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Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for multidimensional approach.
Abstract
To facilitate a multidimensional approach to empathy the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) includes 4 subscales: Perspective-Taking (PT) Fantasy (FS) Empathic Concern (EC) and Personal Distress (PD). The aim of the present study was to establish the convergent and discriminant validity of these 4 subscales. Hypothesized relationships among the IRI subscales between the subscales and measures of other psychological constructs (social functioning self-esteem emotionality and sensitivity to others) and between the subscales and extant empathy measures were examined. Study subjects included 677 male and 667 female students enrolled in undergraduate psychology classes at the University of Texas. The IRI scales not only exhibited the predicted relationships among themselves but also were related in the expected manner to other measures. Higher PT scores were consistently associated with better social functioning and higher self-esteem; in contrast Fantasy scores were unrelated to these 2 characteristics. High EC scores were positively associated with shyness and anxiety but negatively linked to egotism. The most substantial relationships in the study involved the PD scale. PD scores were strongly linked with low self-esteem and poor interpersonal functioning as well as a constellation of vulnerability uncertainty and fearfulness. These findings support a multidimensional approach to empathy by providing evidence that the 4 qualities tapped by the IRI are indeed separate constructs each related in specific ways to other psychological measures.
... Tout d'abord, les difficultés de régulation émotionnelle ou encore la détresse personnelle, c'est-à-dire la tendance à réagir avec un stress important dans des situations interpersonnelles tendues ou très émotionnelles (Davis, 1983), sont associées à une moindre satisfaction générale. Ces résultats ont déjà été observés avec les travailleurs sociaux (Thomas, 2013 ;Wagaman et al., 2015). ...
... Par ailleurs, le souci empathique, c'est-à-dire les sentiments de sympathie et de sollicitude à l'égard des autres (Davis, 1983), en particulier lorsqu'ils sont en difficultés, est associé à un niveau plus élevé de satisfaction générale, après contrôle des difficultés de régulation émotionnelle et de la détresse personnelle. Là encore, ces résultats ont déjà été observés avec les travailleurs sociaux (Thomas, 2013 ;Wagaman et al., 2015). ...
... Certaines caractéristiques personnelles sont également associées à l'intensité des symptômes de stress post-traumatique, comme c'était le cas pour la satisfaction générale. Il s'agit des difficultés de régulation émotionnelle et de la détresse personnelle, c'est-à-dire la tendance à réagir avec un stress important dans des situations interpersonnelles tendues ou très émotionnelles (Davis, 1983). Ces résultats ont déjà été observés chez des travailleurs sociaux (Azam et al., 2023 ;Thomas, 2013 ;Wagaman et al., 2015). ...
... Empathy, a word with Greek origin meaning "to enter feelings from the outside" [1] , has received considerable attention in research and meanwhile brought about many disagreements as to its definition as a psychological concept. In early research, empathy has been studied either as cognitive reactions [2] or affective responses [3] , both of which were later integrated into a multidimensional approach [4][5][6] . ...
... With a multidimensional view, IRI has included both affective and cognitive aspects of empathy and contained four different subscales rather than a mere list of questions. The subscales offer possibilities to clearly define the types of emphatic reactions and explore the "systematic similarities and differences between these types of empathy" [5] . ...
... According to Davis [5] , the empathic concern scale "measures the tendency to experience feelings of warmth, compassion, and concern for other people". Thus, we have put the comments showing sympathy, respect, commendation, good wishes under the heading of empathic concern. ...
In an era dominated by digital technology, the study of empathy in digital environment has gained increasing attention. This paper has analyzed the comments responding to the interviews featuring grassroots’ struggle on a popular Chinese video-sharing platform Bilibili, and found that those comments expressing empathy can be categorized into three types according to the Interpersonal Reactivity Index: comments showing empathic concerns, comments demonstrating perspective-taking, and comments sharing similar personal stories. The paper discovered that, in the video-audience relationship, empathic comments turned to more description of similar self-experience than emotional concerns and perspective-taking in order to show understanding of other’s emotions. This paper has expanded the study of empathy based on post-comment interactions and added to the exploration of reading emotions in texts.
... Davis (1980Davis ( , 1983 ...
... The presence of positive, statistically significant correlations between conflict and both interest and personal distress. (Davis, 1980(Davis, , 1983 (Davis, 1980(Davis, , 1983Davis & Franzoi, 1991 Combating Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) on social media: ...
... The presence of positive, statistically significant correlations between conflict and both interest and personal distress. (Davis, 1980(Davis, , 1983 (Davis, 1980(Davis, , 1983Davis & Franzoi, 1991 Combating Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) on social media: ...
... Perspektif alma, bir kişinin diğerinin ne düşündüğünü anlama, kendini diğerinin yerine koyma ve diğerinin duygularını deneyimlemeden onun durumunu bilişsel olarak anlama yeteneği olarak tanımlanmıştır (Hogan, 1969;Long, 1993). Davis (1983) tarafından empatinin bir yönü olarak tanımlanan Perspektif Alma, tatmin edici kişilerarası ilişkilerin sürdürülmesinde kritik öneme sahip olduğu ve kişilerin, partnerlerinin davranışlarına yaptıkları atıfları etkilemede önemli bir rol oynadığı varsayılmaktadır (Perlman, 1999). ...
