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This study explores the individual differences associated with adolescents' exposure to ‘‘ana-mia" websites (i.e., websites where people discuss ways to be very thin, such as being anorexic). Participants were adolescents from a large cross-national survey in 25 European countries (N = 18,709, aged 11–16, 50% girls). Sociodemographic and individual factors (i.e., variables related to Internet use and personality traits) were included in a logistic regression performed separately for girls and boys. The results showed that sensation seeking and online disinhibition were both associated with an increased risk of exposure to ‘‘ana-mia" websites in girls as well as in boys, although some gender differences were apparent. In girls, but not in boys, the older the child and higher the socioeconomic status, higher the chance of being exposed to ‘‘ana-mia" websites. Further research is recommended to understand the real impact of ‘‘ana-mia" website exposure on adolescent health.
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ORIGINAL ARTICLES
Individual Differences Associated
with Exposure to ‘‘Ana-Mia’’ Websites:
An Examination of Adolescents
from 25 European Countries
Carlos A. Almenara, PhD, Hana Machackova, PhD, and David Smahel, PhD
Abstract
This study explores the individual differences associated with adolescents’ exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites
(i.e., websites where people discuss ways to be very thin, such as being anorexic). Participants were adolescents
from a large cross-national survey in 25 European countries (N=18,709, aged 11–16, 50% girls). Socio-
demographic and individual factors (i.e., variables related to Internet use and personality traits) were included in
a logistic regression performed separately for girls and boys. The results showed that sensation seeking and
online disinhibition were both associated with an increased risk of exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites in girls as
well as in boys, although some gender differences were apparent. In girls, but not in boys, the older the child
and higher the socioeconomic status, higher the chance of being exposed to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites. Further
research is recommended to understand the real impact of ‘‘ana-mia’’ website exposure on adolescent health.
Introduction
The use of the Internet, and particularly social media,
is ubiquitous among adolescents. They spend several
hours per week engaged in online activities.
1
Consequently,
adolescents are exposed to a myriad of appearance-related
content/interactions. This exposure on the Internet contrasts
with conventional media, in which adolescents are specta-
tors of prefabricated content, such as the appearance-related
content of films and magazines. For instance, new media
offers youth a forum for discussion and feedback on their own
appearance-related content, such as receiving comments on
their looks after posting a new profile picture on Facebook.
2
In general, new media provides adolescents with the oppor-
tunity to create their own content online, to have their own
spectators, and to drive online discussion and get feedback on
their own content.
More importantly, the Internet offers the opportunity to
bring together like-minded individuals,
3
such as Internet users
who already have body image concerns. That is the case for
pro-eating disorder (pro-ED) websites that promote eating
disorders as authentic lifestyle choices, although they may
also provide help and support for recovery from an ED.
4,5
From personal websites or blogs to online social communities
and social networks, pro-ED websites encourage disordered
eating behaviors and can disseminate potentially harmful
information.
6,7
They do so with ‘‘tips and tricks’’ for weight
loss or for staying emaciated, by showing images of ultrathin
bodies, by containing inspirational words/images known as
‘‘thinspiration,’’ and by providing areas for discussion, such
as chat rooms, discussion threads in forums, and other out-
lets.
5
Furthermore, this potentially harmful online content
flows to different websites,
8
and the same content from pro-
ED websites can be found on websites not overtly pro-ED,
which are actually the majority of websites.
7
The potential risks and effects of pro-ED have recently
been outlined and include negative effect, body dissatisfac-
tion, and dieting, in addition to learning unhealthy strategies
to lose weight.
4,5
Nevertheless, it is important to keep in
mind that not all online content/interactions centered on
eating disorders can be classified as pro-ED. As a result, the
more neutral and representative term ‘‘ana-mia,’’ which la-
bels websites with content potentially related to anorexia
(ana) or bulimia (mia), but not necessarily pro-ED, has emerged
as an alternative.
9
So far, research attention is mostly focused
on overtly pro-ED websites, but little is known about the
wider range of ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites that are accessible on the
Internet. The aim of this study is, therefore, to identify the
individual factors associated with the exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’
websites, with special focus on the personality traits as-
sociated with Internet use and risky online behavior (i.e.,
sensation seeking and online disinhibition).
Department of Psychology, Institute for Research on Children, Youth and Family, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.
