credit for their courses. Participants ranged in age from 18 to
51 years (M=20.05, SD =4.6). The sample was diverse in ethnicity with 30.6 %
of participants identifying as White, 24.5 % as Hispanic or Latina, 24.5 % as Black,
15.3 % as Asian American or Pacific Islander, and 5.1 % as bi/multiracial or other.
Participants were predominantly heterosexual (93.4 %) and in their first year at the
university (61.2 %). Most participants identified their religion of origin (87.2 %)
and/or current religion as Christian (81.6 %), or a Christian denomination including
Protestant and Catholic (Table 1). Sexually active participants accounted for 56.6 %
of the sample, while 43.4 % of participants reported they were abstinent.
Instruments
Participants completed five questionnaires including the author-generated demo-
graphics questionnaire, the Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women (Zeanah and
Schwarz 1996), the Religious Commitment Inventory-10 (Worthington et al. 2003),
the Brief Sexual Attitudes Scale (Hendrick et al. 2006), the Revised Religious
Fundamentalism Scale (Altemeyer and Hunsberger 2004), and the Perception of
God’s View of Sex Scales (Penhollow et al. 2005).
Demographics
A 7-item demographics questionnaire was administered to identify participants’ age,
sex, ethnicity, religion of origin (the religion in which one was raised), current
religious preference, sexual orientation, and current level of sexual activity
(sexually active or abstinent).
Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women
The Sexual Self-Esteem Inventory for Women (SSEI-W) is a self-report measure of
women’s overall sexual self-concept or perception of sexual self (Zeanah and
Schwarz 1996). The scale consists of 81 items answered in Likert format wherein
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(1) indicates ‘‘strongly disagree’’ and (6) indicates ‘‘strongly agree.’’ Higher scores
indicate greater sexual self-concept. Reliability and validity studies were performed
on a sample of traditionally college-aged women, aged 18–22 (n=327). They were
predominantly White (90 %) and Catholic (66 %) or Protestant (20 %). In initial
testing, the scale demonstrated high internal consistency (a=.97). The measure is
composed of five subscales related to one’s self-perception including sexual
functioning: skill and experience, attractiveness, control, moral judgment, and
adaptiveness. Items include statements such as ‘‘I feel I am pretty good at sex’’ and
‘‘I have no regrets about the things I have done sexually’’ (Zeanah and Schwarz
1996). The current study demonstrated an alpha of .96.
Religious Commitment Inventory-10
The Religious Commitment Inventory-10 (RCI-10) was utilized to measure the
integration of religion into daily activities and the degree to which one views the
world through religious schemas (Worthington et al. 2003). The measure is a
10-item inventory answered in Likert format wherein (1) indicates ‘‘not at all true of
me’’ and (5) indicates ‘‘totally true of me.’’ Higher scores indicate greater levels of
religious commitment. The inventory was validated on a sample of undergraduate
students (n=155). In initial testing, the measure demonstrated high internal
consistency (a=.93) and 3-week test–retest reliability, r(155) =.87. Internal
consistency (a=.88) and test–retest reliability, r(121) =.84, remained moder-
ately high to high in a sample of Christian undergraduates (Worthington et al. 2003).
The RCI-10 includes intrapersonal and interpersonal subscales measuring aspects of
religious commitment. Items include statements such as ‘‘I spend time trying to
grow in understanding of my faith’’ and ‘‘I enjoy working in the activities of my
religious organization.’’ The current study demonstrated an alpha of .94.
Table 1 Participants’ religious
characteristics as a percentage of
the sample
Variable Level # of subjects % of subjects
Religion of origin
Christian 171 87.2
Atheist or Agnostic 6 3.0
Muslim 6 3.1
Buddhist or Hindu 6 3.1
Other 7 3.6
Current religion
Christian 160 81.6
Atheist or Agnostic 16 8.2
Muslim 5 2.6
Buddhist or Hindu 4 2.0
Other 11 5.6
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Brief Sexual Attitudes Scale
The Brief Sexual Attitudes Scale (BSAS) measures attitudes about sex by
evaluating multiple dimensions (Hendrick et al. 2006). The scale consists of 4
subscales: permissiveness, birth control, communion, and instrumentality. For the
purposes of this research, only the permissiveness subscale, measuring the extent to
which a person perceives sex as an informal act, was utilized. The permissiveness
subscale consists of 10 items to which respondents responded with level of
agreement in a Likert format in which (A) indicates ‘‘strongly agree with statement’’
and (E) indicates ‘‘strongly disagree with the statement.’’ The BSAS demonstrated
moderate to high internal consistency: permissiveness (a=.95). Items include
statements such as ‘‘casual sex is acceptable’’ and ‘‘it is okay for sex to be just good
physical release’’ (Hendrick et al. 2006). The current study demonstrated an alpha of
.91.