... ve "Olayları karşımdaki kişilerin bakış açılarından da görmeye çalışırım." şeklinde maddeler bulunmaktadır (Sapmaz ve Doğan, 2013 Davis (1983) tarafından geliştirilmiş her biri 7 maddeden oluşan 4 alt boyutlu ve toplamda 28 maddelik bir öz bildirim ölçeğidir. Alt boyutlar "Perspektif Alma" , "Empatik Düşünce" , "Kişisel Rahatsızlık" ve "Fantezi" olarak tanımlanmıştır. ...
... A review of the literature reveals a strong correlation between social problem-solving skills and empathy, as indicated by several studies (Lewis et al., 2001;Nacar &Tümkaya, 2011;Yılmaz, 2011). Davis (1983), a prominent figure in the field of empathy, has made significant contributions by conceptualizing empathy multifaceted. He defines empathy as an individual's response to another person's observed experiences. ...
... According to Davis (1983), empathy encompasses both affective and cognitive components. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between early childhood teacher candidates’ empathic tendencies and social problem-solving skills. A total of 187 teacher candidates studying in the department of Early Childhood Education at Duzce University participated in this study. The relational research model, a quantitative research method, was used. The data of this study were collected through a personal information form, the Empathic Tendency Scale, and the Social Problem-Solving Inventory (SPÇE-SF). The researchers analyzed the data using Pearson Correlation and one-way ANOVA with the SPSS program. According to the findings of the study, the empathic tendency levels and social problem-solving skills of the early childhood teacher candidates participating in the research are at moderate levels. In addition, there was a moderate positive relationship between participants’ empathic tendencies and social problem-solving skills. Finally, it is seen that the empathic tendencies of the participants do not differ according to personal data such as gender, educational level, mother’s and father’s educational level, family type, family attitude, number of siblings, and birth order. The participants’ social problems-solving skills differed only by gender and number of siblings.
... Participants provide responses on a five-point Likert scale from 1, "Does not describe me well," to 5, "Describes very well." The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1983) is a 28-item questionnaire consisting of four subscales that collectively measure individual differences in four aspects of dispositional empathy: perspective taking, fantasy, empathic concern, and personal distress. Participants provide responses on a five-point Likert scale from 1, "Strongly disagree," to 5, "Strongly agree." ...
... Participants provide responses on a five-point Likert scale from 1, "Disagree strongly," to 5, "Agree strongly." Participants also completed the IRI (Davis, 1983). ...
The growing field of social neuroscience is reliant on the development of robust, ecologically valid paradigms for simulating social interaction and measuring social cognition in highly controlled laboratory settings. Perspective taking is a key component of social cognition, and accordingly several paradigms aimed at measuring perspective taking exist. A relatively novel paradigm is the ball detection task, in which participants and a virtual agent form independent beliefs about the presence of a target stimulus behind an occluder. Previous studies have shown that incongruent trials (in which the participant's and the agent's beliefs differ) affect participant reaction times and elicit increased neural activity in the so-called mentalizing network. This paradigm has important advantages over previous ones, in that experimental conditions can be fully randomized, and ceiling effects are not found even for adult populations. Here, we combined this paradigm with a stress induction and a nonstressful control task. In an online study, we found no evidence of perspective taking at the behavioral level. Combining the task with functional magnetic resonance imaging, we found no evidence of perspective taking at the behavioral or neural level, even for the control condition. While this paradigm is reliable on its own, implementing it in the context of a task-switching paradigm appears to reduce participants’ focus on task-irrelevant perspective taking elements. Our findings highlight the fragility of existing social cognition paradigms and the need for reliable, simple, and ecologically valid measures of perspective taking.
... Empathy is a multidimensional and fuzzy concept (Cuff et al., 2016), although according to Coplan (2011), from a theoretical point of view, empathy is best understood as an active process in which a person sees things from another's perspective. Following this (narrow) understanding, three items from Davis' (1983) interpersonal reactivity index (IRI) were used to measure school leaders' tendencies to spontaneously adopt the psychological point of view of others, called perspective taking. Items were answered on a seven-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). ...
Rapid developments in artificial intelligence (AI) require dynamic adaptation in education to integrate new technologies timely and sustainably. In particular, the rise of generative AI requires leadership to implement it in a meaningful way for teaching and learning. School leaders have a special role to play in driving digital transformation. Based on a sample of German school leaders, this article explores how school leadership approaches and a digital mindset influence the implementation of AI in schools. Our findings provide initial and preliminary evidence that school leaders' digital mindsets, particularly proactive agility and empathy, understood as perspective taking, influence the implementation of AI in schools. Furthermore, the findings highlight the effectiveness of ambidextrous leadership in driving AI implementation. As a consequence, our study paves the way for future explorations of the evolving landscape of AI in education and highlights the need for adaptive, empathetic, and proactive leadership in the digital age.
... New technologies often spark concerns about implications for empathy; digital technologies are no exception. Empathy involves cognitive perspective-taking and feeling compassion for others [3]. Humans have a powerful empathic capacity, fueled by their motivation and imagination. ...