CYBERPSYCHOLOGY,BEHAVIOR,AND SOCIAL NETWORKING
Volume 19, Number 8, 2016
ªMary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2016.0098
475
Individual differences that increase the risk of exposure
to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites
Prior research has uncovered individual differences in
online behavior patterns,
3
such as sociodemographic factors
(e.g., gender), knowledge and skills (e.g., digital skills), and
individual characteristics (e.g., online disinhibition). Gen-
erally, it has been shown that higher Internet use, higher
digital skills, and personality traits such as sensation seek-
ing, are connected with increased risky behavior online,
10
which includes exposure to potentially harmful online content.
Nevertheless, few studies have examined the individual-level
factors specifically associated with an increased probability
of exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites. Typically, past studies
were limited to the examination of associations between
body image and eating concerns with the use or exposure to
‘‘ana-mia’’ websites,
11–13
social networks,
14
and problematic
Internet use.
15–17
Moreover, these studies are often focused on females,
although the few existing studies suggest that males also
participate on ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites.
18
For instance, in the
qualitative study by Wooldridge et al.,
18
the authors included
12 forums in their content analysis and identified 689 posts
by male participants, most of which were related to provid-
ing/seeking support and inspiration for weight loss.
18
Yet, we
still lack knowledge about males’ exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’
websites. To the best of our knowledge, only one study on
‘‘ana-mia’’ websites included both adolescent girls and boys
and examined a personality trait (in this case, perfection-
ism).
13
Nevertheless, diverse personality traits, as well as
other individual-level factors, are associated with different
patterns of Internet use, as well as engagement in risky be-
havior online. For instance, a recent review revealed that
sensation seeking, as well as gender, play an important role
in shaping a person’s online behavior.
19
Furthermore, the
authors hypothesize that the strength and saliency of certain
factors on the Internet (e.g., anonymous communication with
strangers in chat rooms) may attract certain personality types
(e.g., online disinhibition among introverts).
19
For this study,
we take into account these general differences in online be-
havior patterns and focus specifically on their role in the
exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites, an issue that has not yet
been thoroughly studied. To fill this gap, the present study
is aimed at examining two salient personality traits asso-
ciated with Internet use and risky online behavior: sensa-
tion seeking and online disinhibition among adolescents of
both genders.
Sensation seeking is mainly characterized by the open-
ness to and seeking of new and intense sensations and ex-
periences.
20
Previous studies suggest that sensation seekers
offline tend to be also sensation seekers online, such as be-
ing more likely to communicate with unknown people on
the Internet.
21
Thus, considering that the Internet provides
opportunities to gratify sensation-seeking needs and the ex-
posure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites can be one of these opportu-
nities, it could be plausible that, among certain individuals,
sensation seeking is also associated with looking for ‘‘ana-
mia’’ websites. For instance, a study of college women found
that online appearance comparisons (i.e., comparing one’s
appearance to others’ on social media) and online ‘‘fat talk’
(i.e., talking about others’ bodies and negatively about one’s
own) were both positively correlated with a measure that
indicated sensation seeking by a lack of premeditation/
perseverance.
22
Similarly, other studies have found a posi-
tive association between sensation seeking and problematic
Internet use in the general population,
23
as well as in female
patients with eating disorders, and particularly in those of the
binge/purge subtype.
16
In fact, sensation seeking is consid-
ered an important trait associated with disordered eating,
particularly with binge/purge behaviors.
24
Nevertheless, to
the best of our knowledge, no study has examined the as-
sociation between sensation seeking and the exposure to
‘‘ana-mia’’ websites in adolescents.
Although, ‘‘online disinhibition’’ has been considered a
difficult term to define,
25
it denotes being less inhibited to
exhibit/express behaviors, feelings, or thoughts online com-
pared with face-to-face interactions.
26
Thus, online dis-
inhibited individuals feel more comfortable online and are
more likely to talk online than in face-to-face interactions,
which can, in turn, become problematic, particularly for
more vulnerable individuals. For instance, it has been sug-
gested that vulnerable individuals, such as those who are
socially anxious or those with body image concerns, can get
caught up in a vicious circle by using online communication
as a coping mechanism for their psychological difficul-
ties.
17,27
Thus, online disinhibition can promote computer-
mediated communication, interactions, and online exposure
to diverse content. Therefore, special attention should be
given to the effects of online disinhibition during devel-
opmental periods, such as childhood and adolescence, and
particularly to vulnerable individuals, such as those with
body image concerns.
The present study
The aim of this study is to examine the association be-
tween the exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites (i.e., websites
where people discuss ways to be very thin, such as being
anorexic) and two salient personality traits associated with
Internet use (sensation seeking and online disinhibition) in a
large cross-national sample of adolescents of both genders in
25 European countries. Additionally, we considered poten-
tial confounding variables, specifically: the daily use of the
Internet; digital skills; socioeconomic status; and age. These
have been found to be related to different online behavior
patterns in prior studies.