Revised Religious Fundamentalism Scale
The Revised Religious Fundamentalism Scale (RFS-R) measures the perception of
one’s religion as the only set of religious teachings containing the fundamental truth
about human existence and God and allowing for a special relationship with a deity
(Altemeyer and Hunsberger 2004). The RFS-R includes 12 statements to which
respondents may answer (-4) ‘‘very strongly disagree’’ to (?4) ‘‘very strongly
agree,’’ with (0) representing a neutral response. Items include statements such as
‘‘to lead the best, most meaningful life, one must belong to the one, fundamentally
true religion’’ and ‘‘God has given humanity a complete, unfailing guide to
happiness and salvation, which must be totally followed.’’ The current study
demonstrated an alpha of .90.
Perception of God’s View of Sex Scale (PGS)
The items related to perception of God’s view of sex measures the degree to which
one believes God has positive or negative views regarding sexual acts. The scale
consists of 6 items to which participants may respond (1) ‘‘strongly agree’’ to (5)
‘‘strongly disagree,’’ with (3) representing ‘‘undecided.’’ In a sample of college
students, the items demonstrated adequate internal consistency: negative items
(a=.73) and positive items (a=.64). Items include statements such as ‘‘God
intended sex to be only for procreation’’ and ‘‘sexuality is a gift of God and as such
should be enjoyed’’ (Penhollow et al. 2005). The current study demonstrated alphas
of .76 and .68 for negative and positive items, respectively.
Results
The first hypothesis predicted that women with higher religious commitment would
have more conservative sexual attitudes compared to women with low religious
commitment. As predicted by Hypothesis 1, religious commitment was significantly
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negatively correlated with sexual permissiveness, r=-.35, p\.01. This finding
indicates that more religious women were less likely to view sex as an informal act
and were less likely to see casual sex as acceptable. In an exploratory analysis
comparing sexually active women to abstinent women, religious commitment only
correlated significantly with sexual permissiveness for abstinent women, r=-.27,
p\.05, such that more religious, abstinent women held more conservative sexual
attitudes.
The second hypothesis predicted that women with higher religious commitment
would have lower overall sexual self-esteem compared to women with less religious
commitment. Religious commitment was not significantly correlated with overall
sexual self-esteem r=-.05, n.s. Correlations were also calculated for the five
subscales of the SSEI-W. Religious commitment showed significant correlations
with the subscales of moral judgment and attractiveness, a marginally significant
correlation with the adaptiveness subscale, and no significant correlation with the
subscales of control and skill/experience.
Religious commitment significantly negatively correlated with the moral
judgment subscale of the SSEI-W, r=-.25, p\.01, which suggests that religious
women were less likely to perceive their sexual behaviors and feelings as
acceptable and congruent with their own moral standards. Religious commitment
and adaptiveness displayed a marginally significant negative correlation, r=-.13,
p=.06. This finding suggests that religious women are less likely to be pleased
with the role sex plays in their lives and less likely to perceive sex as congruent with
their personal aspirations. Although not predicted, results revealed religious
commitment was significantly positively correlated with sexual attractiveness,
r=.22, p\.01. This finding suggests that religious women were more likely than
less religious women to be proud of their bodies and appraise their own sexual
attractiveness positively. Religious commitment was not significantly correlated
with skill/experience, r=-.07, n.s., nor control, r=-.06, n.s. but showed a non-
significant trend in the predicted direction. These findings indicate partial support
for Hypothesis 2.
The third hypothesis predicted that women with higher levels of religious
fundamentalism would have lower sexual self-esteem as compared to women with
low levels of religious fundamentalism. It also predicted women with higher levels
of religious fundamentalism would have lower scores on SSEI-W subscales of
skill/experience, attractiveness, control, moral judgment, and adaptiveness. Reli-
gious fundamentalism was not significantly correlated with overall sexual self-
esteem, r=-.04, n.s. Correlations were also calculated for the five subscales of the
SSEI-W. Religious fundamentalism showed significant correlations with three
subscales (moral judgment, adaptiveness, and attractiveness). No significant
correlations were found between religious fundamentalism and the two remaining
subscales (control and skill/experience). Religious fundamentalism was signifi-
cantly negatively correlated with both the moral judgment, r=-.28, p\.01, and
adaptiveness, r=-.14, p\.01, subscales of the SSEI-W. This finding suggests
that fundamentally religious women are less likely to perceive their sexual
behaviors and feelings as acceptable and congruent with their own moral standards.