Public discourse often contains speculation about the impacts of digital technologies on human empathy, kindness, and dignity. Cases of cyberbullying, online hate speech, and oppressive algorithms contribute to perceptions that digital life is a net negative for human compassion. Research findings paint a more nuanced picture of the ways in which digital technologies can positively support human connection, empathy, kindness, and dignity. This chapter describes what is currently known about the implications of smartphones and social media for empathy, kindness, and dignity, with a particular focus on youth users. We frame findings from current research around a core set of questions: Does the presence of digital technologies in face-to-face interactions compromise empathy? How are digital technologies used in empathic ways? How is digital technology use related to empathy? How does online prosocial behavior benefit youth? How is low empathy related to cyberbullying? How can the state, the tech industry, and educators contribute to creating online environments that facilitate children’s well-being and dignity? We conclude by highlighting open or understudied questions and suggesting high-level recommendations for educators and peer mentors, clinicians, parents, tech designers, and policymakers.
... Empathy is another crucial socio-emotional construct with a multidimensional nature and varied definitions [34]. It is often described as the ability to understand and share another person's feelings while recognizing them as distinct from one's own [34,35]. Davis's Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; 32) captures this complexity through two cognitive (Perspective Talking and Fantasy) and two affective dimensions (Empathic Concern and Personal Distress). ...
Recent systematic reviews have shown that emotional competencies can be improved through training. In the workplace, such training has become increasingly popular over the last decade. These programs aim to enhance emotional intelligence, empathy or emotion regulation. This study wants to assess the training effects and potential moderators of these workplace interventions. To our knowledge, this is the first systematic review that focuses on the workplace context and integrates emotional intelligence, empathy, and emotion regulation training interventions. This study has been preregistered with PROSPERO and a protocol has been published before the review was conducted (CRD42021267073). We conducted a systematic literature search using Embase, PsycInfo, PSYNDEX, Web of Science and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. The included studies were analyzed in two metaanalyses. In the primary analysis, we analyzed standardized mean changes in emotional competencies before and after the training for 50 included studies, depending on (a) training construct and (b) participants’ profession (teachers, health professionals, managers, and others). To determine the efficacy of the trainings, we conducted a separate metaanalysis of controlled trials only (k = 27). Both metaanalyses yielded moderate overall effect sizes that also persisted more than three months after the training end: (1) SMDpre-post = 0.44 (95% CI [0.29, 0.59]), (2) SMDEG-CG = 0.46 (95% CI [0.30, 0.63]). All professions benefited equally from the interventions and we observed no significant differences in the effectiveness of emotional intelligence, empathy, and emotion regulation trainings. Overall, our results suggest that workplace interventions effectively train emotional competencies, regardless of profession or specific training focus. Limitations are the high heterogeneity and the low methodological quality of the studies analyzed. Our study shows the need for more high-quality studies, like randomized controlled trials. Additionally, companies may consider incorporating emotional competence training into their employee and leadership development programs routinely. This study was preregistered on PROSPERO (CRD42021267073).
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-024-02198-3.
... The empathy measurement items were adapted from Davis (1983Davis ( , 1994)'s Empathy Quotient scale and included three items: "You feel sympathy for B," "You feel pity for B," "You feel sad for B." Each question is measured using a Likert-7 scale, where "1" indicates that you feel B is "somewhat sympathetic," "somewhat pitiful," "somewhat sad," and "7" indicates that you feel B is "very sympathetic," "very pitiful," "very sad." The Cronbach's α was 0.941. ...
When faced with unfair events, people can choose to punish the violator (the first party who committed the unfair event) for the purpose of deterrence, or they can choose to compensate the victim (the second party who was harmed in the unfair event) for the purpose of restoration. So, when do people choose to punish, and when do they choose to compensate? Social comparison theory suggests that individuals can clarify their current environmental situation and make corresponding behaviors by comparing themselves with others. Therefore, this research investigated the influence of social comparison on third-party altruistic behavior and its psychological mechanism through three studies using a third-party punishment and compensation paradigm based the dictator game. The results showed that: (1) The direction of social comparison has a crucial influence on the behavioral strategies of third parties. Third parties in the upward comparison are more inclined to punish the violator, while third parties in the downward comparison are more inclined to compensate the victim. (2) Third parties generate higher anger emotions during upward comparison, which leads to a greater tendency to punish the violator, while they generate higher empathy during downward comparison, which leads to a tendency to compensate the victim. (3) Social contexts hardly influence the behavioral strategies of third parties, but it can regulate the cost that third parties pay for punishment or compensation. The research provided a new perspective for exploring third-party altruistic behavior and offered a new explanation and insight into issues of social fairness and justice.
... A meta-analysis from our group [1], identified the Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition (MASC, [2]), as a promising ecological test with robust psychometric properties in psychiatric populations. • Facial emotion recognition [4] • Reading the Mind in the Eyes tests [4] • Attribution of thoughts [4], and intentions [3] • Strange Stories [5] • Emotional Fluency [3] • Faux-Pas task [3] • Levels of Emotional Awareness [3] • Observable Social Cognition Rating Scale [3] • Interpersonal Reactivity Index [6] • ...
