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The Rise of the "Just-in-Time Workforce": On-Demand Work, Crowdwork, and Labor Protection in the "Gig Economy"
Abstract
The so-called “gig-economy” has been growing exponentially in numbers and importance in recent years but its impact on labour rights has been largely overlooked. Forms of work in the “gig-economy” include “crowd work”, and “work-on-demand via apps”, under which the demand and supply of working activities is matched online or via mobile apps. These forms of work can provide a good match of job opportunities and allow flexible working schedules. However, they can also pave the way to a severe commodification of work. This paper discusses the implications of this commodification and advocates the full recognition of activities in the gig-economy as “work”. It shows how the gig-economy is not a separate silo of the economy and that is part of broader phenomena such as casualization and informalisation of work and the spread of non-standard forms of employment. It then addresses the issue of misclassification of the employment status of workers in the gig-economy. Current relevant trends are thus examined, such as the emergence of forms of self-organisation of workers. Finally, some policy proposals are critically analysed, such as the possibility of creating an intermediate category of worker between “employee” and “independent contractor” to classify work in the gig-economy, and other tentative proposals are put forward such extension of fundamental labour rights to all workers irrespective of employment status, and recognition of the role of social partners in this respect, whilst avoiding temptations of hastened deregulation.
... For instance, platforms such as Uber and Airbnb not only exemplify this shift but also underscore the sector's rapid evolution and its implications for traditional employment models. 1,2 As this sector expands, understanding its ramifications on labor markets becomes crucial. This analysis will explore the gig economy's role in reshaping work practices, emphasizing how it affects employment security and work-life balance across various demographics and industries. ...
... The rise of the gig economy has been facilitated by technological advancements that have created platforms allowing individuals to connect directly with those who need services on an as-needed basis. 1,2 This shift toward gig work is also indicative of broader cultural changes where workers seek greater control over their working hours and conditions, reflecting a significant transformation in how labor is organized and compensated in the modern economy. 4 ...
... This change is particularly evident among millennials and Gen Zers, who prioritize work-life balance and self-management more prominently than previous generations. 1 The desire for a better quality of life, coupled with the opportunity to craft a personalized work schedule, has made gig work an attractive option. 7 Additionally, the economic landscape has influenced the growth of gig work. ...
This review explores the pervasive influence of the gig economy on labor markets, highlighting its implications for employment stability and work–life balance. With the rise of digital platforms like Uber and Airbnb, traditional employment structures are undergoing a transformation, leading to a shift toward more flexible but less secure job arrangements. The analysis covers the dual nature of this shift: the increased autonomy and flexibility it offers, and the challenges of job insecurity and fragmented work life it brings along. By delving into various facets such as legal challenges, economic impacts, and shifts in employment patterns, the article provides a comprehensive overview of how the gig economy is reshaping the labor landscape.
... As traditional employment opportunities wane, the gig economy has surged, offering flexible but often precarious work arrangements. Platforms like Uber, Fiverr, and Upwork enable individuals to offer services on a freelance basis, bypassing traditional employment structures (De Stefano, 2016). While this shift provides flexibility and autonomy, it also introduces instability, lack of benefits, and income uncertainty for workers. ...
... The gig economy reflects a broader trend towards contingent work, where short-term contracts and freelance assignments replace long-term employment. This transition challenges the conventional notions of job security and career progression, necessitating new frameworks for worker protection and benefits (De Stefano, 2016). ...
The concept of a world where human workers are no longer needed for most tasks is fast becoming a reality due to the rise of artificial intelligence and robotics. This article explores the profound implications of widespread job displacement as machines take over roles previously held by humans. We analyze the types of jobs most at risk, such as in transportation, retail, and customer service, while also considering new forms of employment that may arise. In addition, we examine the psychological and social consequences of a world where work is no longer the central identity-defining activity for most individuals. The potential for a cultural shift away from a work-centered society, toward one based on leisure, creativity, or social engagement, is also discussed.
... Indeed, digital labour platforms are deemed revolutionary for the innovative ways in which they organise their labour force (De Stefano, 2016). Platforms present themselves as digital intermediaries that connect prospective clients and 'service providers' via digital technologies, thus rejecting to be identified as employers (Vallas, 2019). ...
... Remote platform work spans numerous occupations and tasks, i.e. all work activities that can be carried out online, and service providers on these platforms are own-account workers (self-employed) (De Stefano, 2016;Meijerink and Keegan, 2019). Scholars generally distinguish between two macrocategories of remote platform work (e.g. ...
Purpose
Revitalisation of quality of working life (QWL) research points to non-standard work such as remote platform work as a compelling setting where research on QWL is needed. Whereas the literature on working conditions in remote work platforms is rich, knowledge on the topic is fragmented. This systematic review aims to synthesize and integrate findings from existing literature to offer an encompassing and multidimensional understanding of QWL and the managerial practices linked to it in remote work platforms.
Design/methodology/approach
A systematic review of 24 empirical qualitative studies selected based on a multiple-database search using Boolean search engines. The selection of studies to be included in the review was performed through a four-steps procedure, following the PRISMA protocol. A thematic analysis of the studies was performed to synthesize findings.
Findings
We synthesize and show how remote platform workers experience a degrading QWL along five QWL dimensions, and we illustrate how these QWL dimensions are influenced by platforms’ managerial practices such as client-biased systems, rate-setting mechanisms, reputational systems, global competition schemes, lock-in systems, monitoring and nudging systems and information asymmetry.
Originality/value
The study contributes to reinvigorating QWL literature by producing a systematic synthesis of workers’ experience of QWL in the non-standard work context of remote platform work and the managerial practices that influence QWL. Our study overcomes two main shortcomings of the existing empirical studies published: (1) studies examine only a few QWL dimensions and/or (2) examine some platforms’ managerial practices that influence QWL, overlooking others.
... Another dimension of digital entrepreneurship that has garnered increasing attention is its socio-economic impact, particularly in terms of job creation and the transformation of traditional employment paradigms. The gig economy, fueled by digital platforms, has redefined what it means to be employed, with more people engaging in freelance, part-time, and contractual work, facilitated by digital platforms like Uber, Freelancer, and others [8]. This shift has prompted a debate about the stability and security of such jobs and the rights of workers who are not classified as traditional employees [9]. ...
... A significant strand of the literature focuses on the socioeconomic impacts of digital entrepreneurship, particularly in the context of the gig economy. De Stefano (2015) [8] provides a critical examination of the gig economy, driven by digital platforms, which has redefined traditional employment relationships and raised questions about labor rights and job security. [9] further this discussion by exploring the policy implications of these new forms of employment, stressing the need for regulations that protect gig workers while supporting innovation and flexibility in the labor market. ...
This paper presents a bibliometric analysis of the growth and challenges in digital entrepreneurship, synthesizing key findings from influential research in the field. The analysis identifies major trends such as the integration of digital technologies in entrepreneurship education, the critical role of big data, and the transformation of innovation processes. It highlights how entrepreneurial ecosystems and financial innovations, such as microfinance and crowdfunding, have enabled broader access to resources for digital entrepreneurs, particularly small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Emerging themes, including social entrepreneurship, gender inclusivity, and the use of digital platforms by women entrepreneurs, reveal the shifting focus toward more inclusive and socially responsible business models. The study concludes by discussing the dynamic nature of digital entrepreneurship and the importance of developing supportive ecosystems to address the ongoing challenges of digital transformation and global competition.
... Alteram também as perceções de espaço e tempo (Harvey, 1992;Rebechi & Pinto, 2020) incorporadas na gestão do capital. Atualmente, de maneira mais ampla, o mundo do trabalho vive a generalização de trabalhadores sob procura a partir do modelo just in time (Stefano, 2015;Abílio, 2020). Como parte dessas transformações, pesquisadores têm investigado processos como uberização (Abílio, 2020), virtualização e plataformização do trabalho, com dimensões e implicações distintas. ...
... Um deles é a plataformização do trabalho freelance em jornalismo. Dado que eles já eram trabalhadores sob demanda(Stefano, 2015) desde antes das plataformas -e, no sentido de Abílio (2020), já uberizados -como mostra Grohmann (2012), a dependência em relação ao trabalho em plataformas digitais e seus mecanismos, como gerenciamento algorítmico, apresenta novos desafios às suas atividades de trabalho. ConformeSchor et al. (2020), quanto mais os trabalhadores são dependentes das plataformas digitais, mais tendem a atividades precárias. ...
... The first main root driver is technological advancement in most workplace changes (McKinsey Global Institute, 2017). It facilitated, among others, the emergence and swift spread of the gig economy, which has multiple implications for the functioning of labour markets from the perspective of regulations, social protection, and how work will be performed in the future (De Stefano, 2016). These examples of how labour markets change today in a context dominated by a complex mix of abstract and practical knowledge are currently at the core of social and economic interactions. ...
... Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania, pavelescu.florin@yahoo.com.2 West University of Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania, laura.cismas@e-uvt.ro.3 Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania, cornelia.dumitru@gmail.com. ...
The labour markets are in a transformative period due to increased uncertainty and overall volatility. Moreover, they show a socially biased fingerprint affecting the social and economic policies at the EU 27 level. The unemployment rate by 6.0% in the spring of 2024 (Eurostat) indicates that the dynamics become more complex on the background of skill shortages increase. All member states display a mixed image regarding the digital economy potential, and several issues have to be addressed for avoiding employment traps, and social discontent in times of the cost-of-living crisis. The paper uses a mixed methods approach to capture relevant quantitative and qualitative data on the transformative EU 27 labour market, with emphasis on countries of Central and Eastern Europe. A rough DEMATEL Z-score method is used to characterize the main interactions and relevant impact factors. The findings show that policy makers and stakeholders need to (re)focus on education to ensure research development and innovation competitiveness, as ‘blue collar’ jobs are increasing. A new emergent “triptych” government-business sector-society is required for reducing persistent polarization and inequalities.
... Esto refleja la economía política del capitalismo de plataforma. En un mundo en el que las plataformas y los clientes determinan los procedimientos de trabajo, y en el que los riesgos recaen sobre los hombros de los empleados, podemos hablar de trabajadores de mandados que solo hacen trabajos esporádicos, a los que solo se recurre cuando es necesario y a los que se sacrifica fácilmente cuando no se necesitan (De Stefano, 2016). ...
... Así, se la llama economía bajo demanda o economía de plataforma. (De Stefano, 2016). En una "economía de changas", el cliente (demanda) y los servicios atendidos por el empleado (oferta) se conectan entre sí a través de una plataforma digital (Graham y Woodcock, 2018;Rani y Gobel, 2019;Duggan et al., 2022). ...
Este artículo describe un nuevo concepto denominado economía de los mandados. Examina el lado oscuro de la economía de plataforma y la “economía de changas” y hace una valiosa contribución a este campo. Estos conceptos, especialmente para los estudiosos liberales, ocultan el impacto negativo del capitalismo de plataforma en las relaciones de producción y en la clase trabajadora haciendo hincapié en las tecnologías digitales y el trabajo a destajo. La economía del mandado, sin embargo, pone especialmente de relieve la degradación del trabajo, independientemente de su cualificación, junto con procesos como la flexibilización, la precarización y la informalización. Esto se debe a que, en las condiciones de la economía del mandado, las plataformas tratan todos los tipos de trabajo como mandados baratos, sin valor y degradados. La principal misión de la economía de plataforma es acabar con el empleo utilizando el discurso de la flexibilidad y el emprendimiento y transformar a todos los asalariados en trabajadores de mandados clasificándolos como autónomos. Por este motivo, el artículo propone utilizar el concepto de economía del mandado junto con el de economía de plataforma, que se refiere a las infraestructuras digitales, y el de “economía de changas”, que hace hincapié en el trabajo a destajo.
... While gig workers may be seen positively in an entrepreneurial context as being freelancers and independent contractors with flexible employment conditions promoting entrepreneurial behaviour, the reality is that gig work comes with risks as incomes are often low, conditions and protections minimal, verbal, and physical risks are present, and job security absent (Graham et al., 2017;Stanford, 2017). The gig economy in the context of the Global North is discussed and argued around its risk of eroding formal employment standards and formal working conditions (de Stefano, 2016), but for the Global South, especially for online working, there is the possibility to access global labour markets, improved working conditions and for the application of strategic HR processes that support basic labour standards (Ayentimi et al., 2023). With growing internet connectivity and mobile phone apps, the infrastructure that supports online working is improving, and as such online working with links to global platforms is increasing in the Global South . ...
... Is SHRM and gig work in SSA inherently incompatible? The critiques of gig work highlight its ambiguity, the potential for exploitation and diminished employment conditions, and the evasion of regulations from safety through to labour standards, taxation, and social security avoidance (De Stefano, 2016). The classification of gig workers as self-employed and independent contractors has bypassed the regulatory relationship between employees and employers; in turn, this is reinforced by being embedded in the informal sector (Ayentimi et al., 2023). ...
Even though the scale of the gig economy in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is small, there is extensive discussion on its potential impact on the future of work. While attention on the gig economy in advanced economies is on its potential to erode formal employment standards, in emerging economies, especially for online working, there is the potential to access global labour markets, improved working conditions, and the application of formal human resource management (HRM) processes in an informal economy setting. With growing internet connectivity and mobile phone apps, the infrastructure that supports online working is improving, and as such online working with links to global platforms is increasing. Through global online working platforms, strategic HRM processes can leverage to manage and support platform workers across SSA. This chapter will examine the potential for strategic HRM processes to manage and support online workers throughout the SSA region and to be extended to other enterprises.
... El surgimiento de plataformas virtuales, como mecanismo disponible para la gestión tercerizada del trabajo ajeno, es parte de lo que se conoce como economía de plataformas o gig economy. Espacio donde el delivery mediante app, convive con plataformas preparadas para utilizar el trabajo de distintas personas en diferentes lugares del mundo (como trabajo colectivo o colaborativo), que realizan, al mismo tiempo, micro-tareas de muy baja calificación o, trabajadores especializados que llevan a cabo tareas mucho más calificadas, teniendo como objetivo la concreción de un proyecto común (DE STEFANO, 2016). 2 En Argentina, las plataformas de delivery conviven, entre otras, con las de intermediación de servicio doméstico (Zolvers), las que conectan freelancers de diseño, traducción, etc., con empresas que requieren de sus servicios (Workana), las que están destinadas a la mediación entre profesionales de servicios con usuarios (Iguanafix), las destinadas a la búsqueda de trabajo (Freelancer), las intermediarias para alquileres u hospedajes temporarios (Airbnb), o las que conectan a choferes de automóviles con posibles usuarios (Uber; Cabify). ...
En los últimos años, el delivery por plataformas virtuales ha atraído la mirada crítica de distintas esferas de la academia científica. El establecimiento de un alto grado de precarización, mediante el ocultamiento de la relación laboral, el sistema de control algorítmico de las tareas de los/las trabajadores/as y la modalidad de remuneración, constituyeron, entre otros, los principales ejes de interés de gran parte de dichos análisis. Sin dejar de tener en cuenta tales miradas, en base a una investigación realizada, sobre trabajadores/as de tres de estas plataformas virtuales, en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, indagamos acerca de cuáles son las condiciones de posibilidad para que ese trabajo se haya instalado en Argentina y haya generado un número creciente de trabajadores/as contratados. Para ello, en este artículo, analizamos las características de dicho trabajo, enmarcándolas en las trayectorias de vida de los/las trabajadores/as, la situación socioeconómica en que se encuentran y las alternativas que tienen a la hora de decidir su incorporación a esta forma de trabajo.
... Despite the fact that the participants possess technical skills, they were concerned about the uncertainty they experience in their profession that may sometimes stem from information asymmetries (Rosenblat and Stark, 2016) or the discriminatory nature of hiring of foreigners by the clients (Galperin and Greppi, 2017). One way to address this issue is to cultivate on the part of the freelancers themselves a collaborative approach through networking and social interactions (De Stefano, 2016). With the rise in the freelancing economy, professionals need to forge greater connectivity and trusting relationships through digital platforms (Sodurland and Borg, 2017). ...
Freelancing has been assumed as a possible remedy for unemployment by the Bangladeshi youth for some time now. This research is conducted to investigate the profession of a freelancer in Bangladesh and focuses on the motivational stages undergone by freelancers and their plans. Moreover, the study attempts to explain to what extent the needs of freelancers are satisfied from the standpoint of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory. For this purpose, a qualitative methodology i.e., phenomenology is used. Fifteen respondents working in different parts of the capital city took part in the interview for this study. The study has demonstrated that an overwhelming majority of the respondents acknowledged it as an opportunity at first that gradually helps to develop an entrepreneurial mindset. One striking feature of the findings, however, is that freelancing may be a solution provisionally but not in the long run due to unfulfilled dimensions of the need theory. A few directions for future works are also suggested in this regard.
... For instance, the 2012 London Olympics saw approximately 9 million ticket sales, which helped boost tourism revenue. 22 Similarly, South Africa's hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup led to an increase of over 300,000 international visitors, contributing nearly $3.6 billion to the local economy. 23 However, the long-term benefits of tourism postevent are often less certain. ...
This review article explores the multifaceted impact of mega-events, such as the Olympics, World Expos, and World Cups, on urban development, highlighting both their transformative potential and associated challenges. These events often serve as catalysts for significant infrastructural enhancements, economic boosts, and global repositioning of host cities. However, outcomes are varied, with some cities capturing lasting benefits while others face enduring financial and socioenvironmental strains. By examining case studies from cities like Barcelona and Athens, the article delineates how well-executed planning and legacy management can lead to sustained growth, whereas inadequate preparation can result in costly legacies. The discussion extends to provide actionable policy recommendations for future hosts, emphasizing the importance of strategic planning, community engagement, and sustainability to maximize benefits and mitigate risks. The article aims to offer a balanced perspective, synthesizing lessons learned from past events to propose a framework for integrating mega-events into broader urban development strategies effectively. This analysis not only underscores the necessity for meticulous preparatory work and long-term vision but also forecasts the evolving role of mega-events in shaping urban futures, advocating for a shift towards more sustainable and inclusive urban planning practices.