Additionally, fundamentally religious women are less likely to value sex as a part of
1074 D. M. Abbott et al.
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their lives and less likely to perceive sex to be congruent with their personal
aspirations. Religious fundamentalism was not significantly correlated with
skill/experience, r=-.01, n.s., or control, r=.00, n.s. Although not predicted,
findings revealed religious fundamentalism was significantly positively correlated
with the sexual attractiveness, r=.19, p\.01. This result suggests that
fundamentally religious women were more likely to be proud of their bodies and
appraise their own sexual attractiveness positively. In an exploratory analysis,
increased religious commitment was associated with positive self-evaluations of
sexual attractiveness for both sexually active, r=.22, p\.05, and abstinent
women, r=.27, p\.05. However, religious fundamentalism was only signifi-
cantly related to sexual attractiveness for sexually active women, r=.21, p\.05.
Religious fundamentalism was not significantly associated with positive self-
evaluations of sexual attractiveness for abstinent women, r=.20, n.s.
The fourth hypothesis predicted that women with less sexually permissive
attitudes would have lower overall sexual self-esteem compared to women with
more sexually permissive attitudes. It also predicted women with less sexually
permissive attitudes would have lower scores on the subscales of skill/experience,
attractiveness, control, moral judgment, and adaptiveness. Sexual self-esteem was
not significantly correlated with sexual permissiveness (as measured by the BSAS),
r=-.07, n.s. Correlations were also calculated for the five subscales of the SSEI-
W. Sexually permissive attitudes were significantly correlated with one subscale
(control), marginally significantly correlated with one subscale (moral judgment).
Sexual permissiveness was not significantly correlated with the three remaining
subscales (skill/experience, adaptiveness, and attractiveness). Sexual permissiveness
was also not significantly correlated with skill/experience, r=-.08, n.s., attrac-
tiveness, r=-.12, n.s., or adaptiveness, r=-.03, n.s., subscales of the SSEI-W.
Although not initially predicted, sexual permissiveness displayed a marginally
significant positive correlation with the moral judgment scale of the SSEI-W,
r=.14, p=.06. This finding suggests that sexually permissive women are more
likely to experience their sexual behaviors as consistent with their moral values.
Also contrary to predictions, sexually permissive attitudes were significantly
negatively correlated with the control subscale of the SSEI-W, r=-.17, p\.05.
This finding suggests that women with sexually permissive attitudes were less likely
to feel agency and control over their sexual acts, thoughts, and feelings. Women
with sexually permissive attitudes were less likely to know what they wanted
sexually and would be less likely to communicate what they wanted sexually to a
partner (Table 2).
An exploratory analysis was performed to examine relationships between
variables by religion of origin and current religion. Religious commitment was
significantly negatively correlated with sexual self-esteem, r=-.28, p.\.05 for
those participants whose religion of origin was Catholic (n=58), suggesting that
religious women raised Catholic had poorer perceptions of their sexual selves than
less religious women raised in the Catholic faith. Sexual permissiveness was
significantly negatively correlated with sexual self-esteem, r=-.40, p.\.05, but
only for participants who reported their current religion was Protestant. This
suggests that women who identify as Protestant and who endorse sexually
The Impact of Religious Commitment on Women’s Sexual…1075
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permissive attitudes have poorer perceptions of their sexual selves than Protestant
women with less sexually permissive attitudes (Table 3).