... Interpersonal reactivity index (IRI). Participants rated "empathic concern" (EC) and 276 "perspective taking" (PT) subscales of the IRI questionnaire (Davis, 1983) to assess their trait and channels for this permutation test were 9, 41 and 1, respectively. Figures 1A and 1B 285 represent the time-frequency (TF) representation on all subjects and the topographic MEG 286 sensor representation of the same pain empathy contrast of each dataset, respectively. ...
The study of ideological asymmetries in empathy has consistently yielded inconclusive findings. Yet, until recently these inconsistencies relied exclusively on self-reports, which are known to be prone to biases and inaccuracies when evaluating empathy levels. Very recently, we reported ideological asymmetries in cognitive-affective empathy while relying on neuroimaging for the first time to address this question. In the present investigation which sampled a large cohort of human individuals from two distant countries and neuroimaging sites, we re-examine this question, but this time from the perspective of empathy to physical pain. The results are unambiguous at the neural and behavioral levels and showcase no asymmetry. This finding raises a novel premise: the question of whether empathy is ideologically asymmetrical depends on the targeted component of empathy (e.g., physical pain vs cognitive-affective) and requires explicit but also unobtrusive techniques for the measure of empathy. Moreover, the findings shed new light on another line of research investigating ideological (a)symmetries in physiological responses to vicarious pain, disgust, and threat.
Significance Statement In this study, we challenge the historically inconclusive findings on ideological asymmetries in empathy. By employing neuroimaging techniques, we demonstrated that ideological asymmetry in physical pain empathy is absent. This research underscores the importance of considering various facets of empathy, societal contexts, and unbiased measurement methodologies, such as neuroimaging techniques, in the assessment of empathic responses.
... Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) IRI was used to measure individual differences in trait empathy, and the test-retest reliability was 0.61-0.81 [41,42]. This instrument consists of the following four dimensions: perspective taking (PT), fantasizing (FN), empathic concern (EC), and personal distress (PD). ...
Background
Empathy is an important factor in the doctor-patient relationship, but mental illness is more difficult to understand than other diseases. Besides traditional skills, virtual reality (VR) has been identified as a promising tool in empathy education. This study aimed to investigate the ability of empathy enhancement, the feasibility of depression education, and the changes in thoughts and attitudes in medical students through a single VR experience.
Methods
We recruited medical students and randomly assigned them to two groups based on their completed Interpersonal Response Index scores. Two sets of VR systems were provided; the intervention group experienced the daily life of the depressed medical student, while the control group experienced the general medical student scenario. The improvement of empathy was assessed using the Jefferson Scale of Empathy-Health Professional Students (JSE-HPS), and the change of attitude was assessed through the Implicit Association Test. In addition, other questionnaires were used to evaluate the user experience of this VR system, and correlation analysis was conducted to examine the association between the use of VR and changes in the JSE and IAT scores.
Results
A total of 59 medical students were enrolled in this study. The intervention group showed a significant increase in the perspective-taking (pre: mean 5.817, SD 0.536; post: mean 5.947, SD 0.620; P = .03) and compassionate care (pre: mean 5.546, SD 0.581; post: mean 5.721, SD 0.629; P = .01) domains of the JSE score and a significant decrease in the standing in the patient’s shoes (SP) domain (pre: mean 3.583, SD 1.253; post: mean 2.967, SD 1.252; P = .002). The Pearson correlation analysis found a significant positive correlation between the JSE score with immersion aspect (r = .308, P = .049) and presence aspect (r = .415, P = .01), and we also found a significant negative correlation between the IAT score and presence aspect (r=-.333, P = .04).
Conclusions
This study is the first randomized case-control study to investigate the effect of two different versions of VR on empathy development toward depression for medical students. Although the single VR experience was unable to induce a great improvement in empathy or attitude, the VR system could help medical students enhance their understanding of depressive disorders.
Trial registration
This trial was retrospectively registered in the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR) (21/03/2024, ACTRN12624000297527). https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=386683&isReview=true.
... It contained four variables: perspective taking, fantasy, empathic concern, and personal distress. This category comes from the interpersonal reactivity index (Davis, 1983). ...
We investigate whether and how we can improve the cost efficiency of neuroimaging studies with well-tailored fMRI tasks. The comparative study is conducted using a novel network science-driven Bayesian connectome-based predictive method, which incorporates network theories in model building and substantially improves precision and robustness in imaging biomarker detection. The robustness of the method lays the foundation for identifying predictive power differential across fMRI task conditions if such difference exists. When applied to a clinically heterogeneous transdiagnostic cohort, we found shared and distinct functional fingerprints of neuropsychological outcomes across seven fMRI conditions. For example, emotional N-back memory task was found to be less optimal for negative emotion outcomes, and gradual-onset continuous performance task was found to have stronger links with sensitivity and sociability outcomes than with cognitive control outcomes. Together, our results show that there are unique optimal pairings of task-based fMRI conditions and neuropsychological outcomes that should not be ignored when designing well-powered neuroimaging studies.