... These govern the functioning of a particular industry and thereby bolster its operational efficiency and advancement (Marsden 2004). In platform work, legal debates and measures focus predominantly on location-based gig work and the classification of workers (Cherry 2016;De Stefano 2016;Prince 2021) while neglecting other types of platform work that fall within the domain of self-employed individuals and freelancers. However, in the context of the new European Directive, the possibility of creating a new classification scheme is discussed where a new, hybrid category like 'dependent contractor' or 'independent workers' (Meijerink et al. 2021;Taylor et al. 2017) is established to combine fundamental elements of worker protection while, at the same time, maintaining or increasing the workers' autonomy and flexibility. ...
Digital labour platforms are contested because they create work relationships that neither fall into the category of traditional employment nor fulfil the criteria of freelance work due to platforms' heavy interference in the work process. Although existing research has elucidated different pathways for improving the working conditions of platform workers, we develop an employment relations perspective on platform-mediated work systems building on David Marsden's theory of employment systems. On the basis of an assessment of the psychological, economic and legal contracts underlying platform-mediated work, we discuss the limited functionality of these contracts in their ability to control opportunism among platforms, workers and clients. Our analysis contributes to existing debates by providing a theoretically informed framework for analysing the design of platform-mediated work systems and their consequences for the participating parties. Our insights add nuance to the platform regulation debate by going beyond the question of worker classification towards understanding the organizational and institutional elements of the work system that need to be redesigned and supported by appropriate institutional safeguards. An employment systems perspective also allows for reflection on the economic, societal, sectoral and strategic conditions that could drive such changes.
... The platform economy has spread alongside the proliferation of "on-demand service" and a "just-in-time workforce" (De Stefano, 2015). The food delivery sector is visible in urban squares, streets, hallways, and restaurants, where an array of platform precarities modulate daily journeys. ...
The politics of time, and particularly practices of waiting, spring in the narratives of any border crossing. This article draws from the scholarly analysis on migratory temporalities, to shed light upon the temporalities of urban delivery platforms, strongholds of migrant labor. We focus on waiting both as a research object and analytical lens to further comprehend the intersectional precarities at work in the food-delivery sector. What does the border tempos have to do with a delivered meal? Based on ethnographic research conducted in Spain and Chile, we gathered two sets of distinct temporalities coming together: on the one hand, the codified periodization of migratory statuses; on the other, the uncertain timing of speed and still, labor and no/labor of digital gigs. The intersection where the border and delivery chronopolitics come together remains understudied. Drawing on select empirical examples, delivery waiting emerges as a central and ambivalent practice among riders’ everyday lives.
... Central to this discourse is the mounting instability and insecurity in labor markets, a trend partly attributed to the proliferation of platform-mediated work arrangements. Some research points out how platform work structure may contribute to the casualization of labor, eroding the stability and protections typically associated with standard employment relationships (De Stefano, 2015). Hence, whether the livelihood opportunities enabled by platforms are a form of decent work, deliver a fair income, security in the workplace, and social protection is a critical and ongoing concern (D'Cruz, 2017; Graham et al., 2019). ...
As platformization and virtualization of work gain prominence in the digitally connected world, parallel efforts are being made to narrow the digital divides, driving the globalization of short-term digital labor as both a rapidly evolving theoretical construct and a practical reality. Although the disproportionate influence of platforms on Global South development is a growing area of concern, the global reach of platforms does not necessarily imply a uniform impact on development gains and constraints across different developing regions. This review paper explores this interplay between digital platform work and local development, particularly emphasizing the long-term impact of platform-mediated digital work on workers’ livelihoods in the Global South. The study delves into how the variation in local contextual factors changes the livelihood outcomes of platform work in different Global South countries. The study focuses on three key areas endogenous to local development, i.e., access to decent work, employability skills development, and workers’ resilience within the ever-changing job market. A realist synthesis method is used to distinguish between different scholarly perspectives across various disciplines and geographic areas. The findings are further utilized to refine a conception of the Sustainable Livelihood Framework, providing a tool that broadens the scope of platform work analysis to account for the diverse structural and contextual factors impacting workers’ livelihoods in different regions. The study calls for a thorough examination of the uneven distribution of platform labor outcomes, focusing particularly on the local contextual factors contributing to this disparity.
... The gig economy, characterized by short-term contracts or freelance work as opposed to permanent jobs, has transformed the traditional employment landscape. Gig workers, including freelancers, independent contractors, and platform-based workers, are drawn to the gig economy for its flexibility, autonomy, and potential for higher income (De Stefano, 2016). However, this flexibility often comes with trade-offs, such as income instability, lack of social protections, and irregular working hours, which can negatively impact worklife balance (Kässi & Lehdonvirta, 2018). ...
The study addresses the growing concern about work-life balance among gig workers in Malaysia, a population facing unique challenges due to the nature of gig employment. This issue is particularly critical as gig workers often struggle with task management, securing social support, and dealing with income volatility, all of which impact their ability to achieve a balanced work-life dynamic. This study aims to analyze the effects of task management, social support, and income stability on the work-life balance of gig workers in Malaysia. A quantitative research methodology was employed, involving a survey of 70 gig workers across various sectors in Kedah. The data was analyzed using correlation analysis to assess the relationships between the independent variables, task management, social support, and income stability, and the dependent variable, work-life balance. The findings reveal that task management, social support, and income stability are all significantly correlated with better work-life balance, with task management being the most influential factor. The implications of this study suggest that improving task management practices, enhancing social support systems, and stabilizing income are crucial strategies for gig platforms and policymakers to consider. These measures can significantly improve the well-being of gig workers and contribute to a more sustainable gig economy. The study also highlights the need for further research to explore these relationships in different cultural contexts and over time, to better understand their long-term effects.
... The recent surge of digital labour platforms raises interesting questions about the nature of work. The platform economy -sometimes referred to as the 'collaborative', 'gig', or 'sharing' economyinvolves on-demand work via digital applications (De Stefano 2016). Human supervision is limited, and work is managed remotely via algorithms which are used to assign, direct, track, and discipline workers (Duggan et al. 2020). ...
The platform economy continues to draw scholarly attention. However, the human impacts and social elements of platform work remain under-researched and poorly understood. Framed by Lashley’s domains of hospitality, this article investigates where and how platform-based food delivery workers – predominantly migrants – interact with others. This involved a multi-sited ethnography including face-to-face and digital participant observation (predominantly bicycle shadowing), and semi-structured interviews with food delivery workers and key stakeholders. The findings illustrate where interactions occur within the commercial, private and social domains of hospitality. The article then documents digital interactions that transpire beyond existing domains – demonstrating the need for a new virtual domain – which accounts for exchanges at the threshold of material and virtual contexts. The article then discusses how digital, physical and embodied artefacts are used to mediate hospitality. Finally, this article introduces the concept of algorithmic hostility to demonstrate how platforms, restaurant staff, customers and others utilize digital technologies and existing social divisions to exploit contingent workers – furthering our understanding of how people interact at the human-digital frontier.
... The first element is group work, which describes tasks performed online where the employee may be located in a different location than the customer and supplier. The second element is on-demand work, which includes the traditional understanding of performing work, such as transportation, cleaning services, and office work, where the employee must be in the same place as the customer (De Stefano, 2016). ...
The foundation of decent working conditions is the regulation of employment and social policy with safe and secure conditions of employment in terms of remuneration, safe employment conditions, protection in the event of dismissal, social dialogue, personal data protection, and work-life balance, and finally a healthy, safe and a well-adjusted work environment. At the same time, the task of a democratic state is to adjust the dynamically changing economic and market realities to ensure the maximum level of protection in the areas mentioned above relevant to each employee. This state of affairs is also due to the radically progressing digitization, which is changing the challenges of the modern labor market. In this article, the author wants to address the social security problem of selected flexible (atypical) forms of employment, including employee and non-employee forms of employment1. The author chose a fixed-term contract and employment on digital platforms as the subject of the analysis while being aware of the multifaceted nature of social security. In this paper, the author defends the thesis that the so-called and making employment relations are more flexible. Therefore, the legislator should subject these relations to a broader impact - social security regulations, where there are no normative obstacles to extending such influence.
... To maximize long-term revenue, the platform needs to control the relationship and ensure that participants continue to use platform-provided tools for search, payment, and performance evaluation. Platform participants, on the other hand, may prefer moving some of these activities beyond the purview of the platform -note, for instance, calls to tip gig workers in cash instead of through apps (De Stefano, 2016;Gandini, 2019;Glavin et al., 2021;Howcroft et al., 2019;Kessler, 2018). ...
The ubiquity of digital platforms is undeniable, as is their transactional efficiency and global reach of world-flattening possibilities. Yet, these same platforms are also hotly contested battlegrounds where power struggles among stakeholders both reflect and influence broader societal turbulence. In the emerging era, side-by-side with the blinding speed and global reach of the gig economy are the looming specters of rentier capitalism, digi-serfdom, misinformation, rampant data exploitation, digital addiction, and near-ungovernable algorithmic agents. To date, the scholarly focus on digital platforms has been directed primarily towards their transactional features and impacts, dimensionalizing governance mechanisms as emanating from old economy conceptions of bottom-up or top-down checks and balances, or incentives and efficiencies. These emphases, while offering a useful lens through which to understand managerial control of digital platforms, largely ignore the extent to which digital platforms are battlegrounds; contested organizational spaces, shaped by complex power dynamics. Foucault asserted that power is everywhere and that those who hold power are rarely well-understood by those who are subject to it. In seeking to rebalance and reorient the future of digital platform research, our study analyzes and integrates existing research along four key dimensions that shape platform power dynamics: actors, relations, faces, and struggle. Through this, we establish a future research agenda-including a set of six testable propositions-that more thoroughly engages the critical, yet largely untapped, expertise of management scholars concerning platform power.
... The difficulty arises, among others, from a shortage of crucial data or discrepancies at the national level [OECD, 2019b]. The numbers we now have are merely estimates [De Stefano, 2015;Shevchuk, Strebkov, Bögenhold, 2022]. The unknown population of gig work-Motivation in the Gig Economy: The Incentive Effect of Digital Platforms. ...
Purpose – to compile a list of external incentives that motivate gig workers, and identify incentives suitable for gig work.Methods – an empirical literature review investigating external incentives and their effect on gig worker motivation on digital platforms.Findings – despite the diversity among gig workers, well-known and recognised motivation concepts, and incentives remain applicable today.Digital platforms, designed to function as intermediaries between giggers and end-users, have assumed a significant part of the HRM role and transformed the paradigm of incentive in gig work. The application of external incentives in gig work depends on the digital platform’s design, rules of operation, and functioning.Originality – this study provides a list of external incentives motivating gig workers, based on an in-depth investigation of the applicability of both traditional and contemporary ideas and methods of motivation in the gig economy.Research limitations – the study focuses on external incentives and is limited to online gig work.Implications – the results indicate significant shifts in social and workplace relationships, suggesting that management in the gig economy, and more broadly, in the labour and education sectors, needs reforms.
... Services can be performed online (this is how platforms such as Useme, Freelancer, MTurk, PeoplePerHour and many others operate) or offline (examples of such platforms include Task Rabbit, Pomocedomowe, Uber, Glovo), but they are always me diated by a digital platform. They can range from typical simple jobs, referred to as crowd work, to assignments or projects requiring specialised knowledge, classified as freelancing, but they also include the work of couriers delivering meals, drivers transporting people, and contractors of simple domestic services and alike [De Stefano, 2015;Florisson, Mandl, 2018;Mandl, 2021;Stewart, Stanford, 2017;Ayentimi, Abadi, Burgess, 2023]. ...
The article aims to identify the characteristics of platform work (PW) as a potential source of satisfaction, based on the opinions of adult Poles. It draws on the approaches to job satisfaction derived from neoclassical economics and psychological concepts of work.
... Finally, it is remarkable that research, to date, has not questioned the employment status of online freelancers, particularly because it is a prominent topic among scholars studying related forms of platform labour, particularly transportation and delivery/home task platform labour (for example, see Drahokoupil and Fabo, 2016;De Stefano, 2016, andCant, 2019). Future research should delve into the normativity of freelancers' employment status and examine how their current status feeds into their diverging positions on the livelihood outcomes continuum. ...
As the demand for online freelance labour is on the rise, it is critical to have a thorough understanding of the implications for freelancers. This article contributes to this understanding by synthesizing the empirical, academic literature centering the narratives of freelancers working through online freelance platforms. In doing so, it aims to answer the question of what is known about how these freelancers experience and navigate their work. The analysis identifies four prevailing themes, that is: (1) employment opportunities and motivating factors; (2) challenges; (3) freelancer agency; and (4) livelihood outcomes, and uncovers that online freelance labour results in an uneven distribution of livelihood outcomes. It also shows that detailed knowledge on this distribution is lacking. To fill this gap, this article proposes an agenda for future research based on Heeks’ (2022) model of adverse digital incorporation and revolving around four dimensions: design inequality, resource inequality, institutional inequality, and relational inequality.
... Our research pioneers ways to start integrating cultural dimensions into the design of tools for crowdworkers . Such direction is vital to the field of CSCW, as it opens up new opportunities for creating computational artifacts that can support the global workforce that exists on crowdsourcing platforms [40,41,48,140,185]. Through our real-world field experiments, we started to see the potential benefits of having a culturally-sensitive tool, particularly for workers with polychronic traits [41,108,110,128]. ...
Crowdsourcing markets are expanding worldwide, but often feature standardized interfaces that ignore the cultural diversity of their workers, negatively impacting their well-being and productivity. To transform these workplace dynamics, this paper proposes creating culturally-aware workplace tools, specifically designed to adapt to the cultural dimensions of monochronic and polychronic work styles. We illustrate this approach with "CultureFit," a tool that we engineered based on extensive research in Chronemics and culture theories. To study and evaluate our tool in the real world, we conducted a field experiment with 55 workers from 24 different countries. Our field experiment revealed that CultureFit significantly improved the earnings of workers from cultural backgrounds often overlooked in design. Our study is among the pioneering efforts to examine culturally aware digital labor interventions. It also provides access to a dataset with over two million data points on culture and digital work, which can be leveraged for future research in this emerging field. The paper concludes by discussing the importance and future possibilities of incorporating cultural insights into the design of tools for digital labor.
... The gig economy interlinks with and exacerbates the crisis of the salary institution (Chicchi, Marrone, and Casilli 2022), as well as increasing the informalization of labour relations, weakening union and workers' bargaining power, and leading to the individualisation and spread of atypical forms of work, such as piecework, which it favours over standard employment. There is thus increasing fragmentation of labour in the context of 'uberization' of the labour market (Scholz 2016;Woodcock and Graham 2020), with a just-in-time labour force working under a more technocratic and invasive model of control (De Stefano 2016;De Stefano and Aloisi 2018). ...
The intersection of migrant labour and the gig economy is a field of
growing interest. Although there is no comprehensive public data
on the topic, current studies show that platform labour in urban
gig economies is often carried out by migrants. While uberised
work has been quite extensively analysed, the dimensions of
everyday life and time are still little studied. This paper aims to fill
this gap, looking at the convergence of migrant labour, the gig
economy, everyday life, and time. The authors present a timespace-energy nexus to illustrate the constant assembling of
working and non-working times by workers and the potential
tensions arising from the algorithmic managerial model of work.
Specific attention is given to how migrant couriers organise the
times and spaces of their everyday lives within platform-mediated
food delivery in Venice. To explore this topic, a qualitativeethnographic investigation was carried out in the historic centre
of Venice from January to June 2022. This article highlights the
features and tendencies of the food delivery sector in Venice, in
order to show how the particular forms that migrant worker/
runners’ living and working conditions take contradict the
supposed flexibility proposed by digital platforms.
The study titled The Gig Economy Takeover: What It Means for the Future of HR Management explores the transformative effects of the gig economy on traditional Human Resource (HR) practices. The research objectives include assessing the impact on recruitment, retention, and performance management strategies within organizations. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, the study incorporated quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews with HR professionals to capture the multifaceted challenges and opportunities presented by gig work. Key findings indicated a significant correlation between the rise of gig work and shifts in HR practices, supported by statistical results such as a chi-square test (χ²(1, N=200) = 28.65, p < 0.01) which underscored the structural changes in workforce management. Additionally, t-test results revealed retention challenges for gig workers (t(218) = 4.53, p < 0.001), while regression analysis highlighted the positive impact of flexible scheduling on satisfaction (β = 0.68, p < 0.001). The conclusions emphasize the need for HR to develop adaptive strategies, such as digital platforms and flexible work policies, to support gig workers effectively. Recommendations include prioritizing flexible policies, compliance with evolving labor laws, and leveraging technology for workforce management.
The study titled The Gig Economy Takeover: What It Means for the Future of HR Management explores the transformative effects of the gig economy on traditional Human Resource (HR) practices. The research objectives include assessing the impact on recruitment, retention, and performance management strategies within organizations. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, the study incorporated quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews with HR professionals to capture the multifaceted challenges and opportunities presented by gig work. Key findings indicated a significant correlation between the rise of gig work and shifts in HR practices, supported by statistical results such as a chi-square test (χ²(1, N=200) = 28.65, p < 0.01) which underscored the structural changes in workforce management. Additionally, t-test results revealed retention challenges for gig workers (t(218) = 4.53, p < 0.001), while regression analysis highlighted the positive impact of flexible scheduling on satisfaction (β = 0.68, p < 0.001). The conclusions emphasize the need for HR to develop adaptive strategies, such as digital platforms and flexible work policies, to support gig workers effectively. Recommendations include prioritizing flexible policies, compliance with evolving labor laws, and leveraging technology for workforce management.