To test the fifth hypothesis that perceptions of God’s view of sex serves a
moderating variable for the relationship between religious commitment and sexual
self-esteem, we conducted a hierarchical multiple regression analysis. As religious
commitment was only significantly correlated with the moral judgment subscale of
the SSEI-W, the relationship between religious commitment, perception of God’s
view of sex, and the moral judgment subscale of the SSEI-W were examined. The
overall model was significant, R
2
=.08, F(3, 195) =5.78, p.\.01. In the first step
two variables were included: religious commitment and perception of God’s view of
sex. These variables accounted for 8 % of the total variance in sexual self-esteem,
R2=F(2, 195) =8.40, p.\.001. Both religious commitment and perception of
God’s view of sex were significant independent predictors of the moral judgment
subscale of the SSEI-W. This finding suggests that religious commitment and
perception of God’s view of sex account for a small but statistically significant
amount of the variance in women’s belief that their sexual behaviors are congruent
with their morals. Religious women were less likely to view their sexual behaviors
and feelings as acceptable, b=-.21, t(195) =-3.02, p\.01. Although not
Table 3 Exploratory analysis
of variables by religion of origin
and current religion
*p\.05
Sexual self-esteem RCI RFS BSAS
Religion of origin
Christian -.07 -.02 -.06
Catholic -.28* -.08 .06
Protestant .04 -.06 -.12
Current religion
Christian -.03 .06 -.10
Catholic -.18 .13 .03
Protestant .29 .29 -.40*
Table 2 Correlations
Measure RC RF SP SSE Subscales of SSE
Sk/
Exp.
Attract. Control Moral Adapt.
Religious commitment – .66** -.35** -.05 -.07 .22** -.06 -.25** -.13
Religious
fundamentalism
–– -.44** -.04 -.01 .19** .00 -.28** -.14*
Sexual permissiveness – – – -.07 -.08 -.12 -.17* -.14 -.03
SSE sexual self esteem
*p\.05
** p\.01
1076 D. M. Abbott et al.
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predicted, women who perceived God as viewing sex negatively were more
confident in the congruence between their sexual behaviors and morals, b=.14,
t(195) =2.01,p\.05. The interaction term between religious commitment and
perception of God’s view of sex was added in the second step. It did not
significantly add to the amount of variance in sexual self-esteem; therefore,
perception of God’s view of sex does not appear to serve as a moderator of the
relationship between religious commitment and the moral judgment subscale of the
SSEI-W.
Discussion
Consistent with previous research (Ahrold et al. 2011; Davidson et al. 2004;
Kimberly et al. 2013; Lefkowitz et al. 2004; Njus and Bane 2009; Uecker 2008),
religious commitment was related to more conservative sexual attitudes in the
current study. Additionally, religious women were less likely to perceive their
sexual behaviors as congruent with their moral standards. As most of the sample
identified as Christian, this finding seems cogent given the sex-negative messages
often communicated by Christian organizations and authorities (Hunt and Jung
2009; Jantzen 2005). Although guilt was not assessed, this finding also appears to be
consistent with literature suggesting religious women experience guilt related to
their sexual behaviors (Cowden and Bradshaw 2007), in part due to women’s
perception that sex contradicts religious teachings (Leonard and Scott-Jones 2010).
Further, women high in fundamentalism were less likely to value sex in their lives
and aspirations. This finding appears consistent with literature that suggests
religious teachings frequently value only procreative sex for women, as opposed to
sex for pleasure (Jantzen 2005; Jung 2005).
Contrary to predictions, religious commitment and religious fundamentalism
were positively related to the attractiveness domain of sexual self-esteem suggesting
religious women positively evaluate their sexual attractiveness to a partner. One
possibility is that religious women view themselves as creatures of God, a perfect
being in whose image they are created, and accordingly, this may serve as a benefit
for some religious women. For abstinent women with high religious fundamental-
ism, the relationship between religious fundamentalism and sexual attractiveness
was no longer significant. This may suggest that fundamentally religious women,
who may have received particularly rigid messages about sex including that sex is
purely procreative, may find it challenging to view themselves as sexual beings
prior to being sexual with a partner.
Women in the study with less permissive sexual attitudes did not have lower
sexual self-esteem. In fact, women with permissive sexual attitudes were less likely
to feel agency in their sexual life. One possibility is that, although they may
perceive casual sex to be acceptable and pleasurable, from an early age women
receive messages related to the dangerousness of sex, the potential for rape, and the
stigma associated with women who are perceived as promiscuous. Therefore, it may
be that desire for sex is negatively impacted by fear regarding safety and reputation
that these messages create. Those with less permissive sexual attitudes may feel that
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123
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they are in greater control of their sexual lives as a result of engaging in fewer and
less risky sexual behaviors. This finding is consistent with the scholarship on the
sexual double standard (Kreager et al. 2016; Lefkowitz et al. 2014; Rudman et al.
2012).
The fifth hypothesis that the relationship between religious commitment and
sexual self-esteem was moderated by perception of God’s view of sex was not
supported. However, results provided more support for Hypothesis 2 and confirmed
that the direction of the relationship was such that religious commitment predicted
perceived incongruence between women’s sexual behaviors and moral standards.
The perception that God viewed sex negatively predicted the opposite, as women
who believed God was restrictive regarding sex were more likely to feel their sexual
behaviors were congruent with their moral standards. It may be that women who
believe God approves of sex only in an attempt to procreate via penile-vaginal
intercourse engage primarily in these sexual behaviors. Therefore, their behaviors
are consistent with their religious beliefs regarding sex and they experience greater
confidence in their moral judgment related to sex.
An exploratory analysis revealed that women who were raised Catholic had
lower overall sexual-self esteem. The same was true for women who currently
identified as Protestant and reported sexually permissive attitudes. The majority of
participants identified as Christian (40.3 %), rather than a more specific denom-
ination. It is possible that these participants retain a belief in Christian values
without participation in organized forms of Christian faith. Additionally, the
measure of religious commitment in this study did not require frequent church
attendance in order to be considered religiously committed. Therefore, it may be
that the majority of participants in the current study were not frequently exposed to
the restrictive sexual messages regarding women’s sexuality that are sometimes
communicated through religious authorities. Those who identified with a specific,
formal denomination within Christianity may have attended services or encountered
restrictive messages more frequently and, in turn, developed lower sexual self-
esteem.
Limitations
One limitation of the current study is that partner status was not assessed. There may
be differences in experiences of one’s sexuality when partnered versus unpartnered.
The average age of participants was 20 years old, all were college students, and
43.4 % reported they were abstinent. This population may not have a great deal of
sexual experience from which to draw and are also likely in a period of transition
wherein they are distinguishing their personal values from those of their parents or
caregivers. Specifically within Christian faith, sex is often celebrated in the context
of marriage, while abstinence is still proscribed for those who are unmarried
(Goddard 2015) and women in long-term committed relationships report greater
satisfaction with sex as compared to women in relationships they expect to end
(Waite and Joyner 2001). Therefore, married and partnered women may experience
their sexual selves more positively than single women of faith. Of note, previous
researchers have demonstrated that there is considerable variation in what college
1078 D. M. Abbott et al.
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students consider abstinent behavior (Hans and Kimberly 2011) and the terms
‘‘sexually active’’ and ‘‘abstinent’’ were not defined for participants. Therefore,
participants may have underreported sexual activity (DiClemente et al. 2011).
Because we did not ask for more specificity of participants’ sexual activity and
given the potential stigma of self-reporting sexual activity, our results should be
interpreted cautiously.
The internal reliability of the PGS was relatively low (.76 and .68 for negative
and positive items, respectively). Therefore, the PGS may not be a strong measure
of perception of God’s view of sex in the current study. As a result, any findings
related to the construct should be interpreted with caution.
Future Research
Future researchers should consider sampling a greater range of participants in age
and sexual experience. It would also be beneficial to assess in a more detailed
manner the level of sexual activity and in what types of sexual behaviors
participants engage regularly. To assess further the unique experiences of women in
this area, a comparison of sexual self-esteem between religious men and women
could be performed. Given the current study’s results related to those who were
raised Catholic or identify as Protestant, a sample consisting of individuals
participating in more formal, organized religion may be useful. It may also be
helpful to analyze the experiences of women related to their sexual self-esteem
using qualitative methods in order to assess common themes in their perception of
themselves sexually.
Conclusion
Women’s level of religious commitment impacts their sexual self-esteem in varied
and complex ways. While some religious variables negatively impact the ways in
which women perceive themselves sexually, such as in their evaluation of their
moral judgment related to sex, others appear to strengthen their sexual self-
evaluations, as in the case of sexual attractiveness. The current study suggests that
religious women experience a marked discrepancy between the sexual behaviors in
which they may engage and those they believe to be appropriate given their
religious beliefs, such that they are less confident in their moral judgments related to
sex. Conflicts regarding moral judgments and sexual activity could result in
deleterious effects among religious women. Further research is necessary to
continue to explore the complex relationship among gender, religion, sex, and moral
judgment.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare they have no conflict of interest.
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Human and Animal Rights All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in
accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the
1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, dis-
tribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original
author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were
made.
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