The relationship between family adjustment and expatriate performance

Abstract

Following the global economic collapse, executives are significantly more demanding in understanding the Return on Investment of employee-related programmes including expatriate programmes. Expatriates are defined as employees who are recruited to provide a service in a country which is not the country of residence, typically for at least three years. Expatriate programmes carry high risk; even more so when the family accompanies the employee. The cost of an expatriate assignment is, on average, three times higher than that of a local; yet the failure rate is estimated to be up to 40%. Despite the cost, expatriate resources are critical to embed culture, policies and transfer of skills to a host country environment. The objective of this study was to identify the relationship between the adjustments of the expatriate’s family in the host
country on the performance of expatriates. The study was conducted using a quantitative research approach. A convenience sample was used and 81 expatriates completed the questionnaire. The results confirmed home to work spillover and that expatriates would value more organisational support for families in the new location. The length of stay in the host location was linked to higher levels of performance – the longer the assignment, the better the performance levels of the expatriate. Human Resources Practitioners can develop support programmes to ensure that expatriates and families are equipped to enhance their adjustment period and consequently positively impact the expatriate’s performance whilst on assignment.

Full text

S.Afr.J.Bus.Manage.2016,47(2) 1
The relationship between family adjustment and expatriate performance
D. Trompettera, M. Bussinb* and R. Nienaberc
aAffiliation
bAffiliation
cAffiliation
*To whom all correspondence should be addressed
drbussin@mweb.co.za
Following the global economic collapse, executives are significantly more demanding in understanding the Return on
Investment of employee-related programmes including expatriate programmes. Expatriates are defined as employees who
are recruited to provide a service in a country which is not the country of residence, typically for at least three years.
Expatriate programmes carry high risk; even more so when the family accompanies the employee. The cost of an
expatriate assignment is, on average, three times higher than that of a local; yet the failure rate is estimated to be up to
40%. Despite the cost, expatriate resources are critical to embed culture, policies and transfer of skills to a host country
environment.
The objective of this study was to identify the relationship between the adjustments of the expatriate’s family in the host
country on the performance of expatriates. The study was conducted using a quantitative research approach. A
convenience sample was used and 81 expatriates completed the questionnaire. The results confirmed home to work
spillover and that expatriates would value more organisational support for families in the new location. The length of
stay in the host location was linked to higher levels of performance – the longer the assignment, the better the
performance levels of the expatriate.
Human Resources Practitioners can develop support programmes to ensure that expatriates and families are equipped to
enhance their adjustment period and consequently positively impact the expatriate’s performance whilst on assignment.
Introduction
Key focus of the study
As organisations globalise, they continue to face the
challenge of sourcing talent for their operations abroad.
Organisations often require management from the home
country or head office environment to represent the
organisation in the new location (referred to as the host
country) to ensure that the culture, ethos and governance of
the main organisation are replicated in the new location
(Srivastava & Panday, 2012). As organisations seek
opportunities to expand their business abroad using
expatriates to represent the home company, every effort
needs to be made to guarantee a high return on investment in
these programmes (Employment Conditions Abroad, (ECA)
International, 2010).
Despite the focus on reducing costs, and an assignment
failure rate of up to 40% (Chiotis-Leskowich, 2009),
companies continuously increase their expatriate numbers in
buoyant and developing markets (ECA International, 2013).
Long term expatriate assignments of between 12 and 48
months, typically involve relocating an entire family to a
new location (Lee, 2007b; Wilkinson & Singh, 2010),
presenting significant challenges for family adjustment. It is
posited that family adjustment plays an important role in
the performance of an expatriate on assignment and as such,
is important to global employers, both from a financial and
non-financial perspective (Lee, 2007b).
Trends from the research literature

2 S.Afr.J.Bus.Manage.2016,47(2)
Expatriate failure is seen as the premature return to the
home country or normal place of residence, resignation of
expatriates and/or substandard levels of performance
(Carson, 2008; Chiotis-Leskowich, 2009; Shi & Wang,
2014). Family problems and spousal dissatisfaction are
prominent causes for expatriate failure.
For expatriates and the accompanying family to adapt
quickly, particularly in a foreign environment in terms of
language, religion and values, they need to be adept in
cross-cultural adjustment (Black, 1990). Black (1990)
proposes that cross cultural adjustment takes place at three
levels namely general adjustment (adapting to different
living conditions), interaction adjustment (engaging
comfortable with the locals in the host country), and work
adjustment (fitting into the local culture).
The Spillover theory describes a process whereby one
domain such as family adjustment affects another domain
e.g. expatriate performance (Byron, 2005). Spillover is bi-
directional between work-family and family-work (Haar &
Bardoel, 2008), indicating that family circumstances impact
on the work environment as much as the work environment
impact on family circumstances.
Family issues are cited as the main reason for either
declining an expatriate assignment, or the premature return
of the expatriate, and therefore if organisations can provide
adequate support to the accompanying family, the expatriate
and the organisation will ultimately benefit from a
successful assignment indicated by the full term having been
served at optimal levels of performance (Lee, 2007b).
Research objectives
The main research objective is to identify the relationship
between an expatriate’s family’s adjustment in the host
country and the expatriate’s performance. Secondary
research objectives aim to establish the influence of home to
work spillover on the expatriate’s performance; and whether
previous international assignments moderate the family’s
adjustment in subsequent assignments.
Contribution to the area of mobility management
Line managers, HR Business Partners and Mobility
professionals are all concerned with increasing return on
investments for expatriate assignments. Financial (e.g. costs)
and non-financial risks (e.g. reputation, brand, talent
management) associated with these assignments can be
mitigated through preparatory programmes that equip the
line manager, the expatriate and the accompanying family
with the required skills to adjust quickly and effectively in
the home country. There are however few programmes
available for the accompanying family in particular and an
investment in the development of these types of
programmes are unlikely unless it can be proven that the
programme will render a positive return. Understanding the
impact of the family’s adjustment on the performance of the
expatriate will provide the necessary impetus to develop and
implement programmes that will positively impact the
success rate of expatriate assignments.
Literature review
Factors contributing to a successful expatriate
adjustment
The following factors contribute to the successful
adjustment of an expatriate:
a) Expatriates adjusting in the host country in terms of
domestic living conditions, social adjustment and work
adjustment (Black, 1990);
b) Expatriate selection includes a high level of technical
competence where it is expected that skills are
transferred (Lee, 2007a), sound emotional intelligence
(Gabel-Shemueli & Dolan, 2011), motivational cultural
intelligence (CQ) (Templer, Tay & Chandraskekar,
2006) and Behavioural cultural intelligence (Che Rose,
Sri Ramalu, Uli & Kumar, 2010); and
c) Organisational support both after and before the
inception of the assignment (Andreason, 2003). Line
managers play a pivotal role in the expatriate’s ability
to perform (Chew, 2004).
Careful expatriate selection is therefore critical, and
consideration should be given to both the technical and non-
technical ability demonstrated by the expatriate.
In addition, accompanying spouses have a difficult role in
adjusting, considering that they are required to leave their
job or restructure their career to support the expatriate and
accompanying children (Adler & Gundersen, 2007). Studies
on expatriate adjustment indicate that the most commonly
stated reason for expatriate failure is family-related. Other
reasons contributing to the premature return of the expatriate
include the expatriate having difficulty to adjust on the
different levels stated, lack of managerial competence or
support, the job not meeting the expectations and host
country nationals not accepting the expatriate in the working
environment (Brookfield Global Relocation Services, 2011;
Chepkong’a, 2012; ECA International, 2011; Fukuda &
Chu, 1994; Yuen, 2003).
The U-Curve adjustment theory (Black and Mendenhall,
1991) posits that the expatriate’s relocation results in high
levels of uncertainty as to what to expect of the host country.

S.Afr.J.Bus.Manage.2016,47(2) 3
Figure 1: The U-curve of cross-cultural adjustment
Black & Mendenhall, 1991
As indicated in Figure 1, the adjustment of the expatriate
and the accompanying family takes place over a period of
time and comprises four phases, which include the initial
period of assignment also termed the honeymoon phase,
which is followed by culture shock, adjustment, and finally,
the mastery phase. The honeymoon phase is characterised
by feelings of excitement and curiosity which is quickly
followed by feelings of frustration and disillusionment as
the reality of the relocation sets in. During the third stage
adaptation occurs and individuals learn how to behave in the
new culture. The final stage, mastery, is where adjustment
takes place on an incremental bases thereby improving
functioning in the new culture.
Expatriates need to be made aware of these phases as part of
the pre-departure preparation programmes to prepare them
adequately for the emotions to be experienced. As the most
common reason stated for expatriates to return home before
the end of their contractual period, the expatriate family
requires specific attention.
The expatriate family
It is estimated that at least 70% of expatriates are
accompanied by a spouse with or without children (Van der
Zee, Ali, & Haaksma, 2007). Although it has been
empirically confirmed that the expatriate family’s ability to
adjust has a significant impact on their ability to
successfully complete an assignment in the host country
(Palthe, 2008), there is paucity of research on understanding
specifically the impact of the family’s adjustment on the
expatriate’s performance. Various theories assist in
describing the adjustment challenges that the family have to
deal with.
Family systems theory
The family systems theory is based on the principle of
viewing the family as an open system. According to
Minuchin (1974), the family is an open socio-cultural
system in transformation that continually undergoes
development whilst moving through a number of
restructuring phases; whilst the family members move
through these phases psychological growth takes place with
each of the family members. Therefore, if one family
member is on an expatriate assignment which is a stressful
event, it can affect the balance within the family system. In
order to successfully transform through changing
circumstances, the family has to function as a cohesive unit,
supporting each other. Family cohesion is considered the
strongest predictor in terms of quality of life and socio-
cultural adjustment (Van Der Zee et al, 2007).
According to Olson (2000), the adjustment of the family
accompanying the expatriate is dependent on the following
characteristics: family cohesion (support), flexibility
(adaptability) and communication. Flexibility is particularly
important in the context of an international assignment
where families are required to adapt to a number of changes
i.e. child starting school, favourite snacks are no longer
available, and extra-familial pressures i.e. the expatriate
working long hours, lack of social support structures etc.
Families who function well within the family system are
able to accommodate to changes and adapt better in a
foreign environment. Dysfunctional families will want to
maintain the home country living conditions finding
adjustment very difficult or even impossible. The final
dimension in Olson’s model namely communication, is
described as the critical enabler for the other two dimensions
cohesion and flexibility. Without these dimensions, the
family is likely to experience high levels of stress and an
inability to adjust effectively, supporting the Double ABCX
theory.
Double ABCX theory
In terms of the double ABCX theory, family stress is defined
as the imbalance between demands and capabilities of a
family. The demands referred to as the stressor or the A
factor, and the family’s capabilities to deal with such a
stressor is termed the B factor. The C factor is the family’s
perception of the stressor. Where the family unit is unable
to manage the stress using their capabilities and resources
available a crisis occurs termed the X factor. Translated to
an international assignment, where an expatriate family is
faced with demands such as an international relocation (A),
the family’s internal resources (B) and their perception of
the challenges linked to the relocation (C) will interact to
produce the family’s adjustment (X). According to the
double ABCX theory, it is not so much the stressor that will
influence the family’s adjustment; rather, it is whether the

4 S.Afr.J.Bus.Manage.2016,47(2)
family has the requisite coping capabilities and the ability to
perceive the relocation challenges in a positive, adventurous
light that will influence the family’s ability to adjust to the
new environment and thus directly contribute to the
successful completion of the assignment. Having
highlighted the family characteristics required to effectively
work through transformation, the relationship between the
family’s ability to adjust and the expatriate’s performance
needs to be determined.
Spillover theory
Spillover is described as the transference of moods, skills,
values and behaviors from one role to another (Carlson,
Kacmar, Wayne & Grzywacz, 2006). The relationship
between work and family are interdependent with
‘permeable’ boundaries (Demerouti, Bakker, & Tetrick,
2012). The Spillover theory illustrates the transfer of
stressors emanating from one area to another. Spillover has
been researched in different contexts for example the
research by Takeuchi, Yun & Tesluk (2002) found that
expatriates’ cultural adjustment spilled over to their work
context and affect job satisfaction. Furthermore, an
individual’s functioning at work may have a positive or
negative impact on their effective functioning within the
family system. Similarly, one’s functioning within the
family system directly impacts, positively or negatively, the
effective functioning within the work environment (Byron,
2005). Thus, Spillover is “an intra-individual contagion
process that occurs across contexts”, according Lazarova,
Westman & Shaffer (2010: 96).
Spillover has a bi-directional relationship whereby work
influences family life, and family influences work life
(Shimada, Shimazu, Bakker, Demerouti & Kawakami,
2010). Spillover is relevant for this study as the experiences
at home, may spillover to the performance levels at work
and vice versa.
The literature review supports the importance of ensuring
successful expatriate assignments for financial and non-
financial reasons. The factors influencing the success of
assignments are broad and diverse which place the emphasis
on ensuring that the appropriate employee and
accompanying family members are selected; not just the
employee as so often happens. The expatriate and the
accompanying family’s ability to effectively adjust in the
host location play an important role in the successful
completion of the assignment. However, research not yet
undertaken by scholars is to obtain empirical evidence of the
impact of the family’s adjustment, on the expatriate’s level
of performance within the working environment.
Research design
Research approach
A quantitative relational exploratory research design was
adopted where the family’s adjustment and the expatriate’s
performance levels were assessed from the perspective of
the expatriate. The dependant variable is the expatriate’s
performance and the independent variables are the
adjustment dimensions. Family adjustment was measured in
terms of five categories namely physical adjustment factors,
educational factors, health factors, social factors and
financial factors. The expatriate’s performance entailed a
self-rating by the expatriate with reference to technical
performance in the host location as well as integration and
their ability to work effectively in cross cultural project
teams.
Research method
Research participants
The target group consisted of expatriate employees working
for a large multinational petrochemical company, who were
either on an assignment for at least 12 months and typically
up to three years or who had returned from an assignment in
the previous 24 months. A pre requisite for inclusion was
that the expatriate’s spouse or partner had to accompany
them. The sampling technique was convenience sampling, a
technique considered appropriate for the study due to time
limitations as well as the location and access to the sample
population.
Measuring instruments
A survey was designed and comprised four main sections
namely demographic variables, family adjustment, spillover
and expatriate performance. Three measurement scales were
used. Statements and closed questions were used in
Sections Two, Three and Four. A combination of ordinal
and nominal scales was used to collect data in respect of the
demographic variables and a 5-point Likert type scale was
used in Sections Two, Three and Five respectively.
Provision was made at the end of the questionnaire for
respondents to capture any additional comments about the
family’s experience whilst living in the host location and the
impact this experience may have had on the expatriate’s
performance. Cronbach’s reliability assessment confirmed
reliability of the instrument.
Research procedure
The survey, a covering letter and participant instructions
were distributed electronically by means of email to 153
respondents. Respondents were granted two weeks to
complete the questionnaires. Reminders via email were
sent after one week. After the second week, a further
extension of one week was provided.
Statistical analysis

S.Afr.J.Bus.Manage.2016,47(2) 5
The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measurement was used to
establish whether factor analysis on the data would be useful
followed by a factor analysis on 48 items on family
adjustment, six items on spillover, and six items expatriate
performance as reflected in Table 1.
Table 1: Factor analysis summary
Physical
adjustment
factors
Initial adjustment items
Availability
and proximity
to public
amenities
Availability of goods and services
Shops/malls
Proximity to shopping malls
The use of public transportation
Driving in the host location
Security at host accommodation
Proximity to the office
Proximity to schools
Home
comforts
Parking facilities at host accommodation
Size of the accommodation
Size of the garden at host accommodation
Education
adjustment
factors
Initial adjustment items
Educational
support and
diversity
Support of teachers
Multinational cultures
Making friends at school
Instructional
method,
curriculum
and peer
acceptance
New curriculum
Different tuition language
Social demands by peers
Teaching styles
Health
adjustment
factors
Initial adjustment items
Medical
specialist
supplies and
services
Pharmacist – availability
Pharmacist - services offered
Hospital – availability
Availability of medication
Hospital - services offered
Specialist - services offered
Specialists (e.g. cardiologist, gynaecologist,
physician etc.) – availability
Dentist – availability
Basic
healthcare
General practitioner – availability
General practitioner - service offered
Dentist - service offered

6 S.Afr.J.Bus.Manage.2016,47(2)
Social
adjustment
factors Initial adjustment items
Social
Recreation
Use/availability of entertainment facilities
Distance to recreation and sporting facilities
Distance to entertainment facilities (e.g.
movies, theatre, restaurants)
Internet/Skype connectivity
Use/availability of recreation and sporting
facilities
Banking services
Friends and
family
support
systems
Making friends with host country nationals
Missing support from family and friends at
home
Spiritual
affiliation
Place of worship
Distance to place of worship
Financial
adjustment
factors Initial adjustment items
Everyday
living
expenses
Food
Entertainment
Domestic services
Accommodation
Household
goods and
intermittent
expenses
Household goods
Clothing
Banking charges
Public
services and
utilities
Transportation (including fuel, public
transportation and vehicles)
Utilities including water & electricity
School uniforms
Results
Significant relationships exist between the extracted factors
relating to the family’s adjustment dimensions. No
significant relationship between adjustment factors and
performance as well as between adjustment factors and
spillover was found. However, the results indicated that
performance is correlated with various adjustment items
namely adjustment to making friends in school (r = 0.402, p
= 0.025), multinational culture (r = 0.410, p = 0.022),
availability of hospitals (r = 0.284, p = 0.011).
Spillover from home to work was confirmed:
82.72% of respondents confirmed that the respect they
receive at home makes them feel more confident at
work.
75.31% of respondents indicate that their family helps
them to forget the pressure at work.
74.07% of respondents reported that their home life
helps them relax and feel ready for the next day's work.
50% of respondents reported that they work longer
hours than required in order to provide for their family.
A large number of neutral responses for this statement
are noted (32.5%).
41.98 % of respondents indicate that they often/very
often talk with someone at home to help them deal with
problems at work. This number represents the majority
of respondents when taking into account the large
number of neutral responses (23.5%).
The Mann-Whitney U test was used to investigate the
differences between two independent groups on a
continuous measure (refer to Table 2).
Table 2: Mann-Whitney U test investigating differences between independent groups
Group Dimension N Mean rank Z P R
Male Public services and utilities 72 43.13 -2.335 .020 0.26
Female 9 24.00
Cross-cultural training
Household goods and
intermittent expenses
62 43.99 -2.084 .037 0.23
No cross-cultural training 19 31.24
Received counselling 19 52.24 -2.399 .016 0.27
No counselling received 62 37.56
Cross-cultural training Public services and utilities 62 45.05 -2.842 .004 0.32
No cross-cultural training 19 27.79
Utilised relocation assistance Sport, recreation and social
connectivity
54 44.02 -1.958 .050 0.22
No relocation assistance utilized 26 33.19
HR consultation Spiritual affiliation 61 43.63 -2.202 .028 0.25
No HR consultation 19 30.45
Married
Spillover
73 42.57 -2.598 .009 0.29
Unmarried 7 18.93
First visit 40 46.49 -2.328 .020 0.26
More than one visit 40 34.51
Utilised relocation assistance Performance 55 36.47 -2.543 .011 0.28
No relocation assistance utilised 26 50.58
Table 2 indicates statistically significant differences between
independent groups; findings related to performance and
spillover will be discussed.

S.Afr.J.Bus.Manage.2016,47(2) 7
Spillover was rated higher by married respondents (Md =
42.57, n = 73) than by unmarried respondents (Md = 18.93,
n = 7), U = 104.500, z =-2.598, r = 0.29, indicating the
importance of spousal support, additionally spillover was
rated higher by first time assignees (Md = 46.49, n = 40)
versus those who had been on more than one assignment
(Md = 34.51, n = 40), U = 560.500, z = -2.328, r = 0.26.
This result could indicate that expatriates who have been on
more than one assignment are more familiar with the
uncertainty of an expatriate assignment than the first time
assignees that may rely more heavily on the family for
support.
Table 2 furthermore indicates a statistically significant
difference between respondents who utilised relocation
assistance and those who did not. Respondents who utilised
relocation assistance (Md = 50.58, n= 26), rated their
performance higher than those who did not utilise relocation
assistance (Md = 36.47, n = 55) U = 466.000, z = -2.543, r =
0.28. This result could indicate that it is important for
expatriates to be well adjusted increasing familiarity of the
surroundings and reducing uncertainties allowing expatriates
to focus on their performance.
The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare the scores on
some continuous variable for three or more groups (refer to
Table 3).
Table 3: Kruskal-Wallis test - Differences between
performance, social recreation and length of stay
Length of stay
in country NMean
rank df p
value
Performanc
e
Less than12
months 24 35.08
3 0.015
13-24 months 25 33.60
25-36 months 12 48.42
Longer than 36
months 20 52.90
Social
recreation
Less than12
months 24 49.21
3 0.03
13-24 months 24 44.00
25-36 months 12 31.75
Longer than 36
months 20 31.10
Table 3 indicates a statistically significant difference in
performance ratings across four different durations i.e.
length of stay in the host location (Gp 1, <12 months: n =
24, Gp 2, 13-24 months: n = 25, Gp 3, 25-26 months: n =
12, Gp 4, >36 months: n = 20),
x2
(2, n = 81) = 10.500,
p = 0.15. The group with the longest duration in a country
(length of stay >36) recorded a higher median score (Md =
52.90) than the other three duration categories, which
recorded median values as follows: Gp1: Md = 35.08, Gp 2:
Md = 33.60, Gp 3: Md = 48.42
Table 3 furthermore indicates a statistically significant
difference in social recreation across four different durations
i.e. length of stay in the host location. (Gp 1, <12 months: n
= 24, Gp 2, 13-24 months: n = 24, Gp 3, 25-26 months: n =
12, Gp 4 >36 months: n = 20),
x2
(2, n = 80) = 8.947, p
= 0.30. The group with the shortest duration in country
(length of stay <12 months) recorded a higher median score
(Md = 49.21) than the other three duration categories, which
recorded median values as follows: Gp 2: Md = 44, Gp 3:
Md = 31.75, Gp 4: Md = 31.10.
The results show that expatriates who had been in the
country less than 12 months rated adjustment to social
recreation higher, in other words more difficult to adjust to,
than those who had been in the country for a longer period.
Trustworthiness
The internal reliability of the research questionnaire was
measured and the Cronbach’s alpha scores for all items
relating to family adjustment are >0.8 except for the
financial dimension (.742), indicating acceptable internal
consistency.
The study revealed Cronbach’s Alpha values of 0.842,
0.837, 0.940, 0.878 and 0.742 respectively for physical,
educational, health, social and financial adjustment factors.
Ethical considerations
Based on the principle of conducting sound research and
ensuring no harm, the purpose of the study was explained to
the potential respondents. Participation was voluntary and
each respondent was assured of the strictest level of
confidentiality. All questionnaires returned to the researcher
were treated with confidentiality.
Discussion
The main research objective is to identify the relationship
between an expatriate’s family’s adjustment in the host
country and the expatriate’s performance. Secondary
research objectives aim to establish the influence of home to
work spillover on the expatriate’s performance; and whether
previous international assignments moderate the family’s
adjustment in subsequent assignments.
No significant relationship was found between the
adjustment factors and expatriate performance. Length of
stay was positively linked to expatriate performance as well
as to social recreation. Spillover from home to work was
confirmed. Strong correlations were found between the
adjustment of expatriate children, and their own levels of
performance as well as between their ability to adjust to the
new culture, and their own levels of performance. The
importance of organisational support was confirmed.
A family’s adjustment has the potential to affect expatriate
performance (Chiotis-Leskowich, 2009), however in this
study no correlation was found between adjustment factors
and the expatriate’s performance. However, respondents

8 S.Afr.J.Bus.Manage.2016,47(2)
who had been in the host country for longer periods reported
better performance ratings, thereby providing support for the
U-Curve adjustment theory (Black & Mendenhall, 1991).
The findings indicate that the performance of the expatriate
is influenced by whether or not the children are adjusted in
the host location and whether they have friends or not. The
importance of family adjustment, and specifically the
children, is a vital aspect that requires additional focus and
attention. A number of respondents indicated difficulty in
adjusting to the new curriculum and teaching styles.
Literature indicates that at least one in five partners or
spouses reported that their children had problems adapting
to new schools or making new friends, conversing and
learning in a new language (Van Der Zee et al., 2007;
Weeks, Weeks, & Willis-Muller, 2010). The present study
confirms that difficulty was experienced in adapting to new
schools.
It is suggested that previous international experience forms
part of the expatriate selection criteria (Aycan, 1997) ,
furthermore where individuals have previous international
experience, it is suggested that they will have a good idea of
what to expect and hence this experience can be used to
reduce uncertainty associated with future relocations and
expatriate assignments (Louis, 1980). Comments from
expatriates support this finding:
“A very easy transition for us. We had lived in the US before
as a married couple, before joining the organisation. This
move was like returning home.”
“This was our third assignment and you learn to adapt to
changing environments.”
It is suggested that an individual’s functioning at work may
have a negative or positive impact on one’s functioning and
relationships at home. Similarly, one’s functioning at home
may also influence one’s functioning at work in a positive or
negative way (Byron, 2005). The results of the study
indicated that positive spillover was experienced by the
majority of expatriates.
Cross cultural training has been indicated as a critical
success factor contributing to expatriate performance
(Forster, 1997; Harrison, 1994). Organisational support
utilised by expatiates and expatriate families prior to
departure provides evidence that such support programmes
for the family are essential to their adjustment, as it creates
awareness of the host location which could facilitate
adjustment.
The positive relationship between length of stay and
expatriate performance, as well as evidence that support
programmes are valued, indicates that endogenous factors,
namely factors relating to business directly (e.g. length of
time as an expatriate and organisational support) are
stronger predictors of performance than exogenous factors,
such as physical, education, health, social and financial
factors. Ultimately, it can be concluded that support
provided by the organisation is critical to successful family
adjustment, ensuring a successful expatriate assignment.
Practical implications
This study adds value to expatriate management,
considering the evidence that organisational support is not
only necessary, but also valued by expatriates and their
families, thereby facilitating their adjustment in the host
location.
The family systems theory could be used as a model in
preparing the family for the adjustment process, re-
enforcing the principle that the family should function as a
cohesive unit. Organisational support should be provided
prior to departure, during the relocation and after the
relocation. Many companies are good at providing support
prior to and during departure, and then expatriates and their
families are on their own. It is suggested that organisations
review their support offerings at these three crucial times in
the transition.
Furthermore, considering that 22.2% of respondents
indicated difficulty in adjusting to the new curriculum and
18.5% indicated that teaching styles were challenging, the
organisation could consider additional support to expatriate
children in the form of, for example, paying for tutors,
providing language lessons prior to leaving for the host
country or additional online teaching support.
Limitations of the study
Expatriates were requested to rate their own performance,
which could have been influenced by egocentric bias. It
would have been preferable if the line manager was also
requested to rate the performance of the expatriate and these
compared to the rating awarded by the expatriate.
Similarly, the expatriate was requested to indicate the
adjustment on behalf of the spouse and family; it would
have been more suitable to have the partner or spouse and
children where applicable, complete the separate sections
relating to their own adjustment.
Suggestions for future research
Organisational support prior to departure for the expatriate
and the family is valued and future research could
investigate the effectiveness of organisational support both
prior to and during the relocation. Further research can be
done to empirically investigate in a triangular manner the
impact of the family’s adjustment in the host country on the
performance of the expatriate from the perspective of the
expatriate, the partner or spouse and accompanying children
respectively.
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