The gig economy is transforming the traditional employment landscape in Morocco, introducing both challenges and opportunities for talent identification. As online labor platforms such as Upwork, Fiverr, and Uber become increasingly prevalent, they facilitate the connection between freelance workers and SMEs seeking flexible labor solutions. This paper delves into the intricacies of tripartite work arrangements that encompass these platforms, the requesters (SMEs), and the gig workers themselves. By examining these relationships, we uncover the unique aspects of talent identification within the Moroccan gig economy. Our study employs a mixed-method approach, combining qualitative interviews and quantitative surveys to gather comprehensive data from various stakeholders.We identify that while online platforms employ standardized algorithms for talent identification, these methods often overlook local cultural and linguistic nuances critical to the Moroccan context. SMEs in Morocco tend to heavily rely on platform-mediated ratings and reviews, which underscores the trust placed in these digital reputation systems. Furthermore, our findings reveal that gig workers who invest in skill development and actively manage their online reputations are more likely to secure consistent and lucrative opportunities.This research provides a conceptual framework for understanding the complexities of talent identification in Morocco's gig economy, offering valuable insights for enhancing talent management practices. We propose several recommendations for platforms to refine their algorithms, for SMEs to develop more robust evaluation criteria, and for gig workers to focus on continuous skill enhancement. This paper not only contributes to the academic discourse on gig work but also provides practical guidelines for stakeholders to navigate and optimize talent identification processes in Morocco's evolving labor market.
Yapay zekâ (YZ) ve otomasyonun hızla yaygınlaşmasının iş piyasası ve genel olarak toplum üzerinde önemli bir etkiye sahip olacağı açıktır. Bu geçiş döneminde, teknolojik ilerlemenin avantajlarının toplumdaki tüm bireyler arasında adil bir şekilde paylaşılmasını sağlamak büyük önem taşımaktadır. Bu çalışma, değerli ekonomist Daron Acemoğlu'nun YZ ve otomasyonun işgücü üzerindeki potansiyel etkilerine ilişkin perspektiflerini incelemektedir. Acemoğlu'na göre, YZ'nin işgücü piyasası üzerindeki etkileri, tarih boyunca teknolojik ilerlemenin sonuçlarına benzer olacaktır. Otomasyon ilerlemeye devam ettikçe, belirli işler aşamalı olarak ortadan kalkabilir, ancak yeni fırsatlar da ortaya çıkacaktır. Ek eşitsizlikleri önlemek ve toplumun her kesiminin faydalardan yararlanmasını garanti altına almak için bu dönüşüm sürecini adil bir şekilde ele almak büyük önem taşımaktadır. Acemoğlu, YZ ve otomasyonun işgücü piyasası üzerindeki potansiyel olumsuz etkilerini ele almak için çeşitli politikalar önermektedir. Bunlar arasında işçi haklarının ve korumalarının geliştirilmesi, toplu pazarlığın teşvik edilmesi, yeniden eğitim girişimlerine yatırım yapılması, etkilenen işçilere gelir desteği sunulması ve YZ ve otomasyonun etik kullanımının teşvik edilmesi yer almaktadır. Çalışmada, YZ ve otomasyonun farklı meslek grupları üzerindeki potansiyel etkileri de gösterilerek, eşitsizliklerin daha da kötüleşmesini önlemek için YZ ve otomasyonu yönetme stratejilerini tartışmaktadır. Ek olarak, hükümetlerin, işletmelerin ve sendikaların bu teknolojik gelişmelere uyum sağlamadaki rolünü incelemektedir. Son olarak, YZ ve otomasyonun gelecekteki işgücü piyasası üzerindeki potansiyel etkileri ele alınmaktadır. Bu çalışma, YZ ve otomasyonun işgücü piyasası üzerindeki potansiyel etkilerini değerlendirmek ve bu dönüştürücü süreci yönlendirmek için en etkili stratejileri belirlemek için değerli bir kaynak olarak kabul edilmektedir. Abstract: It is clear that the rapid spread of artificial intelligence (AI) and automation will have a significant impact on the labor market and society in general. In this transition period, it is crucial to ensure that the benefits of technological progress are shared fairly among all individuals in society. This paper examines the perspectives of esteemed economist Daron Acemoglu on the potential impacts of AI and automation on labor. According to Acemoglu, the effects of AI on the labor market will be similar to the consequences of technological progress throughout history. As automation continues to advance, certain jobs may be phased out, but new opportunities will also emerge. It is crucial to handle this transformation process fairly to avoid additional inequalities and guarantee that all segments of society reap the benefits. Acemoglu suggests several policies to address the potential negative impacts of AI and automation on the labor market. These include improving worker rights and protections, promoting collective bargaining, investing in retraining initiatives, offering income support to affected workers, and promoting the ethical use of AI and automation. The paper discusses strategies for managing AI and automation to prevent inequalities from worsening, also illustrating the potential impacts of AI and automation on different occupational groups. In addition, it examines the role of governments, businesses and trade unions in adapting to these technological developments. Finally, it considers the potential impacts of AI and automation on the future labor market. This study is considered a valuable resource for assessing the potential impacts of AI and automation on the labor market and identifying the most effective strategies to drive this transformative process.
The relevance of the study is determined by the emergence and consolidation of new trends in the implementation of labor activity of the population in the context of digitalization and new challenges, as well as the need for their comprehensive study.
The purpose of the study is to study the peculiarities of freelance activity of the Russian population on online labor market platforms, as well as to identify a set of measures necessary to obtain benefits from the implementation of this type of activity in order to stabilize the labor market during a period of change and reduce social tension.
The objectives of the study are related to the analysis of supply and demand for the services of Russian freelancers on international online labor market platforms, including by comparing its positions with other countries; identifying measures to optimize the activities of online freelancers and stabilize the labor market during the period of change.
Methodology. The research was implemented using the method of collecting information from open Internet sources, tabular and graphical methods, the method of economic analysis, analysis and synthesis, systematization, comparison, logical method and systematic approach.
Results . It is determined that the freelance activity of the Russian population in the online format has great growth potential. The prerequisites for the development of online freelancing are highlighted, as well as the motives for Russian specialists entering the digital platforms of the global labor market. The analysis of the supply and demand of online freelancers on the largest online employment platforms in the period 2017-2022 was carried out. The specifics of Russia are revealed in comparison with the trends typical for China, India, Germany, Great Britain and the USA.
Conclusion. The conclusion is made about the high activity of Russian freelancers on the online platforms of the global labor market, about the predominantly growing dynamics of this market segment, as well as about the existing restrictions in this area, which can be overcome by greater support from the state.
This research investigates the impact of the gig economy on personal financial stability, focusing on income volatility, the absence of traditional benefits, and strategies for financial resilience among gig workers. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were gathered through surveys and interviews with participants across various gig sectors, such as freelance digital services and ride-sharing. The study revealed significant income variability among gig workers (standard deviation of USD 850) compared to traditional employees (standard deviation of USD 150), demonstrating a high level of financial unpredictability. Furthermore, chi-square analysis highlighted gig workers' limited access to benefits, with only 30% holding health insurance and 15% contributing to retirement funds. Recommendations include implementing financial education programs tailored to gig workers, offering access to health and retirement benefits, and promoting credit counseling and income-stabilizing mechanisms to mitigate these financial challenges.
Dieses Buch setzt sich zum Ziel, die Chancen und Herausforderungen der digitalen Selbstständigkeit, insbesondere im Bereich des Influencer-Marketings, detailliert zu beleuchten. Der zunehmende Trend zur Selbstverwirklichung durch digitale Berufe bietet viele Möglichkeiten, ist jedoch auch mit Unsicherheiten und sozialen wie psychologischen Herausforderungen verbunden. Während klassische Karrieren auf langfristige Sicherheit und festgelegte Karrierepfade setzen, verlangen digitale Berufe
eine hohe Flexibilität und ständige Anpassung. Einem Bericht der Europäischen Kommission zufolge wünschen sich jedoch 72 % der Millennials flexiblere Arbeitsmodelle und sehen die Möglichkeit zur Selbstverwirklichung als zentral für ihre Karrierewahl (European Commission, 2021).
The informal sector and technology have complex interactions, shaping economic activity, job trends, and social outcomes, especially with the rise of the “gig economy”, in which individuals work on an as-needed basis through online platforms. This article explores several theoretical frameworks, such as modernization theory, dependence theory, structuralist approaches, and post-structuralist viewpoints, and investigates how different frameworks explain the effects of technology on informal economic activity. This article also reviews for comprehending the correlation between the informal sector and technology. Besides that, this article explores the dual nature of the gig economy, examining whether it serves as a trap that perpetuates the vulnerabilities of the informal sector or as a stepping stone toward more excellent economic stability and mobility. Although the gig economy provides opportunities for income generation, skill development, and flexible working conditions, it also presents substantial challenges, such as job insecurity, a lack of benefits, and potential exploitation. This paper also addresses the implications for policy and future research directions by the sustainable development goal (SDG) of fostering sustainable, inclusive, and long-term economic growth, as well as full and productive employment and decent work for all.
The Gig Economy (GE) has revolutionized traditional employment structures, emphasizing flexibility and autonomy for workers. However, the absence of a standardized framework often leads to uncertainties regarding work arrangements (WA) and outcomes. In response, we pro-pose an Outcome-Based (O-B) approach tailored to the unique dynamics of the GE in an era marked by high volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA). Drawing from an extensive literature review and industry insights, a comprehensive framework is developed, highlighting the integration of key elements such as task clarity, performance evaluation, and incentive mechanisms. Moreover, this framework considers the implications for various stake-holders, including gig workers, platform operators, and regulatory bodies. By aligning work ex-pectations with measurable outcomes, this approach seeks to enhance efficiency, accountability, and satisfaction within the GE ecosystem. The implications of adopting such a framework are discussed in terms of its potential to foster mutual trust, mitigate conflicts, and promote sus-tainable growth in the evolving landscape of flexible WA.
The gig economy, characterized by short-term contracts and freelance work, is transforming traditional employment models. This study investigates its opportunities and challenges for businesses. The objective was to analyze cost-efficiency, workforce scalability, and innovation, while also examining the regulatory, legal, and organizational risks. Methodology involved comparative analysis using secondary data from reports and case studies. Results showed that gig workers can reduce labor costs by up to 30%, but companies relying on them face a 20% higher turnover rate and 30% increase in operational costs. Conclusion: while gig work offers flexibility, businesses must manage associated risks for sustainability.
Discute a nova modalidade de trabalho, flexível e digital, denominada de gig economy, apontando suas principais características e semelhanças com as formas pretéritas de exploração da força de trabalho, remetendo-se aos séculos XIX e início do XX, marcado pela incipiente regulamentação das relações de trabalho para, ao final, concluir pela ausência de liberdade do trabalhador. Adotou-se o método de pesquisa bibliográfica, por meio do cotejo de livros, artigos científicos, legislação nacional e demais meios de publicação científica.
Rapid technological development means that the ground on which recent academic studies and public debates about the future of work organisation are based is shifting too rapidly for predictions to be credible. Organisational studies scholars have provided a counterpoint to this futuristic, speculative debate about the world of tomorrow with studies that contextualise seemingly new trends within a longer history of industrial capitalism. In this article, using Moritz Altenried's The Digital Factory (2022) as a starting point, I further explore the historical contextualisation of two aspects of platform capitalism: its de-spatialisation and its use of “autonomy”.
The gig economy, characterized by short-term contracts and freelance work, has significantly altered traditional employment models. This shift poses unique challenges and opportunities for Human Resource Management (HRM). As the gig economy grows, understanding the role of HRM in managing gig workers becomes crucial, particularly in terms of employee engagement, motivation, and retention. This research aims to explore the role of HRM practices in the gig economy, focusing on how HRM can effectively manage and support gig workers to enhance organizational performance and worker satisfaction. A comprehensive mixed-method approach was meticulously employed, integrating both quantitative and qualitative techniques to thoroughly assess the role of HRM in the gig economy. The quantitative component involved a structured survey distributed to 250 HR professionals across various industries, with an impressive response rate of 78% (195 respondents). The survey focused on HRM practices such as recruitment (30% of questions), performance management (25%), training (20%), and development (25%). In parallel, qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted with 40 gig workers from diverse sectors, representing a 10% sampling from the total pool of respondents who participated in the survey. The study utilized SPSS software for quantitative analysis, focusing on multiple regression and factor analysis techniques.These interviews were designed to inclusively explore the gig workers' experiences and expectations regarding HRM practices, providing nuanced insights that complemented the survey data. The quantitative analysis revealed that 68% of HR professionals reported incorporating flexible recruitment strategies tailored to gig workers, with 54% emphasizing performance management systems adapted for short-term contracts. Training and development were less frequently addressed, with only 45% and 38% of respondents indicating specific programs for gig workers.Qualitative interviews further illuminated these findings, with gig workers expressing a strong preference for more inclusive training opportunities (70% of interviewees) and transparent performance management systems (65%). Many gig workers also highlighted the need for development pathways that could lead to longer-term employment or enhanced skills (60%), suggesting a gap between HRM practices and gig worker expectations. The study concludes that HRM plays a critical role in optimizing the gig economy workforce. By adapting HR practices to meet the unique needs of gig workers, organizations can achieve better performance outcomes and improve worker satisfaction. The research underscores the importance of developing HRM frameworks that are flexible, responsive, and aligned with the evolving nature of work in the gig economy.
Work mediated by microtask platforms has been studied worldwide, but still lacks a consensual definition. Based on a literature review, we present in this paper a typology in order to differentiate such form of digital labor from others, considering the dynamic of discontinuity and continuity that marks the history of innovation in capitalism. This has challenged social scientists to establish, from different areas and theoretical perspectives, categories to describe and analyse recent metamorphosis in work. Finally, we draw attention to the fact that artificial intelligence not only eliminates but also creates degraded forms of living labor.
The main objective of this dissertation is to study working conditions – the quality of work – over time at digital labour platforms such as Wolt or Hilfr with the Danish labour market as an empirical case. These platforms have recently gained much attention for providing easy access to tasks and earnings through a digitally mediated infrastructure. However, they have also faced criticism for contributing to labour market inequalities due to their digitalised and unregulated working conditions, which have led to uncertainties in the quality of work in the form of fluctuating working hours and earnings. Limited access to platform data further complicates studying these contexts, as many platforms are reluctant to share their data with researchers.
This dissertation bridges this gap by utilising a working time data series from a total population of food delivery couriers provided by the prominent food delivery platform Wolt. By applying a longitudinal perspective on these data, the dissertation offers novel empirical insights relevant to ongoing discussions on regulating the platform economy and the implications of digitalisation on organisational structures and contemporary working lives.
The dissertation's main contribution is revealing three previously unidentified segments of platform workers with stable and distinct working time patterns, indicating that labour market inequalities are evolving within the platform. Further, the dissertation examines the platform and the worker levels, providing complementary perspectives of structural conditions that cause inequalities to emerge within the platform. Overall, the dissertation consists of four separate research articles that quantitatively and qualitatively analyse the abovementioned aspects.
This chapter delves into the historical aspects of several technological revolutions and their transforming impact on society. It surveys significant technological advancements in human history, from the hunting-gathering society to the agricultural society to the digital revolution-driven Information Age. It explores the technological revolutions driving socio-economic, cultural, political, and environmental transformations. The last revolution, the Industrial Revolution, for instance, brought about the mechanisation of the production of goods and services, urbanisation, and the modern factory system, drastically altering the economic and social dimensions of societies and social interactions. The present technological revolution, the digital and information age, characterised by the advent of computers, the Internet, and digital technologies, ushered in a new era of connectivity, information access, and communication and has had a huge impact on several sectors of economies and social life from multiple dimensions.
Purpose: The general objective of the study was to explore the evolution of employment law in the gig economy. Methodology: The study adopted a desktop research methodology. Desk research refers to secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily accessed through the online journals and library. Findings: The findings reveal that there exists a contextual and methodological gap relating to the evolution of employment law in the gig economy. Preliminary empirical review revealed that traditional employment laws were insufficient for addressing the unique needs of gig workers, who face significant gaps in legal protections and benefits. The rise of gig work exposed flaws in existing legal frameworks, which were designed for permanent, full-time employment and fail to accommodate the flexible and often precarious nature of gig jobs. It was determined that existing laws needed substantial reform to better protect gig workers while maintaining the flexibility that defines gig work, emphasizing the need for updated legal frameworks that reflect the realities of modern employment. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The Theory of Precarious Work, Flexicurity Theory and the Labor Market Segmentation Theory may be used to anchor future studies on the evolution of employment law. The study recommended several key reforms to address the shortcomings in the legal framework for gig workers. It suggested developing hybrid employment models that combine traditional benefits with the flexibility of gig work, reforming legal classifications to better fit gig work patterns, and enhancing regulatory frameworks to be more adaptive to technological and market changes. The study also advocated for promoting worker representation, implementing monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to assess the impact of reforms, encouraging international collaboration for harmonized regulations, and launching education and awareness initiatives to inform gig workers and employers about their rights and responsibilities. These recommendations aimed to create a more equitable and effective labor market for gig workers.
The gig economy, which offers temporary and flexible labor, has grown rapidly and transformed the outlook on careers and human resource management. This study examines the human development component of gig labor, challenging its professional status, and investigating meaningful employment. Fair pricing is vital to gig economy workers’ well-being. Competitive pricing on many gig platforms may cause a race to the bottom, underpaying and undervaluing workers. Workers typically lack stability and security, as this survey shows. Gig work's lack of career paths and promotion chances raises concerns about its sustainability. Innovative methods must be used to provide gig workers a feeling of purpose and satisfaction from their employment. Our focus is on fair pricing in the gig economy and its effects on workers. Addressing human growth, meaningful employment, fair pricing, and equitable incentives may create a more sustainable and friendly gig worker environment. Additionally, authorities and companies must work together to adopt laws that safeguard workers’ rights, assure fair compensation, and improve their well-being. A balanced and successful gig economy that benefits companies and people requires embracing these developments. Platform workers’ fair incentive schemes are also discussed to reconcile company goals and worker well-being.
In this chapter, we investigate the application of humanistic management to the gig economy, where flexible digital work is supplanting traditional employment. The study analyzes a South Korean gig platform’s rating and review system, revealing that higher ratings and detailed reviews correlate with reduced worker turnover. These findings suggest that incorporating well-being, ethics, and meaningful work into performance evaluations can improve gig workers’ job satisfaction and retention. The chapter advocates for platform-based organizations to adopt human-centered strategies, addressing the gig economy’s inherent challenges, such as income instability and information asymmetry. By prioritizing ethical practices and meaningful engagement, platforms can foster a more equitable and sustainable work environment. This chapter presents a synthesis of empirical data and theoretical perspectives, highlighting the importance of humanistic management in enhancing the gig economy’s HR practices for the benefit of all stakeholders.
This chapter aims to provide an insightful examination of location-based gig work in developing economies, focusing on the challenges faced by workers, platform providers, and policymakers and the potential opportunities that this form of employment presents. The researchers conducted an extensive literature review, which involved reviewing 76 refereed journal articles and official reports. The reviews reveal several significant challenges faced by gig workers in developing economies, such as limited access to social protection, lack of access to technology, uncertain income streams, lack of labour rights, concerns regarding occupational health and safety, and potential exploitation. Benefits such as economic inclusion, access to global markets, entrepreneurship opportunities, income generation, flexibility, and job creation are also noted. In light of these challenges, the chapter recommends the need for fair working conditions and mechanisms for dispute resolution through legislation. By providing a clear understanding of the challenges and opportunities associated with this form of employment, the chapter equips policymakers, platform providers, and workers with valuable insights for informed decision-making and shapes the future of gig work in a way that promotes fairness and sustainability in the labour market of developing economies.
As more work enters cyberspace, takes place in virtual worlds, and collapses traditional nation-state barriers, we are entering a new era of “virtual work.” In this article, I use “virtual work” as an umbrella term to encompass work in virtual worlds, crowdsourcing, clickworking, even sweeping in, to some degree, the commonplace telecommuting and “mobile executives” that have become ubiquitous over the past decade.Are such new forms of “work” entitled to the minimum payment standards mandated under the FLSA? As the United States enters another economic crisis, and with advances in technology key to continued economic growth and stability, these questions demand serious consideration. The FLSA now faces a variety of new scenarios created by work in cyberspace, and there is a strong case that the economic and equitable purposes of the FLSA are best served by ensuring that the statute is construed broadly so that cyberworkers, clickworkers, and virtual workers receive the federal minimum wage. The advent of virtual work simultaneously provides immense promise and peril for workers in the new digital economy. New technology allowing collaboration can provide remarkable opportunities for workers and employers alike. Traditional limitations on collaboration - of travel, of meeting, of commuting - can be minimized or reduced. Employers can use virtual spaces to make contacts and recruit talent, without spending money on transportation. Simultaneously, virtual work presents many of the same enduring problems and "races to the bottom" that workers’ rights advocates have struggled with over the years. This Article begins, in Part One, with a brief background discussion of labor markets in cyberspace. The discussion here contains an in-depth description of the process of pounding the virtual pavement - looking for work in cyberspace - for the purpose of showing the special employment challenges in this context and thus why such work warrants the protection of the FLSA. With that background, Part Two discusses the application of the FLSA to work in virtual worlds, crowdsourcing, and clickworking. Finally, Part Three makes the argument that the purposes of the FLSA are best achieved by ensuring their application to virtual work in the United States. Finally, the conclusion offers some thoughts about the broader applications of this argument and some possibilities for further thought and study, to be developed in future work.
From Widgits to Digits is about the changing nature of the employment relationship and its implications for labor and employment law. For most of the twentieth century, employers fostered long-term employment relationships through the use of implicit promises of job security, well-defined hierarchical job ladders, and longevity-based wage and benefit schemes. Today’s employers no longer value longevity or seek to encourage long-term attachment between the employee and the firm. Instead employers seek flexibility in their employment relationships. As a result, employees now operate as free agents in a boundaryless workplace, in which they move across departmental lines within firms, and across firm borders, throughout their working lives. Today’s challenge is to find a means to provide workers with continuity in wages, on-going training opportunities, sustainable and transferable skills, unambiguous ownership of their human capital, portable benefits, and an infrastructure of support structures to enable them to weather career transitions.
Existing crowdsourcing markets are often inaccessible to workers living at the bottom of the economic pyramid. We present MobileWorks, a mobile phone-based crowdsourcing platform intended to provide employment to developing world users. MobileWorks provides human optical character recognition (OCR) tasks that can be completed by workers on low-end mobile phones through a web browser. To address the limited screen resolution available on low-end phones, MobileWorks divides documents into many small pieces and sends each piece to a different worker. An initial pilot study with 10 users over a two month period revealed that it is feasible to do basic OCR tasks using a simple mobile web-based application. We find that workers using MobileWorks average 120 tasks per hour at an accuracy rate of 99% using a multiple entry solution. In addition, users had a positive experience with MobileWorks: all study participants would recommend MobileWorks to friends and family. Copyright © 2011, Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence. All rights reserved.
Amazon Mechanical Turk, the microtask-based platform is
a huge opportunity for all its stakeholders - a means of
livelihood for workers, quick and inexpensive way of
getting work done for enterprises. In this paper, we explore
who these workers are, what “work” means and the efforts
workers take to do this work through an ethnographic study
of Indian crowdworkers. To provide further analytic
understanding of our findings we draw a comparison with
our other studies of US based Turkers.
The employment status of workers for “platform economy” firms such as Uber, Lyft, TaskRabbit and Handy has become a significant legal and political issue. Lawsuits against several such companies allege that they have misclassified workers as independent contractors to evade employment law obligations. Various lawmakers and commentators, pointing to the complexity of existing tests for employment and the costs of employment duties, have responded with proposals to limit platform companies’ liability. This article steps into such debates, using the status of Uber drivers as a test case. It argues that Uber drivers may not fall neatly into either the “employee” or the “independent contractor” category under existing tests. Nevertheless, an important principle underlying those tests — the anti-domination principle — strongly indicates that the drivers are employees. That principle also indicates that proposals to limit platform economy firms’ liabilities are premature at best and misguided at worst.
The rise of the car-sharing company Uber will likely have mixed effects on labor standards. On the one hand, Uber’s partial consolidation of the car-hire sector and its compilation of data on passenger and driver behavior could enable the company and regulators to ensure safety and root out discrimination against passengers with relative ease. In that regard, Uber may be an improvement over the existing taxi sector, which is quite difficult to regulate. Uber’s longer-term impact on labor standards is quite unclear, however, and it may have dark implications for the future of low-wage work more generally.
This work develops a functional concept of the employer in the hope of overcoming the theoretical and practical problems arising from the ascription of responsibility in fragmented employment settings. A first part analyses two conflicting strands in the received concept of the employer, simultaneously identified as a single party to a bilateral contract and defined through the exercise of a range of employer functions. As a result of this tension, full employment law coverage is restricted to a narrow paradigm scenario where a single legal entity exercises all employer functions, and fails to grapple with the rise of complex work arrangements, from temporary agency work to corporate groups and Private Equity investors. The second part illustrates the practical implications of these developments: regulatory obligations are placed on inappropriate entities, and workers may find themselves without recourse to employment law protection. A subsequent chapter compares this situation with German law, where a sophisticated apparatus has been developed to regulate employment in corporate groups. The final part reconceptualizes the employer, defining it as the entity, or combination of entities, exercising functions regulated in a particular domain of employment law. Each of the two strands of the received concept is addressed in turn to demonstrate how this openly multi-functional approach overcomes the rigidities of the current concept without abandoning an underlying unitary definition. As a result, employment law obligations fasten on the entity, or combination of entities, exercising the relevant employer functions, regardless of the formal legal organization of the enterprise in question.
Nel Regno Unito i c.d. "contratti a zero ore", o intermittenti, costituiscono una tra le questioni piu importanti degli ultimi anni, e hanno portato il governo a regolarli nell’ambito della legge del 2015 su Small Business, Enterprise and Employment. In questo articolo gli A. presentano ed esaminano l’emergere del dato legale ed empirico del lavoro prestato in base a tale forma contrattuale e suggeriscono che, mentre ha tardato ad arrivare una sistemazione giuridica di tali contratti poiche considerati una questione irrisolta del mercato del lavoro, il pensiero corrente riguardo ad essi e sostanzialmente debole: non esiste un’entita che comprenda i contratti a zero ore come categoria a se stante; l’etichetta ha la funzione non meno che di una comoda espressione per mascherare la crescita esplosiva del lavoro precario prestato da una forza lavoro altamente frammentata. La recente "regolazione" dei contratti a zero ore, che si limita in realta a vietare le clausole di esclusiva, pertanto costituisce nient’altro che uno spostamento significativo verso la normalizzazione di qualsiasi manifestazione estrema di forme contrattuali abusive, lasciando un numero crescente di lavoratori privi del ricorso alle norme di protezione. Nella conclusione si indica la via per un approccio maggiormente coerente alla de-normalizzazione e disciplina di questo rilevante e crescente insieme di forme negoziali precarie.
This book argues that a broad notion of 'personal work relations' should become the central organising idea for the future development of labour law. This concept is developed by drawing on extensive comparative research of the legal architecture of employment relations in national legal systems and EU law to analyse the traditional model of the contract of employment and the difficulties of using that traditional model to frame modern working relationships. The chapters then present a new model of the foundations of employment relationships, based on the concept of a 'personal work nexus', and explore the potential of the book's model in shaping labour law along the lines of the normative goal of 'personality in work', and its conceptual building blocks of 'dignity', 'capability', and 'stability'. Throughout, the book analyses the interaction of domestic and EU employment law, and discusses the possibility of future legal harmonisation in the area. The book concludes by exploring the potential for a common framework for European employment law, in the context of broader debates surrounding the harmonisation of European private law.
For much of the twentieth century, large companies employing many workers formed the bedrock of the U.S. economy. Today, on the list of big business's priorities, sustaining the employer-worker relationship ranks far below building a devoted customer base and delivering value to investors. As David Weil's groundbreaking analysis shows, large corporations have shed their role as direct employers of the people responsible for their products, in favor of outsourcing work to small companies that compete fiercely with one another. The result has been declining wages, eroding benefits, inadequate health and safety conditions, and ever-widening income inequality.From the perspectives of CEOs and investors, fissuring--splitting off functions that were once managed internally--has been a phenomenally successful business strategy, allowing companies to become more streamlined and drive down costs. Despite giving up direct control to subcontractors, vendors, and franchises, these large companies have figured out how to maintain quality standards and protect the reputation of the brand. They produce brand-name products and services without the cost of maintaining an expensive workforce. But from the perspective of workers, this lucrative strategy has meant stagnation in wages and benefits and a lower standard of living--if they are fortunate enough to have a job at all.Weil proposes ways to modernize regulatory policies and laws so that employers can meet their obligations to workers while allowing companies to keep the beneficial aspects of this innovative business strategy.
By lowering the costs of communication, the web promises to enable distributed collectives to act around shared issues. However, many collective action efforts never succeed: while the web's affordances make it easy to gather, these same decentralizing characteristics impede any focus towards action. In this paper, we study challenges to collective action efforts through the lens of online labor by engaging with Amazon Mechanical Turk workers. Through a year of ethnographic fieldwork, we sought to understand online workers' unique barriers to collective action. We then created Dynamo, a platform to support the Mechanical Turk community in forming publics around issues and then mobilizing. We found that collective action publics tread a precariously narrow path between the twin perils of stalling and friction, balancing with each step between losing momentum and flaring into acrimony. However, specially structured labor to maintain efforts' forward motion can help such publics take action.
Crowd employment platforms enable firms to source labour and expertise by leveraging Internet technology. Rather than offshoring jobs to low-cost geographies, functions once performed by internal employees can be outsourced to an undefined pool of digital labour using a virtual network. This enables firms to shift costs and offload risk as they access a flexible, scalable workforce that sits outside the traditional boundaries of labour laws and regulations. The micro-tasks of ‘clickwork’ are tedious, repetitive and poorly paid, with remuneration often well below minimum wage. This article will present an analysis of one of the most popular crowdsourcing sites—Mechanical Turk—to illuminate how Amazon's platform enables an array of companies to access digital labour at low cost and without any of the associated social protection or moral obligation.
It has become widely assumed that the standard employment relationship (SER) is in irreversible decline in industrialized societies. However, non‐standard and precarious work relationships often complement the SER via labour market transitions, and are not displacing it as the focal point of labour market regulation. The co‐ordination and risk management functions of the SER continue to be relevant in market economies, and the SER is adjusting to new conditions. The SER has a complex and evolving relationship to gender and to social stratification. In the European context where the SER originated and achieved its clearest legal expression, institutional solutions to precariousness and inequality are being developed, the most innovative of which avoid simple deregulation in favour of integrated policy responses involving a range of complementary regulatory mechanisms.
This Article explores the meaning of workplace discrimination where reality meets the imaginary world in virtual work settings. Using a more recent development in the realm of virtual work — workplace avatars — the Article considers the impact on law of virtual performance identity by workers where appearances can be altered in virtual reality. Current protected-class approaches to antidiscrimination law have not served as the antidote to workplace bias and exclusion. Thus, the Article investigates whether avatar technology holds promise for facilitating greater inclusion of marginalized workers in the contemporary workplace. Does this mode of virtual work serve as a platform for diversity or simply create more confusion regarding our fundamental understandings of discrimination? The author’s premise is that the mechanics of online identity and the social and behavioral dynamics of virtual engagement produce a new locus for bias to flourish. While the virtual workplace holds some appeal for promoting broader acceptance within organizations, the Article claims that avatar-based virtual work environments do not constitute unconditional and neutral spaces. Overall, the Article takes an optimistic stance toward immersive environments in the employment context. However, it cautions that avatars create interpersonal dynamics that are just as dangerous to notions of belonging in the contemporary workplace as their physical counterparts. The author posits that the multidimensionality of identity in this context illuminates the limitations of the categorical approach to antidiscrimination law and concludes that the avatar makes the case for intersectionality theory in workplace law.
Introduction to Regulating for Decent Work: New Directions in Labour Market Regulation (Palgrave/ILO 2011). The book is an international and interdisciplinary response to the two most significant accounts of the role and significance of labour market regulation: orthodox economic theory and the International Labour Organization’s Decent Work Agenda. It is the first volume to be compiled from the work of the Network on Regulating for Decent Work, an international and interdisciplinary research network established to support and encourage interdisciplinary research on labour market regulation. The volume advances the academic and policy debates on post-crisis labour regulation by identifying new challenges, subjects and theoretical perspectives. It identifies central themes in the contemporary regulation of labour, including the role of empirical research in assessing and supporting labour market interventions; the regulation of precarious work; and the emergence of new types of labour market. This Introduction first outlines the recent evolution of the deregulatory narrative. It then draws on subsequent chapters in the volume to address the design of theoretical, conceptual and methodological frameworks through which research on labour market regulation can be advanced. Two issues of central relevance are elaborated: the potential benefits of labour regulation and the complexity of regulatory frameworks.
Rapidly innovating industries are just not behaving the way theory expected. Conventional industrial organization theory predicts that when parties in the supply chain have to make transaction-specific investments, the risk of opportunism will drive them away from contracts and toward vertical integration. Despite the conventional theory, contemporary practice is moving in the other direction. Instead of vertical integration, we observe vertical disintegration in a significant number of industries, as producers recognize that they cannot themselves maintain cutting-edge technology in every field required for the success of their product. In doing this, the parties are developing forms of contracting beyond the reach of contract theory models. In this Article, we connect the emerging contract practice to theory, learning from what has happened in the real world to frame a theoretical explanation of this cross-organizational innovation and to reconceptualize the boundaries of the firm accordingly. We argue that the vertical disintegration of the supply chain in many industries is mediated neither by fully specified technical interfaces that allow suppliers to produce a modular piece of the ultimate product, nor by entirely implicit relational contracts supported only by norms of reciprocity and the expectation of future dealings. Rather, we suggest that the change in the boundary of the firm has given rise to a new form of contracting between firms - what we call contracting for innovation. This pattern braids explicit and implicit contracting to support iterative collaborative innovation by raising switching costs. These costs, represented by the parties' parallel investment in transaction specific investment in knowledge about their collaborators' capacities, deter opportunism under circumstances when explicit contracting, renegotiation and the anticipation of future dealings cannot.
Remember outsourcing? Sending jobs to India and China is so 2003. The new pool of cheap labor: everyday people using their spare cycles to create content, solve problems, even do corporate R
This article confronts the thorny questions that arise in attempting to apply traditional employment and labor law to emerging online “crowdsourcing” labor markets, and offers some provisional regulatory recommendations designed to clarify the employment relationship and protect crowd workers. Crowdsourcing refers to the process of taking tasks that would normally be delegated to an employee and distributing them to a large pool of online workers, the “crowd,” in the form of an open call. The article describes how crowdsourcing works, its advantages and risks, and why particular subsections of the paid crowdsourcing industry expose employees to substandard working conditions without much recourse to the law. Taking Amazon’s “Mechanical Turk” as a case study, it investigates the legal status of the “crowd,” exploring the nature of the employment relationship and the complications that might arise in applying existing work laws. In doing so it draws on employment and labor case law, but also on other areas of internet law in order to illustrate how courts grapple with the migration of regulated activity into unregulated cyberspace. Finally, the article makes a case for regulatory intervention, based on both the vulnerability of crowd workers and the failure of the law to keep up with the technological developments that drive our information economy. To that end, it presents recommendations for legislatures seeking to expand legal protections for crowdsourced employees, suggestions for how courts and administrative agencies can pursue the same objective within our existing legal framework, voluntary “best practices” for firms and venues involved in crowdsourcing, and examples of how crowd workers might begin to effectively organize and advocate on their own behalf.
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