... Empathy. This study was undertaken using the 28-item Interpersonal Response Pointer Scale developed by Davis (1983). A higher total score reflects greater empathy (Cronbach's alpha = 0.76). ...
Multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) games represent a predominant genre in the global gaming market, offering people multiple game modes, avenues for online interactions, and incentives for teamwork. Despite the considerable popularity of MOBA games, scant research has examined relationships between MOBA gameplay and social performance. Given implications for learning and health, the extent to which individual gaming preferences moderate such potential relationships warrants investigation. The present study introduces two experimental investigations to explore relationships between individual MOBA gaming experiences and social learning (Experiment 1), as assessed by the Social Learning Task, and relationships between team MOBA gaming experience and collaborative problem-solving (Experiment 2), as evaluated through the Room Assignment Task. In Experiment 1, participants were stratified based on their MOBA gaming experience into Party-Matching (PM), Solo-Matching (SM), and non-MOBA (NM) groups. Subsequently, they were randomly allocated to triads for participation in Experiment 2. In addition, triads comprising individuals with prior collaborative experiences in MOBA were specifically recruited. Experiment 1 (N = 170) showed that the PM group outperformed SM and NM groups on social learning (F(2, 162) = 3.386, p = 0.036, partial η2 = 0.04), with this relationship moderated by sex. The advantageous performance reflected more adaptive social-response behavior than a more precise perception of intention. In Experiment 2 (N = 67), a positive association was found between team members' gaming experience and team efficiency (F(2,41) = 3.662, p = 0.034, partial η2 = 0.152). These findings suggest that MOBA games hold the potential to improve human social behavior and that it is important to consider gaming preferences in understanding potential social advantages of gaming.
... Empathy is defined as both affective and cognitive reactions that correspond to another person's emotions in response to their emotional circumstances (Davis, 1983). While both cognitive and affective empathy involve understanding another person's feelings, cognitive empathy specifically refers to the ability to recognize and comprehend another person's mental state, whereas affective empathy entails sharing another person's emotional experience without undergoing direct emotional stimulation. ...
This conceptual paper explores the integration of mindfulness principles into the development of transportation services for people with disabilities (PWDs) in Malaysia. Transportation plays a critical role in promoting inclusivity and enhancing the quality of life for PWDs, yet accessibility remains a significant challenge due to infrastructural barriers, lack of awareness, and limited empathy from service providers. Drawing on the concepts of mindfulness, which are rooted in awareness, empathy, and responsiveness, this paper proposes a framework that emphasizes inclusivity, respect, and collaboration among key stakeholders. The proposed framework emphasizes the need for a holistic approach that incorporates physical accessibility, staff training, and policy reforms. Inclusivity involves modifying infrastructure to meet universal design standards, while empathy requires transport providers to understand the unique challenges faced by PWDs and offer compassionate, tailored services. Responsiveness, a key element of mindfulness, calls for flexible and adaptive transport services that cater to the real-time needs of PWDs, ensuring that they can access public transportation with ease and dignity. By applying this mindful approach, the transportation system can become more accommodating and respectful toward PWDs, thereby reducing social exclusion and improving their mobility. This paper contributes to the growing body of literature on disability inclusion and provides actionable strategies for policymakers, transport providers, and disability organizations to work together in creating a more accessible public transportation system. Future research should investigate the practical application of this framework and its potential to drive policy changes that benefit PWDs across Malaysia.
... Chandler, 1973;Flavell et al., 1968;Silbereisen, 1976); the self-report approach addressing people's estimation of their own perspective-taking qualities (e.g. Davis, 1980;1983;Gorenflo & Crano, 1998) or social decentring (Redmond, 1995); and the sociomoral approach involving the inter-relations of social perspectives and their consequences for interpersonal communication and understanding (Selman, 1971;Selman & Byrne, 1974). Each of these approaches uses specific assessment methods and instruments. ...
The present study investigated the influence of gender, age, and schooling on adolescents’ perspective-taking ability as well as the relationship between perspective-taking and antisocial tendencies. Data of 440 adolescents aged 12 to 17 were analyzed. Perspective-taking was assessed using the Written Interpersonal Understanding Interview, a paper-and-pencil version of Selman’s (1980) Interpersonal Understanding Interview. Results indicate that girls show higher perspective-taking ability than boys. Older participants outperformed younger participants on perspective-taking, and participants attending higher-level schools outperformed those attending lover-level schools. Participants exhibiting problems of language comprehension showed lower perspective-taking ability than those having no such problems. Moreover, perspective-taking was negatively related to aggressive and antisocial behavior and to aggressive impulses. No significant relationship was found between perspective-taking and vandalistic behavior. Results also suggest that social perspective-taking ability might be domain-specific. Finally, the WIUI proved to be both a reliable and a valid instrument for the assessment of social perspective-taking.
... This 28-item instrument comprises four different factors (Davis, 1980;Pérez-Albéniz et al., 2003). Perspective taking and fantasy tap the cognitive dimension of empathy, whereas empathic concern and personal distress tap the affective dimension of empathy. ...
