Post-mortem Photography: the Edge Where Life Meets Death?

Abstract

Why would we ever take a picture of a dead person? This practice began as a way to perpetuate the image of the deceased, rendering their memory eternal – Victorians thought that it could be useful to have portraits of their dead loved ones. Certainly, subjects in post-mortem photos will be remembered forever. However, we must ask two more questions. Are they people portrayed as if they were still alive? Or on the other hand, are they bodies that represent death? Our paper takes an in-depth look at different iconographical styles as well as photographic techniques and religious and ethical reasons behind memento mori photos during the Victorian Age.

Full text

103
HSS V.2 (2015)
DOI: 10.1515/hssr -2016-00016
Post-mortem
Photography: the Edge
Where Life Meets Death?
Melania Borgo*
University of Insubria, Italy
Marta Licata**
University of Insubria, Italy
Silvia Iorio***
University Sapienza, Rome, Italy
Abstract
Why would we ever take a picture of a dead person? This practice began as a
way to perpetuate the image of the deceased, rendering their memory eternal –
Victorians thought that it could be useful to have portraits of their dead loved
ones. Certainly, subjects in post-mortem photos will be remembered forever.
However, we must ask two more questions. Are they people portrayed as if
they were still alive? Or on the other hand, are they bodies that represent
death? Our paper takes an in-depth look at different iconographical styles as
well as photographic techniques and religious and ethical reasons behind
memento mori photos during the Victorian Age.
Keywords
Post Mortem Photos, Memento Mori, Victorian Age
* Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria
(Varese), O. Rossi , 9, 21100 Varese, Italy; melania.borgo@uninsubria.it
** Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria
(Varese), O. Rossi , 9, 21100 Varese, Italy; marta.licata@uninsubria.it
*** Department of Molecular Medicine, Unit of History of Medicine, Sapienza
University of Rome, Viale dell’Università 34a, 00185, Rome, Italy;
silvia.iorio@uniroma1.it
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Introduction
Post-mortem photographs were first seen in England during Victorian
times. They later spread to the rest of Europe and to the United States. In a
short period of time, this tradition attracted a growing population, however
scholars paid little attention to this practice until the 1950s. Authors such
as Rinhart (Rinhart, 1967) and Welling (Welling, 1978) believed that the post
mortem phenomenon was an American invention, while M. Lesy (Lesy,
1973) tried to understand the anthropological meanings of this practice
(Orlando, 2010).
Today, the practice of taking pictures of the dead has negative
connotations, while during the Victorian age it represented a true homage
to their memory. Paradoxically, these post-mortem photos offered a chance
to get the last “picture of life” of “the dead”, before time corrupted the
body. The main reason, as given by Victorians, to take photographs during
the delicate moment of the death was the need to perpetuate the image of
the deceased, making them eternal (Licata, 2013). The photographic
representation of the body, rather than its preservation (embalming,
mummification), turns into a way to challenge immortality. Before driving
into the core of the cultural and anthropological aspect of this
phenomenon, we first need to clarify that the birth of the post mortem
portrait was not the result of the invention of photography. On the
contrary, this phenomenon was essential for its development. The success
of the post-mortem theme in fact dates back to the Renaissance, when the
clergy and nobility were portrayed on their deathbeds. In the nineteenth
century, the creation of daguerreotype was a milestone for memento mori.
The lower costs of photography allowed post mortem portraits to reach the
lower classes. This was a new form of portrait. Starting in 1840, post-mortem
pictures became so popular that they were the most lucrative source of
income for photographers. We find evidence of this in an advertisement
that appeared in the Humphrey Journal: “Gallery daguerreotypes for sale - the
only one in the city of 20,000 inhabitants and where the photographs of deceased persons
pay for itself all the costs” (Humphrey Journal, 1854: 33). Therefore, these
photographs replaced previous pictures and portraits of death, becoming at
this stage a “false” portrait of life. In fact, for the majority of people, these
kinds of pictures were the only portrait of the deceased person. Often there
was no possibility to get a photograph while the person was alive.
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In this paper, we would like to present the anthropological
phenomenon of post mortem photos in the second half of 19th century,
focusing on the reasons behind the onset of this particular custom.
Methods
We have studied the historical literature on this issue as well as British
newspapers from the Victorian age. Moreover, we have carried out an
analysis of photographs and iconography, supporting this study with
interviews with museum curators where these post-mortem photos are
exhibited.
Results
The results of this study show that there were three iconographical
styles of post mortem photography.
The first style
Of the three different models proposed for a classification of post-mortem
photography (Ruby, 1995), the first is certainly the most important when
attempting to define a symbolic-allegorical reflection. This first style was
defined “the last sleep”. Perhaps the goal was that of postponing pictorial
representations of the memento mori. This group includes all pictures in
which the deceased is lying on a bed or on a couch. The body position and
the makeup of the face give an expression of serenity. Portraying the
person as if they were asleep was a way to conceal the reality of the
moment. The memento mori photos and the paintings are an allegory of
Death. They remind us that no one escapes that fate and they guide us
towards the acceptance of it. The photo (Figure 1) is quite exemplificative
of this first style. It shows a young girl lying on the bed, with her head
resting on the pillow and a facial expression that appears quite alive.
Numerous times, the actual state of death is emphasized by symbols such
as crucifixes, flowers and holy books. The photo (Figure 2) is taken from
the Paul Frecker London collection. It shows a woman's body stretched
out on a couch, and on the right side of her head we see a Bible and a
bouquet of flowers. Her hands are clasped in prayer. We imagine that the
photographer wanted to underline the moment in which the “spirit leaves the
body”. Based on this viewpoint, it is interesting to analyse the visiting cards
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custom. These special cards show two photos: one of the dying and one of
the dead. It involves taking a picture of a person in agony and then later in
the immediate aftermath of death, simulating life, giving credibility to both
photographs. An example is a visiting card taken in 1848 in New York.
The first shot is a picture of a live baby lying on his left side. The baby
turns to the camera and stares into the objective. In the second shot, he is
dead and he is framed with his head resting on the pillow. This is the
typical position of memento mori (Orlando, 2010: 60). These are reflections
of the symbolic and allegorical aspect of this custom. However, to study
this tradition means that we must also look at some interesting aspects
about the funeral ceremonies during that time period, while examining the
context that was obviously not provided by the photograph. Around the
deceased lying in bed, in addition to the family and the priest (sometimes
included in certain photos), the photographer and his assistants were also
present, as well as their bulky equipment. Overall, this moment became a
performance of death, rather than a commemoration.
The second style
In the second style is defined by the deceased’s eyes staring into the lens.
“Alive but Dead” is the title given to these images – the denial of death is
much more evident. It is possible to observe the photographer’s skill, who
engaged in various artifices, such as hidden bars that supported the body in
an upright position or wooden sticks to keep their eyes open. Sometimes
pupils were drawn directly onto the photographs: a sort of ante litteram
photoshop. In this regard, a photographer of the time stated
We recommended that eyes were left open, we placed him sitting next to a
table and we had to wait to work seven or eight hours; in this way we could
seize the moment when the twitching agony disappeared, we can play a
semblance of life. This is the only way to get a satisfactory picture that does
not remember the painful moment of the separation” (Bolloch, 2002).
In an attempt to understand the question of body manipulation and life
simulation, we need to reconnect with other pictures in which the bodies
appeared erected to stage real life. In 1873, the newspaper of photographic
technique described these body treatments. It is possible to bend bodies
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until the joints remain flexible. This technique gives to the body a natural
look. A good reference is that of the Italian brigands captured and killed
during the repression campaign (Figure 3). They had their hands chained
and they were tied to a tree. However, in the picture it appears as if they
were alive. Clearly, in such cases the denial of death is carried out to
mislead the public. These pictures testified the arrest of those who
threatened public order. In order to reach this goal the photos were
published in national and international newspapers. The post mortem photos
of prisoners had the explicit function of propaganda. For this reason, these
pictures were seen by the entire community. On the other hand, Victorian
post mortem photos were addressed only to the family.
The third style
In the third style, the deceased person is hidden within the family, and
usually it is quite difficult to recognize the deceased from the living.
Furthermore, the typical funeral iconographs were not used. Only a
meticulous observation can capture details to identify the deceased, such
as: an expressionless look or the central position of the dead. The deceased
was inserted perfectly as “alive among the living”. (Figure 4)
A fourth style?
Based on our studies, we could also add an additional style, known as
“the hidden mother”. This style typically portrayed living children, using a
special technique. The mother was sitting and she was covered by a draped
sheet. The child was placed on the mother, and he was held by the hidden
hands of the mother. Then, to cover the mother’s silhouette, a card was
placed up the printed photograph, creating a portrait of the child. The
background was the decoration offered by the sheet. (Figure 5).
This technique was also useful when taking photographs of the lifeless
bodies of dead children. In these photos, children appear alive, due to the
fact that photographers often coloured their cheeks pink. However, by
removing the card up the picture, the imagine was really impressive and it
could trouble the observer who could not imagine an artifice like this.
Behind the child, in fact, there was a figure completely covered with a
sheet. Although this was not surprising during the Victorian age, since it
was part of spiritualism, seen today this image is quite evocative.
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Discussion
Based on our study and analysis of literature and visual references, the
first style does not offer clear signs that make us think of death. As a
matter of fact, death was rather hidden, since it was considered something
that could be shared only with the family. Those photos place the dead
along the borderline between life and death. Later, in the twentieth century,
images and photography came into daily family life, so that the
representation of the living dead had no more reason to exist. Therefore,
the custom ceased. Why continue to photo the deceased as if they were
alive, if it is possible to take a portrait during life? It was no longer
necessary to have such post-mortem photos, seeing that there were other
ways to remember loved ones. As mentioned above, these pictures are not
a macabre practice or an indicator of an obsession for death. By looking at
this custom based on an understanding of Victorian culture, in fact, we can
state that this custom has the opposite meaning. Those portraits are a
demonstration of the full acceptance of death.
We know that post-mortem photos had great success. During this time,
photographers, as well as the makeup artists, continually refined their
techniques. The photographers improved the chiaroscuro of light and the
makeup artists developed a flawless colour use. The results were “photo-
representational” masterpieces. Nadal, a famous New York photographer,
took two photos to highlight the importance of the work of photographers
as well as that of the makeup artists. He put two photos side by side (one
before and one after the cosmetic care of the dead) of a woman who died of
cancer in 1859. In the first photo, the deceased has a dehydrated face while
in the second one, after makeup, she seems reinvigorated (Figure 6)
(Orlando, 2010). Then, in 1865, in Philadelphia, Fredrik Gutekunst took a
picture of a half-bust of a woman who had died many days before. He
showed that it was possible to work with the body, even if it was in the
advanced stage of putrefaction.
In post-mortem photos, it is sometimes difficult to recognize the deceased,
specifically when the deceased is a child portrayed next to toys: in this case,
the dead seemed to be in a “space of life”. Unfortunately, we have to
remember that these children’s lives were dramatically short and the
picture, taken at the time of death, represents the only image that parents
could keep. In our paper, we would like to suggest that the representation
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of death through these portraits, in a certain period, was not just an
expression of a shared custom, due to the fact that it could also have other
meanings. With regard to this tradition, we could consider ancient forms of
thanato metamorphosis aimed to preserve corpses (Orlando, 2010). Therefore,
immortalizing death in a photograph was a way to give to the body a kind
of visual mummification that would ensure an apparent integrity of the
body by preserving this moment and preventing the later decomposition of
the body. However, this tradition is similar but not identical to that of the
Egyptians. The goal is different. We know that their artificial
mummification was not used to preserve the image of the person, but
rather to make the journey to the Hereafter possible. Post-mortem photos
can be considered images of a funeral art much like the masks that ancient
Romans made using a facial cast of the dead. Those masks were preserved
in the homes of wealthy patricians, maintaining the memory of those who
had died.
The first style focuses on people in their deathbed – this was a typical
scene. When someone died at a hospital, in that time, loved ones waited to
bring the body home. It is also interesting to look beyond the people on
the bed and note the absolute naturalness of the composition and the
lightness that suggest a sense of peace and tranquillity. Death is negated in
a warm sleep of a body that seems to rest. A photograph taken by Blondel
(1850) shows a father who seems to watch over his child while he is
sleeping. This might seem like a normal everyday scene, were it not for the
blinding light that illuminates the child’s body and attracts our attention. In
this case, the thin red line between sleep and death is made clear, on a
figurative level, by the dualism of the cradle and the coffin. In the picture,
on one side, we find a cradle (sign of birth and guardian of sleep) and, on
the other side, just beyond the cradle, there is a coffin (sign of death and
guardian of eternal sleep). Death and birth are twins, two sides of the same
coin – to be born means to be projected towards death, while death also
means rebirth. The gap between the cradle and the coffin is the same gap
that exists between the joy of life and the fear of dying; however, in this
picture, the cradle and the coffin could also be considered as two places
related to rest. This thought is well represented in the second style of
memento mori. The deceased seems to look around, his/her eyes are always
expressionless, and they can be open or painted to appear open. Time is
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stopped in the photograph, the lifeless body of the deceased will change
soon, so it is necessary to immortalize their image forever (since changing
means also forgetting features), as well as their identity and dignity. Thanks
to these photographs, they were able to preserve an image that the future
will eventually destroy. These images are not representations of death.
Their aim is to give life back to the body and, symbolically, enhance the
revival of the spirit. The subjects appear alive thanks to artificial techniques
developed by photographers. Victorian English, in fact, took photographs
of their deceased simply to immortalize the image of their beloved.
Can we call these images “living corpses”? This definition can be used
to indicate the subjects portrayed in post-mortem photography; however, in
this way, we rediscover an unfounded prejudice according to which in
Victorian society there was a certain inclining for grotesque and horror.
Stemming from these preconceptions, or perhaps motivated by them, we
were pushed to study the phenomenon of post-mortem photos, analysing its
various stylistic forms and investigating the photographic techniques of
that time. Moreover, by studying the iconography of these images, it has
been possible to capture the allegory hidden there. By going beyond these
negative connotations, we discover a little known aspect of Victorian
society.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the styles described above
were gradually replaced by photos of the funeral itself. Pictures of the
deceased were taken while the deceased lay inside the coffin. In time, the
photographic iconography changed, along with the metaphorical language.
The real protagonist of post-mortem photos is no longer the deceased, but
rather the funeral. During the photo shoot, we find not only friends and
relatives but also all the elements that make us think of death. Those
symbols were never included in previous photos. Before these changes,
death had to be “apparent”, while now it is denied, emphasized and then
photographed.
The first post-mortem photo was taken in 1840. The onset of the
darkroom allowed photography and portraits to spread to a greater number
of people, since costs were cheaper than painted portraits. However, it is
also true that at that time the chance to be photographed was rare and
memento mori could be the only possibility to have a portrait. Giving an
appearance of life to the deceased and eliminating signs of disease was a
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way to remember beloveds as alive and respect the funeral ceremony.
Human suffering, even if it is no longer present on the deceased face, is
still found in the photographs. We can find some iconographic elements,
such as flowers, an hourglass, dark suits, etc. Those photographs were
likely taken to remember the dead, but also to remind us that we will all die
one day. In the Victorian Age, references to the bereaved are less evident in
the first pictures when compared to the last. In the first style, memento mori
was kept secret and was revealed only to family members; in the second,
on the other hand, the moment of the funeral was a way to remember not
only the dead, but also the fact that one day we will die.
In time, people began taking portraits during their life, and post-mortem
photography lost a great deal of its role in life and death. This marked the
end of memento mori photography and the beginning of the funeral
photography. The latter, in fact, was created to remember a person during
this moment, along with the other pictures that had taken while they were
alive.
Some years ago, when seeing his dead mother, a man expressed his
feeling on this practice, perhaps connecting death photography with
funeral photography:
When my mother died of lung cancer five years ago, I was shocked and
embarrassed to see my niece photographing the coffin. I thought she was
doing something that was indelicate and disrespectful, but I said nothing. The
following week, my niece brought these pictures to my house. I thanked her,
and I put the photos away without even opening the envelope. A few months
later, I found the envelope, between two books, and I decided to open it. I
had forgotten that my mother was so beautiful. All the months at hospital had
been so full of suffering that my last memories of this dear woman had broken
my heart. These photos were helpful and comforting. I’m so happy to have
them (Orlando, 2010).
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Fig. 1: An exemplification of the first style of
post-mortem photography: a young girl lying on
the bed
Fig. 2: An exemplification of
the first style of post-mortem
photography: a woman's body
lies on a couch; on the right side
of her head there are a Bible
and a bouquet of flowers
Fig. 3: An exemplification of the second style of post-mortem photography:
Italian brigands captured and killed during the repression campaign
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Fig. 4: An exemplification of the Fig. 5: An exemplification of the
third style of post-mortem photography: fourth style of post-mortem
who is the dead girl? photography: a “hidden mother”
Fig. 6: A girl after the mortuary toilet: she seems reinvigorated
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Biographical notes
Silvia Iorio is a Medical Anthropologist and PhD in Medicine and Human
Sciences. Currently she is a Research Fellow at the Department of Molecular
Medicine, Unit of History of Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, working on
issues of health inequalities. Her interests are History of Medicine, Bioethics,
Medical Anthropology and Anthropology.
Melania Borgo obtained her doctorate in Medicine and Human Sciences from
Insubria University (Varese, Italy). Her current research interests include clinical
ethics, as well as cultural anthropology and medical history. She has been a
speaker at several conferences and she is an author of scientific publications.
Marta Licata is Archaeologist and Anthropologist with expertise in Funeral
Archaeology. She works in archaeological context, in particular in North West
Lombardy necropolis area. Her accademic interests are History of Medicine,
Physical Anthropology and Paleopathology.
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