13,17,28
Methods
Procedure
Data from the EU Kids Online II project (April/October
2010) was used. Approximately 1,000 Internet-using youth
in each of 25 participating European countries were sampled
using a stratified random probability sampling approach,
yielding an overall sample of 25,142 children (50% girls)
aged 9–16. Trained interviewers collected data at the child’s
home, where the child filled out both administered and self-
completed questionnaires focused on their online experi-
ences. The research study was conducted in accordance
with ESOMAR ethical guidelines and approved by the LSE
Research Ethics Committee. Confidentiality and anonymity
was guaranteed and all the information and questions were
explained. Informed consent was obtained from the parents
and children.
29
The sample for this study consists of children
who were asked about exposure to websites where people
476 ALMENARA ET AL.
discuss eating disorders (aged 11–16). Due to the low preva-
lence of the studied phenomenon, pooled data from all
countries were used for the analysis; N=18,709, M
age
=
13.50, SD =1.70, 50% girls.
Measures
Exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites. We asked participants,
‘‘In the past 12 months, have you seen websites where people
discuss ways to be very thin (such as being anorexic or bu-
limic)?,’’ with answers Yes (=1; 11.5%) and No ( =0; 82.5%).
Answers ‘‘Don’t know’’ (4.2%), ‘‘Prefer not to say’’ (1.4%),
and missing values (0.4%) were excluded from the analysis.
Daily use of the Internet. Children were asked, ‘‘How
often do you use the Internet?’’ and were divided into those
who use it ‘‘every day or almost every day,’’ that is, daily
users ( =1; 73.6%), and those who use it less often, that is,
nondaily users ( =0).
Digital skills. Children were asked, ‘‘Which of these things
do you know how to do on the Internet?’’ followed by eight
Yes/No items (e.g., ‘‘Delete the record of which sites you have
visited’’ or ‘‘Block unwanted adverts or junk mail/spam’’);
positive answers were counted to create a scale; M=4.43,
SD =2.58, a=0.76.
Online disinhibition. This was computed as the mean of
three statements (e.g., ‘‘I find it easier to be myself on the
Internet than when I am with people face to face’’) answered by
‘‘Not tru e’’ ( =0), ‘‘A bit true’’ ( =1), and ‘‘Very true’’ (=2),
M=0.53, SD =0.52, a=0.65.
Sensation seeking. This was computed as the mean of two
items,
30
‘‘I do dangerous things for fun’’ and ‘‘I do exciting
things, even if they are dangerous,’’ answered by ‘‘Not true’
(=0), ‘‘A bit true’’ ( =1), and ‘‘Very true’’ (=2), M=0.39,
SD =0.53, a=0.78.
Socioeconomic status of the household. This was as-
sessed through the household’s main wage earner’s level of
education and occupation. Three levels of socioeconomic
status (SES) were calculated: Low ( =1; 20%), Medium ( =2;
45%), and High ( =3; 35%).
Gender. The child’s gender was coded by the interviewer.
Age. Parents reported the age of the child.
Table 1 includes the descriptive statistics separately by
gender.
Data analysis
We conducted three-step hierarchical logistic regression
analyses to predict the odds of children’s exposure to ‘‘ana-
mia’’ websites. Demographics (SES, age), factors related to
Internet use (non/daily use and digital skills), and individual
characteristics (sensation seeking and online disinhibition),
were added consecutively to the models. The analyses were
conducted separately for girls and boys.
In the model for girls (Table 2), all variables predicted the
outcome positively. Specifically, the older the age, the higher
the SES, the more the digital skills, the more the daily In-
ternet use, and higher the levels of sensation seeking and
online disinhibition, then higher the chance of being exposed
to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites.
The results for boys (Table 3) were similar, with two ex-
ceptions. First, SES was not significantly linked to the out-
come, nor was the age of the boys after the inclusion of other
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics by Gender (M,SD)
Age
Digital
skills
Sensation
seeking
Online
disinhibition
Daily
Internet use (%)
SES
(low, %)
SES
(middle, %)
SES
(high, %)
Exposure
(%)
Boys 13.49 (1.69) 4.56 (2.63) 0.48 (0.57) 0.55 (0.53) 75 20 46 34 7.8
Girls 13.51 (1.66) 4.29 (2.52) 0.29 (0.47) 0.51 (0.51) 73 20 36 43 16.7
The percentages were computed from valid values only.
SES, socioeconomic status.
Table 2. Logistic Regression Predicting Exposure to ‘‘Ana-Mia’’ Websites Among Girls
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
BSE OR BSE OR BSE OR
Constant -6.556 0.292 0.001*** -6.069 0.299 0.002*** -6.133 0.309 0.002***
SES 0.173 0.042 1.189*** 0.103 0.043 1.109* 0.108 0.044 1.114*
Age 0.332 0.019 1.394*** 0.233 0.021 1.263*** 0.215 0.021 1.24***
Daily Internet use 0.364 0.087 1.439*** 0.276 0.088 1.318**
Digital skills 0.155 0.015 1.168*** 0.139 0.015 1.149***
Sensation seeking 0.794 0.059 2.213***
Online disinhibition 0.291 0.06 1.338***
Cox & Snell, R
2
0.04 0.06 0.09
Nagelkerke, R
2
0.07 0.10 0.15
***p<0.001; **p<0.01; *p<0.05.
OR, odds ratio; SE, standard error.
EXPOSURE TO ANA-MIA WEBSITES 477
predictors. Second, the final model for boys explained less
than the final model for girls (Cox & Snell, R
2
=0.03; Na-
gelkerke, R
2
=0.07 for boys versus Cox & Snell, R
2
=0.09;
Nagelkerke, R
2
=0.15 for girls).
Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine if certain individ-
ual differences (sensation seeking and online disinhibition)
are associated with adolescents’ exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ web-
sites. We employed data from a cross-national sample of
adolescents in 25 European countries.
The results showed that sensation seeking and online
disinhibition were both associated with an increased risk of
exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites in girls as well as in boys.
Although the past literature examining these topics is scarce,
prior studies have found that sensation seeking and online
disinhibition are associated with online appearance-related
interactions, particularly with appearance-related teasing and
cyberbullying.
31,32
Thus, it could be possible that sensation
seeking and online disinhibition not only increase the prob-
ability of exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites, but also shape
the online interactions within these websites. However,
these ideas are speculative and further research would be
needed to help clarify which individual differences are the
most salient regarding the exposure to and interactions
within ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites.
In our investigation, about one out of 10 adolescents re-
ported being exposed to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites, and this ex-
perience was more than double in girls than in boys. This
gender difference in the exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites is
very similar to previous reports
13
and can be explained by the
content and target population of these websites. As usually
happens with online weight loss advertising,
33
thinspira-
tional online content is represented by and directed to wo-
men, typically portraying thin or underweight women to
inspire weight loss.
34
Likewise, adolescent females place
notable importance on body image and weight concerns
35
and are more likely to develop body dissatisfaction and
eating disorders over time
36,37
; this can render them more
prone than boys seeking information or support through
‘‘ana-mia’’ websites. Indeed, our results showed that the
explained variance was much higher for girls compared with
boys, which could suggest that the exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’
websites would be more intentional for girls with the studied
individual characteristics, whereas for boys it would be more
random or even unintentional. Moreover, while the odds of
exposure increased with age among girls, this did not apply
for boys. We controlled both daily Internet use and digital
literacy, which could help explain the link to (in some cases
probably also unintentional) exposure and the overall
amount of Internet use. Yet, we see that the older girls were
the more likely to visit an ‘‘ana-mia’’ website. This probably
reflects a growing focus on thin appearance in girls, and we
suggest that this also indicates that the visits were more often
intentional and in line with girls’ overall behavioral focus on
weight loss and appearance management. Nevertheless, the
fact that boys were also exposed to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites, as
found in studies with community and clinical populations,
13,38
confirms that this phenomenon is not confined to girls and that
we should pay more attention to the male population.
18
Moreover, because of the future ubiquity of online infor-
mation and the difficulty to regulate its content, policy
stakeholders should ensure that the population receives edu-
cation and training in core critical media literacy skills.
39
In-
deed, media literacy is also considered a key contributor to the
prevention of eating disorders.
40
Furthermore, this knowledge
and these activities can be integrated within the promotion of
social responsibility (i.e., investment in the well-being of
others and the community).
41
For instance, girls can be edu-
cated to recognize the importance of taking an active role in
online communities to promote a climate of empathy, respect,
and ethical participation among members.
42
Finally, future research can examine the paths and ways
that promote selective exposure to specific online content,
such as ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites, as well as how adolescents
perceive this online content and why they do so. For instance,
it is known that the online content that users see on the
Internet is not entirely random since it is usually filtered by
computer algorithms that in turn influence online behavior
patterns.
43–45
Therefore, future research can examine how
this algorithmic regulation affects exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’
websites. Similarly, an experimental study with adolescent
girls found that peer comments about extremely thin media
models exert influence on how girls perceive these media
models.
46
Therefore, future research can examine the exter-
nal factors that influence adolescents’ perceptions of ‘‘ana-
mia’’ websites. Future research should also differentiate
between intentional and unintentional exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’
web sites. As already mentioned, it is crucial to further un-
derstand the real impact of ‘‘ana-mia’’ website exposure on
adolescent health.
Table 3. Logistic Regression Predicting Exposure to ‘‘Ana-Mia’’ Websites Among Boys
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
BSE OR BSE OR BSE OR
Constant -4.592 0.374 0.01*** -4.077 0.386 0.017*** -4.441 0.395 0.012***
SES 0.028 0.059 1.028 -0.041 0.06 0.959 -0.037 0.06 0.963
Age 0.15 0.025 1.162*** 0.048 0.028 1.049 0.046 0.028 1.047
Daily Internet use 0.412 0.125 1.51*** 0.333 0.126 1.395**
Digital skills 0.138 0.02 1.148*** 0.105 0.021 1.11***
Sensation seeking 0.219 0.034 1.245***
Online disinhibition 0.562 0.076 1.755***
Cox & Snell, R
2
0.01 0.02 0.03
Nagelkerke, R
2
0.01 0.04 0.07
***p<0.001; **p<0.01.
478 ALMENARA ET AL.
Limitations
Although our study has strengths, such as a large sample
size, it also has limitations, and our results should be inter-
preted with caution. First, our findings cannot be interpreted
in terms of causality because of the cross-sectional nature of
our study. Second, although we included several potentially
confounding variables to account for individual differences
that can affect exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites, there are
other factors which can be linked to the studied outcome. For
instance, it could be possible that some parents use parental
control software to block their child’s access to specific
websites and perhaps this software could block the access
to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites. Finally, we relied on self-reports,
which might, in some cases, deviate from the actual expe-
riences and which did not provide specific or detailed in-
formation about the duration of exposure, the kind of content
seen, and the number and nature of interactions maintained
within the ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites. Nevertheless, the charac-
teristics of our study, including a large sample of adolescents
of both genders, as well as the variables included in the
analyses, provide an important step toward a better under-
standing of the individual variables that increase the risk of
exposure to ‘‘ana-mia’’ websites.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the support of the Czech Sci-
ence Foundation (THINLINE—GA15-05696S) and the Fa-
culty of Social Studies, Masaryk University, the Czech
Republic.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.
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Address correspondence to:
Dr. Carlos A. Almenara
Department of Psychology
Institute for Research on Children,
Youth and Family (IVMDR)
Masaryk University
Jos
ˇtova, 10
Brno 602 00
Czech Republic
E-mail: carlos.almenara@mail.muni.cz
480 ALMENARA ET AL.
... Sensation seeking has been found to be positively related to media content that depicts alcohol use, violence, and sex among adolescents (Khurana et al., 2019). Sensation seeking has also been positively associated with exposure to "ana-mia" websites (i.e., websites where ways to be very thin are discussed; Almenara et al., 2016) as well as other online risks among youth, such as the viewing of sexually explicit materials (Beyens et al., 2015), meeting online contacts offline (Bayraktar et al., 2016), online gaming addiction (Bekir & Celik, 2019), and engagement in text-based sexually arousing communication (Beyens & Eggermont, 2014). ...
... Previous studies that focused on the link between sensation seeking and harmful content investigated either one specific type of content (Almenara et al., 2016) or only content depicted by television and movies (Khurana et al., 2019). The internet has become a major source for easily accessible and scarcely regulated harmful content, displaying diverse detrimental behaviors that are far less frequently encountered on television, such as drug abuse, self-harm, and hateful messages. ...
... Time spent online (Helweg-Larsen et al., 2012) and age have both been found to have a positive association with encountering online risks. Exposure to some types of harmful content may also depend on gender; for instance, girls were more likely to report exposure to pro-eating disorders sites (Almenara et al., 2016), whereas boys were more likely to report viewing online content relating to self-injury and suicide (Keipi et al., 2017). Social contextual factors such as socio-economic status have also been found to be relevant to adolescents' exposure to harmful online content; for instance, socio-economic status positively predicted adolescent girls' exposure to pro-eating disorders websites (Almenara et al., 2016). ...
Article
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Although adolescents’ exposure to harmful online content has been linked to decreased subjective well-being and offline risky behaviors, there is limited research on the factors that underlie such problematic online behavior. Using the conceptual framework of Problem Behavior Theory, this study examined the role of risk (i.e., emotional problems, sensation seeking) and protective (i.e., the quality of family environment, social support from friends) factors in exposure to harmful online content among 4473 12- to 16-year-olds (M = 13.9, SD = 1.3, 49% girls) in the Czech Republic, Finland, and Spain. Individual country samples included 1848 adolescents from the Czech Republic (age: M = 14, SD = 1.4; 51% girls), 788 from Finland (age: M = 13.9, SD = 1.3; 52% girls), and 1837 from Spain (age: M = 13.5, SD = 1.2; 47% girls). In all of the sampled countries, emotional problems and sensation seeking served as risk factors, whereas good family relationships were protective. In some countries, the effects of emotional problems and sensation seeking were moderated by the quality of the family environment and social support from friends. These moderating effects suggest that individual risk factors for exposure to harmful online content may be buffered by a positive family environment and friends’ support. The findings revealed similarities in the risk and protective factors underlying online problem behavior across three different countries. They demonstrate that the mechanisms proposed by Problem Behavior Theory can help to understand the etiology of adolescent problem behavior across different countries as well as offline and online contexts.
... In recent years, a study by Almenara and colleagues [21] demonstrated that looking for sensations and disinhibition online were both associated with a higher risk of exposure to ana-mia websites for teenage women and young adults. According to Borzekowski et al. (2010), most websites (58%) contain images of celebrities with ultra slim bodies and promote an anorexic lifestyle, and teenagers visiting pro-ana websites seem to have higher levels of body dissatisfaction and eating disorders [10]. ...
... These websites have seemed to offer a sense of support to teenagers vulnerable to eating disorders. These studies have explored adolescent exposure to these websites, personal profiles related to access to social network, as well as pro-ana accounts on Twitter [18,21,26,28]. Other more social, aspects, linked to communication and language, have been explored in a recent study on language and information used on this website [29][30][31]. ...
... These websites have seemed to offer a sense of support to teenagers vulnerable to eating disorders. These studies have explored teenagers' exposure to these websites, personal profiles related to popular access to social network, as well as pro-ana accounts on Twitter [18,21,26,28]. Other more social aspects, linked to communication and language, have been explored in a recent study on language and information used on this website [29][30][31]. ...
Article
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(1) Background: Teenagers (in particular, females) suffering from eating disorders report being not satisfied with their physical aspect and they often perceive their body image in a wrong way; they report an excessive use of websites, defined as PRO-ANA and PRO-MIA, that promote an ideal of thinness, providing advice and suggestions about how to obtain super slim bodies. (2) Aim: The aim of this review is to explore the psychological impact of pro-ana and pro-mia websites on female teenagers. (3) Methods: We have carried out a systematic review of the literature on PubMed. The search terms that have been used are: “Pro” AND “Ana” OR “Blogging” AND “Mia”. Initially, 161 publications were identified, but in total, in compliance with inclusion and exclusion criteria, 12 studies have been analyzed. (4) Results: The recent scientific literature has identified a growing number of Pro Ana and Pro Mia blogs which play an important role in the etiology of anorexia and bulimia, above all in female teenagers. The feelings of discomfort and dissatisfaction with their physical aspect, therefore, reduce their self-esteem. (5) Conclusion: These websites encourage anorexic and bulimic behaviors, in particular in female teenagers. Attention to healthy eating guidelines and policies during adolescence, focused on correcting eating behavioral aspects, is very important to prevent severe forms of psychopathology with more vulnerability in the perception of body image, social desirability, and negative emotional feedback.
... Similarly, dispositional factors of the individual, from the most stable (e.g., personality traits) to the most transient (e.g., mood), as well as developmental factors (e.g., media preferences by age), and sociocultural factors (e.g., perceived group norms) together shape and are shaped by an individual's selective media use (Valkenburg, Peter, & Walther, 2016). In other words, some individuals can be more susceptible to media effects, as well as more prone to engage with certain media content and interactions, such as appearance-focused media (Almenara, Machackova, & Smahel, 2016). Finally, our body image attitudes and perceptions are not static; rather, they interact with other cognitive processes to elicit action, such as the self-regulatory processes involved in bodyrelated behaviors. ...
... For instance, a content analysis of popular street fashion blogs on the Internet found that most images of women (72%) portrayed a body weight below the average, reinforcing the thin ideal (Kraus & Martins, 2017). Nevertheless, it should be noted that, compared with consumers of traditional media, Internet users have the chance to create their own online content and spread it through the Internet, driving online audience and engagement around it (Almenara et al., 2016). ...
Chapter
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The present chapter is intended to provide a theoretical and empirical overview of the link between technologies, body image, and eating behavior, particularly disordered eating. In general terms, body image refers to an individual’s self-perception and cognitive appraisal of his or her own body. On the other hand, disordered eating refers to a wide spectrum of eating patterns characterized as being detrimental to health, such as self-induced vomiting. Both body image and disordered eating have been linked to mass media exposure. The majority of research to date has focused on the influence of mass media on body image attitudes, which, in turn, can shape eating patterns. Nevertheless, the influence of technology on body image and eating behavior goes far beyond mass media technologies. For instance, several decades ago, it was not possible to use the human body to communicate with machines, and now that can be done, using brain-computer interfaces. We have divided this chapter into two major sections. The first explores key concepts related to body image and develops three theoretically and empirically grounded major frameworks: a cognitive-behavioral model, a sociocultural model, and a cognitive neuroscience perspective. In the second section, we use those concepts to demonstrate the influence of both traditional media (e.g., television, magazines), and new media (e.g., the Internet) on body image and disordered eating. Moreover, we provide current evidence showing how immersive digital technologies, such as virtual reality, can be used for improving body image among individuals with eating- and weight-related pathologies. Finally, we provide some hypotheses on how emerging technologies (e.g., smart devices) could influence body image and eating behavior in the future.
... Instagram is now the most preferred channel by brands to outreach the audience at a larger level through social influencers to run their marketing campaign strategies in a modern way (Sanz-Blas et al., 2019). Through social media exposure, users can engage and give feedback through liking and commenting on the social media content (Almenara et al., 2016). According to Mc Quail the level of exposure can be measured through (1) Duration of watching the broadcast, (2) Frequency: how long the show is watched by the audience, and (3) Attention: how much attention is given (to impressions) (McQuail, 2011). ...
Article
Social media influencers are becoming popular and increasing in a large number more effectively. Influencers act as role models to inspire people through their content. Therefore, this study aims to examine the effects of Instagram influencers on consumer attitude and purchase behavior in the light of exposure to Instagram, trustworthiness, attractiveness, expertise, and para social interaction with respect to young Pakistani female users of the aforementioned social networking platform. The methodology used for this study is that of quantitative research. To verify a set of research hypotheses, a conceptual model was developed incorporating the variables of this study. The data collection was done using the convenience sampling technique. The population of this study was young Pakistani female users of Instagram from Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Lahore, Peshawar, and Karachi. A sample size of 250 respondents was collected for the analysis. The online survey link was distributed to the young Pakistani females through social networks like Instagram, WhatsApp, Facebook, and Twitter to outreach the target audience more efficiently. The findings based on survey data showed that para social interaction has a higher positive relationship with consumer attitude among all variables. Furthermore, the relationship between trustworthiness, attractiveness, expertise, para social interaction, and purchase intention has also shown a positive relationship. Keywords: Social media influencers, Exposure to Instagram, Purchase Intention
... On social media exposure, users can become the application object of the media content. That is why social media offers users a forum for discussion and do some feedback on related content, such as commenting and liking, so that increase the higher levels of exposure to users [8]. ...
Article
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Social media has been growing rapidly, and it revolves around self-disclosure. Instagram as the most influential social media nowadays, triggers its users to perform OSD. The use of social media is indeed one of the predictors that have an impact. But apart from that, there is an exposure created by the presence of a media. The effect of media exposure also often affects a person in self-disclosure on social networks. The independent variable in this study is Instagram influencer content exposure. As users who have massive followers, influencers can mobilize and influence their followers with very high feedback through the content they uploaded, therefore followers are often triggered to do OSD on their social media. The purpose of this study was to determine how significant the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, the motivation for online self-disclosing. The paradigm used is quantitative with correlational studies. The method of distributing the questionnaire was carried out by using a simple random sampling technique to 100 respondents who were followers of the @catwomanizer Instagram account. The results showed that the two variables simultaneously had a 0.620 degree of relationship with a strong correlation level.
... 34,35 We anticipated further that images of unclothed bodies are likely to arouse more interest and are more likely to be shared. 36 Thus, we proposed the following two hypotheses: ...
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While social media have been found useful in providing social support and health information, they have also been home to content advocating risky health behavior. This study focused on how content defending and even celebrating anorexia as a lifestyle are circulated among social media users, and investigates the characteristics that promote wide propagation of such messages. We captured anorexia-related content on Tumblr, a popular blog for talking about eating disorders, during a one-month period. Among the 35,432 posts collected, we examined the most highly propagated posts and coded them for message characteristics. Our findings revealed that posts in which the source of a narrative ("testimony") was identified (was either from an anorexic poster or about another's anorexia) and which were positive toward the pro-anorexia perspective were more likely to be propagated on Tumblr. In addition, posts containing content that references an anorexic person and contains an affective tone were more likely to be propagated. We also found that underweight bodies and bodies with a high degree of exposure were associated with propagation of posts. The present study suggested practical implications by focusing on the characteristics of highly propagated but potentially harmful content in social media.
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This study examines how risky online behaviors among Czech adolescents relate to social support, depression, and anxiety. The behaviors investigated include sending videos to strangers, receiving explicit content, sharing nude photos, encountering monetary offers for meetings, and exposure to blackmail. A nationwide sample of 1095 adolescents aged 15–19 participated in a paper-pencil survey. The research utilized the Scale of Online Risky Behavior (SORB), the Social Support Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (CASSS-CZ), and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21) for data collection. Findings indicate the prevalence of risky online behavior: 10.8% of participants reported sending videos, 34.5% received explicit content, 11.3% shared nude photos, 9.2% encountered monetary offers for meetings, and 12.3% experienced online blackmail, with higher rates observed in females. Anxiety and depression were consistently linked to an increased likelihood of engaging in all types of risky online behavior. Parental support was negatively associated with the likelihood of sending a video of oneself to a stranger and receiving video with inappropriate sexual content, while support from friends showed no significant relationship with any risky behavior. Further research is needed to understand factors influencing risky online behavior.
Article
Objective The purpose of this study is to understand the self‐reported advantages and disadvantages of socially networking about body image/eating disorders (EDs) and to examine the openness of these participants to online outreach and support for ED symptoms. Method A cross‐sectional online survey was conducted with a sample of N = 598. Eligible participants were ≥15 years old, English‐speaking, and U.S. residents who endorsed posting or following thin‐ideal/body‐image content on social media. Quantitative measures were used to assess online peer support and online interaction preferences, and to identify ED symptoms. Deductive and inductive qualitative approaches were used to analyze open‐ended items about the advantages and disadvantages of social networking about thin‐ideal content on social media platforms (SMPs). Results Among those who posted about the thin‐ideal on social media, 70% felt that the peer responses were positive and supportive. Participants generally favored online interaction, and a third stated that they would accept support from someone they did not know online (38%). The most common advantages noted for posting/following thin‐ideal content on SMPs were motivation/encouragement to engage in a certain behavior, socializing, and information giving/seeking. The most common disadvantages mentioned for posting/following thin‐ideal content on SMPs were that the content elicits negative/bad feelings, having to deal with the negative consequences/reactions of others when socially networking about this topic, and that it triggers a desire to engage in ED behaviors. Discussion With these findings, researchers, health practitioners, and social media administrators can devise ways to reduce harmful consequences of posting/following body‐image/ED content on social media.
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Objective: Internet represents a major source of information related to health issues, increasingly used by providers. Indeed, there are numerous websites concerning eating and weight disorders, such as anorexia nervosa. The aim of the current investigation was to systematically perform a reliability and content analysis of Italian language anorexia nervosa-related websites. Methods: Reliability of the anorexia nervosa website pages was assessed using the Health on the Net Foundation Code of Conduct Standards (HonCode®) certification mark. A comprehensive content analysis (thematic cluster analysis, correspondence analysis of emerging themes and topics, density and degree-centrality analysis, and co-word analysis) was performed using the commercial software T-Lab. Results: 402 unique website pages were included and analyzed in the current study. Statistically significant differences related to the accomplishment or less to the items of the HonCode® certificate mark were found for all items, except for confidentiality and webmaster/additional contact. From the thematic cluster analysis, four clusters were identified: namely, treatment (26.6%), vomiting (24.7%), weight (24.4%) and onset-age (24.3%). Treatment (in particular, cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy) was the most represented theme (with a frequency of 97.76%, recurring in 393 websites). Pro-ana content characterized 147 website pages (with a frequency of 36.57%). Conclusion: The quality of Italian language anorexia nervosa-related websites was rather moderate-poor, being generally inconsistent with the principles of the HonCode® certification mark. Therefore, physicians and health authorities should be aware of such findings to provide their patients with proper answers and education.
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The epidemiology of eating disorders holds important clues for understanding factors that may contribute to their etiology. In addition, epidemiological findings speak to the public health significance of these deleterious syndromes. Information on course and outcome are important for clinicians to understand the prognosis associated with different disorders of eating and for treatment planning. This chapter reviews information on the epidemiology and course of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and two forms of eating disorder not otherwise specified, binge eating disorder and purging disorder.
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This article seeks to enhance our understanding of human-Internet interaction from three different angles. First, it discusses those unique features of the Internet that are relevant to personality. The second angle is an analysis of the work of personality theorists and its application to the Internet. The final part of the article discusses specific personality characteristics and their interaction with the Internet.