The relationship between empathy and aggression is inconclusive, with substantial evidence revealing moderator effects of factors such as age, sex, and personality. This study examines whether sex differences or sex similarities stem from the relationship between empathy, personality, and aggression. There were 197 adolescents enrolled in secondary education (89 males and 108 females), who completed the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), and the Buss and Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ). Females scored higher than males in empathy factors (fantasy, empathic concern, and personal distress), neuroticism, and in aggression (anger and hostility). Males and females showed similar outcomes in the association between perspective taking and personal distress with anger and hostility. Extraversion and neuroticism failed to explain additional variance in instrumental aggression (physical and verbal). Neuroticism, however, explained a meaningful larger amount of variance in the affective and cognitive components of aggression beyond empathy measures for both males and females, anger (9%) and hostility (15%), respectively. The findings suggest that, regardless of sex, empathy appears important for instrumental aggression (physical, verbal), whereas neuroticism is a robust predictor of affective and cognitive aggression (anger, hostility).
... Participants visited the lab twice, separated by seven days. In the first lab visit, participants completed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANA-SF) 68 , Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) 69 , Tightness-Looseness Questionnaire (TLQ) 46 , Socially Desirable Responding (SDR) 70 , and Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN) 71 , followed by computer-based tasks. ...
People readily change their behavior to comply with others. However, to which extent they will internalize the social influence remains elusive. In this preregistered electroencephalogram (EEG) study, we investigated how learning from one’s in-group or out-group members about facial attractiveness would change explicit attractiveness ratings and spontaneous neural representations of facial attractiveness. Specifically, we quantified the neural representational similarities of learned faces with prototypical attractive faces during a face perception task without overt social influence and intentional evaluation. We found that participants changed their explicit attractiveness ratings to both in-group and out-group influences. Moreover, social conformity updated spontaneous neural representation of facial attractiveness, an effect particularly evident when participants learned from their in-group members and among those who perceived tighter social norms. These findings offer insights into how group affiliations and individual differences in perceived social norms modulate the internalization of social influence.
... § L'empathie cognitive : elle désigne la capacité d'une personne à comprendre le point d'une autre et de se mettre à sa place (Davis, 1983). Elle est également définie par la prise en conscience de l'attention personnalisée accordée au son client. ...
Un nouveau mécanisme du marché s'installe, caractérisé par une diversité et abondance de biens et de services, une panoplie de choix offerte aux clients, qui les rendent avertis, formés et informés. Les entreprises sont alors amenées à revoir leurs méthodes d'acquisition et de satisfaction des clients en mettant en cause les offres standards laissant place à une individualisation des solutions proposées aux clients. On parle alors de la personnalisation de l'offre-client. Notre recherche porte sur la personnalisation des services et l'influence qu'elle opère sur la fidélité de la clientèle des banques. La finalité de ce travail est de découvrir et de montrer le type de liaison qui existe entre les deux variables : personnalisation des services et la fidélité des clients en utilisant la satisfaction en tant que variable médiatrice. Les trois variables constituent des composantes du marketing relationnel. Etant donné que la personnalisation constitue une réalité vécue, nous avons choisi le positivisme unique comme paradigme épistémologique en se basant sur une étude quantitative suivant un raisonnement hypothético-déductive dont l'objectif est de vérifier l'existence d'un lien de causalité indirecte entre la variable personnalisation et la fidélité.
A new market mechanism is being established characterized by a diversity and abundance of goods and services. A range of choices offered to customers, which make them aware, trained and informed. Companies are then led to review their customer acquisition and satisfaction methods by calling into question standard offers, leaving place for individualization of the solutions offered to customers. We then talk about the personalization of the customer offer. Our research focuses on the personalization of services and the influence it has on the satisfaction of bank customers. The purpose of this paper is to discover and show the connection that exists between the two variables: personalization of services and customer satisfaction, which constitute components of relationship marketing. Since personalization constitutes a lived reality, and since our objective is to describe it in a neutral way, we have chosen unique positivism as our epistemological paradigm. In order to build and enrich our research, we decide to use a quantitative study following a hypothetical-deductive reasoning whose objective is to verify the existence of a causal link between the personalization variable and loyalty.
... The positive impact of empathy on patient outcomes has been extensively documented throughout history, particularly in the doctor-patient relationship. Empathy enhances healing processes and patient satisfaction, and numerous studies have shown that empathy training can significantly improve this ability in healthcare professionals [3]. ...
Empathy, defined as the ability to understand and share another person’s feelings, is crucial in the healthcare setting, particularly for patients with cancer who face significant psychosocial challenges. We aimed to develop a novel tool, the Empathy, Life with Cancer, and Psychosocial Skills (ELPIS) Scale that prioritizes emotional and cognitive components in order to determine the reflection of the negative stigmatization of cancer in societies on individuals, excluding the behavioral and ethical dimensions of empathy. The study was conducted using a quantitative research design with a sample of first- and second-year medical students in Türkiye. An initial pool of 48 items was developed based on an extensive review of the literature and existing empathy scales. Following expert review and pilot testing, the scale was refined to 24 items. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted to establish the scale’s factor structure and validate its reliability and validity. The exploratory factor analysis revealed a three-factor structure comprising “emotional empathy,” “sympathetic responses,” and “realistic approaches,” with a total of 20 items after refinement. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the model fit, with the scale demonstrating high internal consistency across all three dimensions. The scale’s reliability was further supported by high Cronbach’s alpha values. The results suggest that the ELPIS Scale is a reliable and valid instrument for measuring emotional empathy toward cancer patients. It offers a nuanced approach by separately assessing emotional, sympathetic, and realistic components of empathy, making it a valuable tool for both educational and clinical applications. Future research should explore the scale’s application in diverse populations and settings, as well as its utility in tracking empathy development over time. In conclusion, the ELPIS Scale, which focuses on the emotional and cognitive components of empathy, a multifaceted construct, fills a critical gap in the measurement of empathy in the context of cancer care and provides a comprehensive tool that can improve both patient care and the education of healthcare providers.
... Empathy is often described as the ability to understand and share the feelings of another, which is central to healthy interpersonal relationships (Davis, 1983). It involves both cognitive and emotional components, enabling individuals to recognize others' emotions and respond with appropriate concern (Decety & Jackson, 2004). ...
Newly married individuals encounter a specific set of challenges and adaptations as they adjust to married life. This study aims to assess the relationship between empathy and grit among newly married individuals. This study utilized the ex-post facto research design. Using convenience sampling, 110 participants (45 male and 65 female) who had been married for 0-3 years and residing in Chennai were selected. The Short Grit Scale (Duckworth and Quinn, 2009) and the Toronto Empathy Questionnaire (Spreng et al., 2009) were used to collect the data. The results revealed that empathy was significantly and positively related to grit (r = .268 p < .001). This finding suggests that increased empathy was associated with increased grit among newly married individuals.
... In the community sample and clinical samples, participants completed the German version of the original ERQ (Abler & Kessler, 2009), as well as questionnaires measuring empathy and alexithymia, that is, the German versions of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) (Davis, 1983) and Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 (TAS-20) (Bagby et al., 1994). We excluded four items (1, 3, 4, 5) of the original ERQ to receive the ERQ-S. ...
The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire-Short Form (ERQ-S) may offer a psychometrically sound and time-efficient alternative to the original ERQ. We analyzed data of 315 participants from the community, as well as of 153 patients (forensic inpatients, patients with schizophrenia, and patients with alcohol use disorder). Our results support the reliability, factorial validity, and concurrent validity of the ERQ-S. With an additional English-speaking sample, we found metric measurement invariance of the ERQ-S. This provides researchers in German-speaking countries with a new, more economical measure of emotion regulation.
... Empathy was measured with the Italian validated version of the Brief version of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (BIRI) (Albiero et al., 2006;Davis, 1983;Ingoglia et al., 2016). The four 4-item subscales of the BIRI measure Empathic Concern (BIRI-EC) (e.g., "I often have tender, concerned feelings for people less fortunate than me"), Personal Distress (BIRI-PD) (e.g., "In emergency situations, I feel apprehensive and ill-atease"), Perspective Taking (BIRI-PT) (e.g., "I try to look at everybody's side of a disagreement before I make a decision"), and Fantasy (BIRI-F) (e.g., "I really get involved with the feelings of the characters in a novel"). ...
... In an effort to evaluate BAP's impact on students, we administered core bioethics competencies surveys and validated tools-Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI)-assessing empathy and leadership skills 17,18 at both the onset and at the conclusion of the course. The core competency survey included 20 multiple-Creating a Bioethics Ambassador Program choice questions gauging students' general ethics knowledge, while the IRI focused on perspective taking, empathy, and personal distress. ...
The Ethics Committee at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (MSK) developed a Bioethics Ambassador Program (BAP); a yearlong educational program to assist clinical and non-clinical staff develop the skills to identify and address common burgeoning ethical issues that can arise during the provision of care to patients with cancer. The goal was to provide greater awareness of the role and services of Ethics, particularly at the institution’s geographically-diverse outpatient care centers and to better-instill a culture of preventative ethics. This article discusses the design and implementation of the first two years of the program and analyzes its strengths, weaknesses, and impact on MSK.
... Three items assessing willingness to take the outgroup's perspective were adapted from the perspective taking subscale of the interpersonal reactivity index 96 ("I sometimes find it difficult to see things from a [outgroups]'s point of view" [R]; "I sometimes try to understand [outgroup members] better by imagining how things look from their perspective"; "When facing political disagreements where I am sure I'm in the right, I believe listening to a [outgroup members'] arguments is a waste of my time" on scales ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Scale reliability analysis indicated that the three items did not form a reliable scale (α T1 = 0.40, α T2 = 0.53, α T3 = 0.49) due to the low item-total correlation of the positively worded item. ...
With mounting evidence of the harmful societal consequences of affective polarization, it is crucial to find ways of addressing it. Employing a randomized controlled trial, this study tested the effectiveness of an intervention based on theories of intergroup contact and interpersonal communication in reducing affective polarization in the context of Brexit. Participants were 120 UK self-identified Leavers and Remainers. Sixty Leaver-Remainer dyads were randomized to engage in either a facilitated intergroup interaction or a control interaction, which was equivalent in structure and tone but was unrelated to Brexit identities. Different aspects of affective polarization were assessed one month prior, immediately after, and one month after the intervention. Results indicate that the intervention increased warmth toward the outgroup, reduced unfavourable attributions of the sources of outgroup positions, and increased willingness to compromise, but only short-term. There were no statistically significant longer-term effects of the intervention. Evidence of selective attrition further suggests that those with more extreme baseline opinions were more likely to drop out. Our findings highlight the challenges of designing effective interventions that engender enduring attitude change in polarized contexts and of engaging those with extreme political views. This study can provide a useful framework for future research.
... PT is the cognitive understanding of others' thoughts or feelings by the mental adoption of their point of view. It is a deliberate process which is used relatively infrequently because of its controlled and effortful nature [89], and people have been shown to display chronic differences in the tendency to use it [90]. A growing body of empirical studies has shown that people understand others' mental states by using their self-knowledge. ...
There is an actual trend for humanizing technological artifacts, especially social robots. However, human-like social robots trigger negative attitudes by threatening human uniqueness as well as humanness. The present paper presents the development of the Belief in Human Nature Uniqueness Scale (BHNUS) to assess the individual tendency to deny social robots the possibility to have human features considered to be the hallmarks of humanness. The validation of the BHNUS was completed along seven studies, with a total of 1044 Portuguese participants. Results showed that BHNUS had good structural qualities (Studies 1 and 2), as well as good convergent and discriminant validities. BHNUS was correlated with negative attitudes towards robots, religiosity, and interest for science fiction (Study 3), attribution of traits of warmth to robots (Study 4), positive and negative emotional appraisal (Study 5), perspective taking (Study 6), and attitudes towards the development of robots with human features (Study 7). The importance of the BHNUS regarding the development of social robots and human–robot interaction is discussed.
If you were to insist I was a robot, you might not consider me capable of love in some mystic human sense, but you would not be able to distinguish my reactions from that which you would call love so what difference would it make?
Isaac Asimov (1982) in Foundation’s Edge, p. 420
... It involves the capacity to perceive, understand, and resonate with the feelings and thoughts of others, allowing individuals to engage in more meaningful and compassionate interactions. Research by Davis (1983) highlights the multidimensional nature of empathy, which includes both cognitive empathy (the ability to intellectually understand another person's perspective) and affective empathy (the ability to emotionally experience another person's feelings). These two dimensions of empathy enable agreeable individuals to navigate social situations with greater sensitivity and attunement to others' needs. ...
This paper explores the role of agreeableness, a key personality trait characterized by prosocial behaviors such as empathy, altruism, and cooperation, in conflict management and psychological adaptation in daily life. Agreeable individuals, driven by a focus on harmony and understanding, tend to employ constructive conflict resolution strategies that prioritize relational well-being and mutual respect. These strategies reduce interpersonal tensions, promote trust, and enhance relational satisfaction. Furthermore, agreeableness contributes significantly to psychological adaptation by fostering positive social interactions, enhancing emotional regulation, and promoting adaptive coping mechanisms, which together support resilience in the face of life’s challenges. The broader implications of agreeableness extend beyond individual relationships, influencing organizational dynamics, community engagement, and societal harmony by reducing conflict, fostering inclusivity, and bridging ideological divides. This paper highlights the importance of agreeableness in shaping both personal well-being and social cohesion, emphasizing its role in promoting a more empathetic, cooperative, and resilient society.
Objectives
It is common for patients with schizophrenia to exhibit symptoms of autism. Both autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia share similar patterns of empathy deficits. This study purposed to explore the association between autistic features and empathy in Chinese patients with chronic schizophrenia.
Methods
We enrolled 857 patients with chronic schizophrenia. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological 7 Status (RBANS), and Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) were employed to assess the participants’ clinical symptoms, neurocognition, and empathy, respectively. The severity of autistic symptoms was assessed with the PANSS Autism Severity Scale (PAUSS), with PAUSS scores ≥ 30 were considered to have significant autistic features.
Results
114 schizophrenia patients (13.3%) had autistic features. Compared to schizophrenia patients without autistic features, those with autistic features had more severe clinical symptoms, and poorer neurocognition and empathic abilities. Female sex and empathic concerns were independently associated with autistic features in patients with chronic schizophrenia.
Conclusions
Our results suggest that autistic features tend to manifest quite commonly among patients with chronic schizophrenia. Empathy deficits are strongly associated with autistic features in patients with chronic schizophrenia, strengthening the view that autistic features may characterize a subgroup of schizophrenia patients.
Transphobia can be defined as antipathy or strong emotional aversion towards trans men and women, often leading to these individuals suffering discrimination, violence, and harassment. The main aim of this study was to translate and validate the Attitudes Toward Transgender Men and Women (ATTMW) Scale developed by Billard (2018a) for the Portuguese population. The sample consisted of 539 participants, 431 females, and 108males, with a meanage of 27.25years. Each participant responded to three questionnaires, namely a sociodemographic questionnaire, the ATTMW, and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. The results revealed that the Portuguese version of the ATTWM presented a two-factor structure, as in the original scale. Both subscales showed high internal consistency (ATTMW Perspective-Taking: α=.93; ATTWM Empathic Concern: α=.94) and good levels of convergent validity. