Vigorous deep-sea currents cause global anomaly in sediment accumulation in the Southern Ocean

Abstract

The vigorous current systems in the Southern Ocean play a key role in regulating the Earth’s oceans and climate, with the record of long-term environmental change mostly contained in deep-sea sediments. However, the well-established occurrence of widespread regional disconformities in the abyssal plains of the Southern Ocean attests to extensive erosion of deep-sea sediments during the Quaternary. We show that a wide belt of rapid sedimentation rates (> 5.5 cm/kyr) along the Southeast Indian Ridge (SEIR) is a global anomaly and occurs in a region of low surface productivity bounded by two major disconformity fields associated with the Kerguelen Plateau to the east and the Macquarie Ridge to the west. Our high-resolution numerical ocean circulation model shows that the disconformity fields occur in regions of intense bottom current activity where current speeds reach 0.2 m/s and are favorable for generating intense nepheloid layers. These layers are transported towards and along the SEIR to regions where bottom current velocities drop to < 0.03 m/s and fine particles settle out of suspension consistent with focusing factors significantly greater than 1. We suggest that the anomalous accumulation of sediment along an 8,000 km-long segment of the SEIR represents a giant succession of contourite drifts that is a major extension of the much smaller contourite east of Kerguelen and has occurred since 3–5 Ma based on the age of the oldest crust underlying the deposit. These inferred contourite drifts provide exceptionally valuable drilling targets for high-resolution climatic investigations of the Southern Ocean.

Full text

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Vigorous deep-sea currents cause global anomaly in sediment
accumulation in the Southern Ocean
Adriana Dutkiewicz1, R. Dietmar Müller1, Andrew McC. Hogg2,3, and Paul Spence3,4
1EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
2Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
3ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
4Climate Change Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
ABSTRACT
The vigorous current systems in the Southern Ocean play a key role in regulating the
Earth’s oceans and climate, with the record of long-term environmental change mostly con-
tained in deep-sea sediments. However, the well-established occurrence of widespread regional
disconformities in the abyssal plains of the Southern Ocean attests to extensive erosion of
deep-sea sediments during the Quaternary. We show that a wide belt of rapid sedimenta-
tion rates (>5.5 cm/k.y.) along the Southeast Indian Ridge (SEIR) is a global anomaly and
occurs in a region of low surface productivity bounded by two major disconformity fields
associated with the Kerguelen Plateau to the east and the Macquarie Ridge to the west. Our
high-resolution numerical ocean circulation model shows that the disconformity fields occur
in regions of intense bottom-current activity where current speeds reach 0.2 m/s and are favor-
able for generating intense nepheloid layers. These layers are transported toward and along
the SEIR to regions where bottom-current velocities drop to <0.03 m/s and fine particles settle
out of suspension, consistent with focusing factors significantly greater than 1. We suggest
that the anomalous accumulation of sediment along an 8000-km-long segment of the SEIR
represents a giant succession of contourite drifts that is a major extension of the much smaller
contourite east of Kerguelen Plateau and has occurred since 3–5 Ma based on the age of the
oldest crust underlying the deposit. These inferred contourite drifts provide exceptionally
valuable drilling targets for high-resolution climatic investigations of the Southern Ocean.
INTRODUCTION
The palimpsest nature of the abyssal seafloor
is nowhere more apparent than in the South-
ern Ocean where the mighty Antarctic Circum-
polar Current (Fig. 1), comprising a series of
braided jets, transports a massive volume of
ocean water eastward at an estimated 137 ± 7
× 106 m3/s (Meredith et al., 2011). Pioneering
magnetostratigraphic analysis of deep-sea sedi-
ment cores (Goodell and Watkins, 1968; Ken-
nett and Watkins, 1976; Ledbetter and Ciesielski,
1986; Osborn et al., 1983; Watkins and Ken-
nett, 1972) provided an unprecedented view of
the dynamic nature of deep-sea currents in the
Southern Ocean and their deleterious effect on
the continuity of the sedimentary record. This
evidence was supported by direct observations
of ocean-bottom bedforms (Kennett and Wat-
kins, 1976; Kolla et al., 1976) and manganese
nodules (Watkins and Kennett, 1977).
Understanding the transport of modern deep-
sea sediment is critical for accurate models of
paleoclimate and the widespread use of the sedi-
mentological record as a proxy for productiv-
ity where the connection between the seafloor
and sea surface is controvertible. The South-
ern Ocean, where diatoms contribute ~75% of
primary production (Crosta et al., 2005) and
dominate biogenic sediments (Goodell et al.,
1973), is a case in point. However, most of the
key studies on large-scale sediment reworking
in the Southern Ocean were conducted when
relatively little was known about the oceanogra-
phy of this region, and even the bathymetry and
tectonic fabric, which underpin the distribution
of deep-sea currents, were lacking detail. Here
we combine a high-resolution numerical model
of bottom currents with sedimentological data to
constrain the redistribution of sediment across
the abyssal plains and adjacent mid-ocean ridges
in the Southern Ocean.
METHODOLOGY
The distribution of Holocene disconformities
is based on our compilation of data on cored sur-
face sediments sampled in the Southern Ocean
that are missing material younger than 11.7 ka.
The data set includes a total of 632 sites with
paleomagnetic and/or micropaleontologic ages
from USNS Eltanin piston cores (Kennett and
Watkins, 1976; Osborn et al., 1983; Watkins and
Kennett, 1972) and ARA Islas Orcadas cores
(Ledbetter and Ciesielski, 1986), and 302 sites
where the surface sediment has been radiocarbon
dated, is constrained by an age model, or is
demonstrably undisturbed (Geibert et al., 2005).
The latter includes the Chase and Burckle (2015)
compilation and additional sites from various
cruises (see the GSA Data Repository1).
Long-term average sedimentation rates (Fig.
1A; Fig. DR1 in the Data Repository) were cal-
culated using global sediment thickness (Whit-
taker et al., 2013; Fig. DR2) and crustal age
(Müller et al., 2016; Fig. DR3). For 63 sites,
we obtained age model–derived sedimentation
rates and focusing factors (y) given as the ratio
of sediment accumulation rate to 230Th-normal-
ized sediment flux (vertical sediment rain rate)
(Dezileau et al., 2000; Francois et al., 2004; see
the Data Repository and Table DR1). Regions
with sediment focusing have y > 1, and those
with sediment winnowing have y < 1 (Dezileau
et al., 2000; Francois et al., 2004).
We use the global ocean-sea ice model (Geo-
physical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory [GFDL]
Modular Ocean Model version 1 [MOM1],
http://mom-ocean.org) to simulate global ocean
circulation at a resolution that results in real-
istic velocities throughout the water column
and is ideal for estimating interaction between
time-dependent bottom currents and ocean
bathymetry. The model is based on the GFDL
CM2.6 fully coupled climate model (Griffies et
al., 2015). GFDL-MOM1 nominally has a 1/10°
horizontal resolution, has 50 vertical levels, and
resolves mesoscale variability over the majority
of the global ocean (see Griffies et al., 2015, their
figure 1). GFDL-MOM1 is equilibrated for 35 yr
with repeated CORE Normal Year atmospheric
Forcing (CORE-NYF) (Griffies et al., 2009).
SEDIMENTATION RATES AND
FOCUSING FACTORS
Long-term average sedimentation rates in
the global ocean have a median value of 0.5
cm/k.y. (Fig. DR1). Rates of 6–10 cm/k.y. with
1
GSA Data Repository item 2016216, description
of sedimentological datasets, Table DR1, and Figures
DR1–DR20, is available online at www.geosociety
.org /pubs /ft2016.htm, or on request from editing@
geosociety.org.
GEOLOGY, August 2016; v. 44; no. 8; p. 663–666
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Data Repository item 2016216
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doi:10.1130/G38143.1
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Published online 8 July 2016
© 2016 Geological Society of America. For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org.

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maxima >50 cm/k.y. occur near continental mar-
gins and are prominent along passive margins
and the Bengal and Indus fans (Fig. DR1). A
high sedimentation rate in the equatorial Pacific
(Fig. DR1) is associated with rapid deposition of
biogenic sediment underlying a zone of intense
upwelling (Van Andel et al., 1975). A wide belt
of rapid sedimentation rates (>5.5 cm/k.y.) along
the Southeast Indian Ridge (SEIR) between
75°E and 150°E is a global anomaly (Fig. 1A;
Fig. DR1). This region is far removed from the
influence of high surface productivity (Soppa et
al., 2014) and lithogenous input, experiences low
to moderate vertical sediment flux (Fig. DR4),
and occurs over young oceanic crust (Fig. DR3)
adjacent to an abyssal plain where sedimenta-
tion rates would normally be close to the median
global value. This belt is much more extensive
than the area of sediment accumulation in the
northern North Atlantic (Fig. DR1), which is
linked to multiple contourite drifts (Rebesco
et al., 2014). Overall, the short-term Holocene
age model–derived sedimentation rates in the
Southern Ocean are moderately higher than
the long-term rates (Fig. 1A; Fig. DR5), with
a median difference of 1.7 cm/k.y. (Fig. DR5),
and show a linear relationship with the focusing
factors (Fig. 1C). This reflects a strong depen-
dence of Southern Ocean Holocene sedimenta-
tion rates on lateral sediment redistribution. The
focusing factors along the SEIR sedimentation
rate anomaly are consistently >1 with a mean
of 3 ± 2 (Fig. 2) and generally higher than else-
where in the Southern Ocean (Fig. DR6).
DISCONFORMITIES
Five major fields of Holocene disconfor
-
mities are evident in the Southern Ocean (Fig.
1B) (Dezileau et al., 2000; Kennett and Watkins,
1976; Ledbetter and Ciesielski, 1986; Osborn
et al., 1983; Watkins and Kennett, 1972), with
most occurring at latitudes higher than 50°S
within regions where the sedimentation rate is
very low (<1 cm/k.y.; Fig. DR7) and the water
depth is 3–5 km (Figs. DR8 and DR9). The larg-
est of these fields lies between 120°E and 165°E
and is associated with the SEIR and its triple
junction with Macquarie and Pacific-Antarctic
ridges (Fig. 1B). It occurs partly within the belt
of anomalously high sedimentation rates (Fig.
1A; Fig. DR7) and within a region of mixed
lithologies (Fig. DR10) characterized by rela-
tively low CaCO3 and high SiO2 contents (Figs.
DR11 and DR12). Smaller disconformity fields
occur east of the Kerguelen Plateau and in the
Weddell Sea, Bellingshausen, and Argentine
basins (Fig. 1B) where the sedimentation rates
are likewise low with nearby small pockets of
anomalously high sedimentation rates (Fig. 1;
Fig. DR7).
BOTTOM-WATER CURRENTS
The disconformity fields all overlap with
areas of intense eddy activity where the bottom-
current speeds and standard deviations exceed
0.1 m/s (Figs. 1B and 2) with a maximum of ~0.2
m/s. Bottom currents are steered by major bathy-
metric features (e.g., the Kerguelen Plateau, Fig.
2) due to Earth’s rotation, while smaller-scale
50°S
STF
SAF
SB
ACC
180˚
150˚W
120˚W
90˚W
60˚W
30˚W
0˚
30˚E
60˚E
90˚E
120˚E
150˚E
KP
AAD
SE Indian
Ridge
SW Indian
Ridge
Mid-Atlantic
Ridge
Pacific-Antarctic
Ridge
East Pacific
Ridge
Chile Rise
50°S
AB
AB
WSB
BB
Sedimentation rate (cm/k.y.)
0.000 0.015 0.030 0.045 0.060 0.075 0.090
Bottom current speed standard deviation (m/s)
y = 0.35x + 0.78
R = 0.75
0
5
10
15
20
010203040
Focusing factor
Sedimentation rate (cm/k.y.)
C
Figure 1. Sedimentation rates versus bottom current speeds in Southern Ocean. Stereographic projection. A: Long-term average sedimen-
tation rates overlain with Holocene age model–derived sedimentation rates (Table DR1 [see footnote 1]). Contours from Carter et al. (2009):
Subtropical Front (STF, dashed red line), Subantarctic Front (SAF, solid black line), Southern Boundary (SB, dashed black line) of Antarctic
Circumpolar Current (ACC). Solid red lines denote plate boundaries. B: Standard deviation of modeled present-day bottom-current speeds,
which is more representative than mean values because Southern Ocean experiences large variations in bottom-current speed. Conformities
(white symbols) and unconformities (green symbols) in Holocene sediment are shown as squares when based on magnetostratigraphic data
and as circles in all other cases (see text and the Data Repository for details). Major unconformity fields are highlighted by green outlines.
KP—Kerguelen Plateau; AAD—Australian-Antarctic discordance; AB—Argentine Basin; WSB—Weddell Sea Basin; BB—Bellingshausen Basin.
Note that maximum depth of AB (6.2 km) exceeds depth in our model (5.5 km), resulting in truncation of topography needed to dissipate
flow. WSB is outside of influence of ACC and its disconformity field is largely the product of ice streams creating powerful erosive turbidity
currents (Huang and Jokat, 2016) not captured in our model. C: Focusing factors versus Holocene sedimentation rates for Southern Ocean
(see the Data Repository and Table DR1 therein).

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features (e.g., seamounts) may impinge or
enhance current speeds (Rebesco et al., 2014).
We focus on the SEIR because of a clear juxta-
position of extreme differences in sedimenta-
tion rates and the occurrence of distinct fields
of sustained erosion linked to bottom-current
activity (Dezileau et al., 2000; Kennett and Wat-
kins, 1976; Osborn et al., 1983).
Our numerical model (Fig. 2) shows that the
SEIR is bounded by two major regions of high
bottom-current velocities whose occurrence
coincides with areas of seafloor disconformities
and low sedimentation rates (~1 ± 0.5 cm/k.y.;
Fig. 2) and whose movement is confined by the
Kerguelen Plateau to the west (Fig. 2A) and by
the Macquarie Ridge north of the Macquarie
Triple Junction to the east (Fig. 2B; Figs. DR13
and DR14). The general flow direction through
the Fawn Trough and the Kerguelen–St. Paul
Island Passage (Fig. 2A) is northerly and easterly
into the Australian-Antarctic Basin, consistent
with schematic circulation patters of McCart-
ney and Donohue (2007). The eastern sector of
the SEIR experiences severe seafloor erosion
at the Warringa fracture zone boundary of the
Antarctic-Australian Discordance and along
the flanks of all major fracture zones between
the George V and Balleny fracture zones (Fig.
2B). These regions are marked by high bottom-
current velocities (~0.05–0.1 m/s) augmented
by northerly flow due to the leakage of bottom
currents from the southern to the northern side of
the ridge (Fig. 2B) partly explaining the occur-
rence of patches of diatom ooze just north of
these fracture zones (Fig. DR15).
The anomalously high rates of sediment
accumulation along the SEIR are largely due to
lateral transport of sediment from the two areas
of high and variable bottom-current velocities
(Figs. 1B and 2; Fig. DR16) favorable for gen-
erating intense nepheloid layers as much as 2
km thick (McCave, 1986) to regions where low
bottom-current speeds (<0.03 m/s; Fig. 2) allow
fine particles to settle out of suspension (Rebesco
et al., 2014; Stow et al., 2009). This is the case
along most of the ~8000-km-long segment of the
SEIR between the Central Kerguelen Plateau and
the Tasman fracture zone (Fig. 2), which under-
lies areas of low summer surface productivity
with the exception of three short segments (Figs.
DR17–DR20). Transport of sediment within this
region is further supported by focusing factors
>>1 (Fig. 2; Table DR1).
We suggest that the anomalous accumulation
of sediment along the SEIR represents a giant
succession of contourite drifts that is a major
extension of the much smaller contourite east
of Kerguelen Plateau proposed by Dezileau et al.
(2000). Bottom-current velocities in this region
are consistent with velocities of <~0.06 m/s
expected for contourite drifts (Stow et al., 2009).
Likewise, sedimentation rates (Figs. 1A and 1C;
Table DR1) are within the low range of <2–10
cm/k.y. expected for open-ocean pelagic contou-
rite drifts (Stow et al., 2002). The distribution of
regional disconformities at the base and within
the drift (Fig. 1B) whose overall geometry is
outlined by anomalously high sedimentation
rates (Fig. 1A) is consistent with our numerical
bottom-current model (Fig. 1B). This suggests
that two SEIR regions (east of the Kerguelen
Plateau and northwest of the Macquarie triple
junction) have undergone long-term sustained
erosion by locally persistent currents resulting
in a gradual and extensive buildup of sediment
along the entire ridge segment between them.
This is supported by focusing factors ranging
from 1.5 to 9 similar to previously mapped val-
ues northeast of Kerguelen Plateau (Dezileau et
al., 2000). The age of the oldest crust subject to
anomalous accumulation of sediment is ca. 3–5
Ma based on the oceanic crustal ages from Mül-
ler et al. (2016) and broadly consistent with the
maximum ages of 2.5 Ma proposed by Kennett
and Watkins (1976) and 4.4. Ma by Osborn et al.
(1983) based on magnetostratigraphy.
CONCLUSIONS
Our combination of a high-resolution numer-
ical ocean circulation model with geological
observations from the seafloor allows us to
A
CKP
SKP
Southeast Indian
Ridge
Australian-Antarctic
Basin
B
AAD
TAS
Southeast Indian
Ridge
Australian-Antarctic
Basin
40˚S
50˚S
60˚S
160˚E140˚E120˚E
80˚E 100˚E
50˚S
60˚S
40˚S
Princess Elizabeth Trough
Fawn Trough
Vlamingh FZ
Geelvinck FZ
Warringa FZ George V FZ Macquarie
Ridge
Balleny FZ
Tasman FZ
Kerguelen-St. Paul
Island Passage
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
Bottom current velocity (m/s)
0.00.5 1.01.5 2.02.5 3.03.5 4.04.5 5.05.5 6.0
Sedimentation rate (cm/k.y.)
17.81.0
1.6
0.8
1.0
3.3
8.8
2.6 3.6
9.5
0.7
2.1
1.5
1.3
3.3
1.1
1.3
2.7
2.6
2.6
1.5
2.2
2.9
3.2
0.3
Figure 2. Quiver plot of modeled present-day bottom currents overlying long-term sedimenta-
tion rates and focusing factors (black circles) in the Southeast Indian Ridge region bounded by
the Kerguelen Plateau to the west (A) and Macquarie Ridge to the east (B). Note that currents
with very low velocities appear as white dots. CKP—Central Kerguelen Plateau; SKP—South-
ern Kerguelen Plateau; AAD—Australian-Antarctic Discordance; TAS—Tasmania; FZ—fracture
zone. Equidistant cylindrical projection.

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make a clear connection between two regions
of extremely vigorous bottom currents (east
of the Kerguelen Plateau and northwest of the
Macquarie triple junction) and widespread dis-
conformities. The intervening region along the
SEIR reveals a major global sedimentation rate
anomaly caused by excess sediment buildup in
the absence of high surface productivity. This
anomaly appears both in sedimentation rates
derived from total sediment thickness that are
consistent with Holocene age model–derived
sedimentation rates as well as in focusing factors
>>1 reflecting lateral redistribution of Holocene
sediment. We suggest that an 8000-km-length of
the SEIR crest overlying oceanic crust younger
than 5 Ma is covered by a vast succession of
hitherto unmapped Pliocene–Holocene contou-
rite deposits. Ocean drilling of the inferred con-
tourite drifts would provide a high-resolution
record of Southern Ocean climate change.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to all shipboard scientists. We thank
Tristan Salles and Nicky Wright for help with Python
scripting. We thank Nicky Wright, three anonymous
reviewers, and editor Judith Totman Parrish for their
very constructive criticisms. This research was sup-
ported by the University of Sydney Faculty of Science
Seed Grant (Dutkiewicz), the Australian Research
Council (ARC) ITRP grant IH130200012 (Müller),
and ARC Future FT120100842 (Hogg), and ARC
DECRA DE150100223 (Spence) fellowships.
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/G25259A.1.
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zoic changes in bottom water velocities between
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/AR019p0273.
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Manuscript received 25 May 2016
Revised manuscript received 8 June 2016
Manuscript accepted 15 June 2016
Printed in USA

"!
#$%!&%'%!()*+$,'+(-!2016216!
Appendix(DR1.(Description(of(sedimentological(datasets,(Table(DR1,(
Figures(DR1<DR20(
/0123245!6778957:!;4337<=5!;:457!1>2?:>!:<2@:>A!0<!5760@7<=!:;;4@4>:=02<!
0<!=B7!$24=B73<!+;7:<!
%630:<:!&4=C07D0;EFG!(H!&07=@:3!IJ>>73G!%<637D!I;KH!L211G!:<6!*:4>!$87<;7!
F;2337582<60<1!:4=B23M!:630:<:H64=C07D0;EN5A6<7AH764H:4
DATASETS
Holocene sediment ages
+43!4<;2<O23@0=A9;2<O23@0=A!6:=:57=!D:5!5488>7@7<=76!?A!6:=76!5760@7<=!;2375!O32@!
=B7!$24=B73<!+;7:<!<2=!O24<6!0<!=B7!KB:57!:<6!P43;C>7!QRS"TU!6:=:57=H!'B7!5760@7<=!
;2375!:37M!*$RSVS9"!:<6!!"#$%&'()QP0:<;B0!:<6!#7352<67G!RSSW:X!P0:<;B0!:<6!#7352<67G!
RSSW?X!P0:<;B0!:<6!#7352<67G!RSSW;UG!I&SY9ZSY[!Q$C0<<73!7=!:>HG!RS"S:G!?UG!(K""9\Z!
QKB:3>75!:<6!]:03?:<C5G!"VVR:X!KB:3>75!:<6!]:03?:<C5G!"VVR?UG!I&\W9TT"G!I&\W9TRY!
:<6!I&YZ9SRT!Q^:?3:;B7307!7=!:>HG!"V\V:G!?X!^:?3:;B7307!7=!:>HG!"V\V;UG!I&\\9YYS!
Q^:?7A307!7=!:>HG!"VV[:G!?UG!I(S\S[9*KSVG!I&SY9Z"R\!:<6!RSR9"RZZ!Q^:@A!7=!:>HG!
RS"T:G!?G!;G!6UG!*$RSZ\9RG!*$"\R"9[!:<6!*$"TYT9"!QP2<<!7=!:>HG!"VV\:G!?G!;G!6UG!
+$+SV"S_`KSWG!+$+SV"S_`KSVG!+$+SV"S_`K"SG!+$+SV"S_`K"TG!+$+SV"S_`K"VG!
+$+SV"S_`KRZ!:<6!&]\"_*KSY!Q`035B<73!7=!:>HG!RS"R:G!?UG!(K"R9RRT!:<6!I&\W9TRV!
QL2D:36!:<6!*37>>G!"VVW:G!?X!L2D:36!:<6!*37>>G!"VVW;UG!#+I)%9S[G!#+I)%9"WG!#+I)%9
"T!:<6!#+I)%9"[!Q#2EB0C!7=!:>HG!"VV":G!?UG!*$RS\R!:<6!*$"TS[9"!QI:;C7<57<!7=!:>HG!
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*$YTaST[9"!Q^:@A!7=!:>HG!RS"W:G!?G!;G!6G!7G!OG!1UG!'$*9RIKG!'$*9ZIK!:<6!'$*9R*K!
QI43:A:@:!7=!:>HG!RSSS:G!?UG!''bSTY9"Z9*KW!Q$B7@75B!7=!:>HG!RSSR:G!?UG!(K"Z9RRVG!
I&\\9Y[V!:<6!I&\S9ZSW!Q(257<=B:>!7=!:>HG!"VVT:G!?G!;G!6UG!`KSYZ!Q%>>7<!7=!:>HG!RSST:G!?UG!
&]YVHS"R9#PG!&]YVHSSV9#PG!K237ZSR!:<6!""V9YWS%!Q&2@:;C!7=!:>HG!"VV":G!?G!;G!6G!7UG!
I&SZ9RTVYG!bP*S"9S"9`K"YP!:<6!bP*S"9S"9c*K"YP!QI:66052<!7=!:>HG!RS"R:G!?UG!
*$"Z\S9Z!Q#32?7!:<6!I:;C7<57<G!"VVR:G!?UG!*$"Y\[9"G!*$R[S[9[!:<6!*$T\aRY"9"!
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d7!;:37O4>>A!37e07D76!:>>!Eltanin'50=75!O32@!d:=C0<5!:<6!`7<<7==!Q"VYRU!=B:=!B:6!?77<!
379:<:>AE76!?A!+5?23<!7=!:>H!Q"V\ZU!:<6!0<!3:37!0<5=:<;75!2O!605;378:<;075!0<!82>:30=A!
:5501<@7<=!D7!457!=B7!+5?23<!7=!:>H!Q"V\ZU!:175!:5!=B7!82>:30=A!@7:5437@7<=5!D737!
@:67!450<1!:!@237!57<50=0e7!@:1<7=2@7=73!:<6!D0=B!0@832e76!?025=3:=013:8B0;!;2<=32>H!
'B737!05!e73A!1226!:1377@7<=!?7=D77<!=B7!P34B<759:17!:5501<@7<=!2O!=B7!@:f230=A!2O!
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3752>e76!@7=B265!QKB:57!:<6!P43;C>7G!RS"TUH!(:37!7h;78=02<5!0<;>467!Eltanin!;2375!)"W9
T!:<6!)RS9"S!DB0;B!D737!e73A!D7>>96:=76!?A!KB:57!7=!:>H!QRSSZU!:<6!;2<=3:60;=76!=B7!
7:3>073!3754>=5!2O!#2267>>!:<6!d:=C0<5!Q"V[\UX!0<!=B757!;:575!=B7!KB:57!7=!:>H!QRSSZU!
6:=75!:37!4576H!

!
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Focusing(factors(
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QRSSSUM!
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DB737!Fe73=0;:>!05!=B7!5760@7<=!3:0<!3:=7!Q1a;@RaC:U!O23!:<!:1796:=76!5=3:=013:8B0;!
57;=02<X!F!05!=B7!:;;4@4>:=02<!3:=7!Q1a;@RaC:UX!ψ!05!=B7!O2;450<1!O:;=23!Q&7E0>7:4!7=!:>HG!
RSSSX!]3:<;205!7=!:>HG!"VVZX!]3:<;205!7=!:>HG!RSSWX!$4@:<!:<6!P:;2<G!"V\VUH!'B7!
:;;4@4>:=02<!3:=75!D737!;:>;4>:=76!O32@!>0<7:3!5760@7<=:=02<!571@7<=5!O32@!D7>>5!0<!
DB0;B!=B7!:17!@267>!05!6730e76!O32@!"WK!6:=0<1G!2hA17<!052=2875!23!:!;2@?0<:=02<!2O!
2hA17<!052=2875!:<6!?025=3:=013:8BA!:<6a23!"WK!6:=0<1!Q577!':?>7!&("!O23!>05=!2O!;2375U!
:<6!63A!?4>C!67<50=A!O23!:!10e7<!5:@8>7H!&3A!?4>C!67<50=075!D737!;:>;4>:=76!450<1!C<2D<!
K:K+Z!;2<=7<=!:<6!=B7!?75=9O0=!57;2<6923673!82>A<2@0:>!37>:=02<5B08!2O!]327>0;B!7=!:>H!
Q"VV"UM!
!
𝑩𝑫=𝟓.𝟑𝟏𝟑!×!𝟏𝟎!𝟓!×!(𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑)𝟐!+𝟗.𝟑𝟒𝟔!×!𝟏𝟎!𝟒×!𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑+!𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟕!
!
!DB737!BD!05!63A!?4>C!67<50=A!Q1a;@ZUH!,<!=B7!:?57<;7!2O!K:K+Z!@7:5437@7<=5!O23!:!5@:>>!
<4@?73!2O!;2375!Q577!':?>7!&("UG!:!@7:<!63A!?4>C!67<50=A!2O!SHW!1!;@9Z!O23!50>0;7245!
5760@7<=!Q#70?73=!7=!:>HG!RSSTU!D:5!4576H!%>>!e:>475!2O!Fe73=0;:>!Q0H7HG!230Th-normalized
sediment flux) D737!2?=:0<76!O32@!37O737<;75!;0=76!0<!':?>7!&("H!%5!@25=!2O!=B7!;2375!
;2<=:0<!@4>=08>7!@7:5437@7<=5!2O!K:K+Z!:<6!;2337582<60<1!230Th-normalized sediment
flux over the interval of interest, our focusing factors are averages over those intervals.!
(
)33235!O23!O2;450<1!O:;=235!:37!e73A!60OO0;4>=!=2!75=0@:=7!:<6!:37!3:37>A!37823=76H!]23!
7h:@8>7G!e:>475!10e7<!0<!&7E0>7:4!7=!:>H!QRSSSU!:<6!]3:<C!7=!:>H!Q"VVVU!:37!10e7<!D0=B24=!
733235!:>=B241B!]3:<C!7=!:>H!Q"VVVU!541175=5!=B:=!ψ!05!@7:<0<1O4>!0O!0=!05!501<0O0;:<=>A!
5@:>>73!Q0H7HG!i!TSjU!23!137:=73!Q0H7HG!k!TSjU!=B:<!"H!]23!;237!I&\\9YYZG!-4!Q"VVWU!10e75!
:<!73323!3:<17!2O! ±!SHZ!O23!O2;450<1!O:;=235!2O!VHT!:<6!ZHRH!&7580=7!4<;73=:0<=075G!
]3:<;205!7=!:>H!QRSSWU!:3147!=B:=!O2;450<1!O:;=235!:37!1226!832h075!O23!5760@7<=!O2;450<1H!
( (

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Table(DR1.!^2;:=02<G!D:=73!678=BG!5760@7<=:=02<!3:=75!:<6!O2;450<1!O:;=235!Q:e73:17!
2e73!=B7!0<=73e:>!2O!0<=7375=U!O23!;2375!O32@!=B7!$24=B73<!+;7:<H!$760@7<=:=02<!3:=75!
:<6!O2;450<1!O:;=235!:37!O23!=B7!L2>2;7<7!Q67O0<76!:5!S9"Z!C:!?A!&7>E0>7:4!7=!:>H!QRSSZU!
:<6!:88>076!B737!O23!;2@8:3:?0>0=A!37:52<5U!7h;78=!0<!=B7!;:57!2O!-4!Q"VVWU!6:=:!DB737!
=B7!e:>475!3783757<=!=B7!873026!S9"\!C:H!/:>475!0<!?2>6!:37!O32@!;0=76!37O737<;75G!:>>!
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;0=76!37O737<;75H!FK:K+Z!@7:5437@7<=!<2=!:e:0>:?>7H!$77!5488>7@7<=:3A!=7h=!O23!67=:0>H!
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(m)%
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Sedimentation%rate%
(cm/kyr)%
Focusing%factor%
Reference%
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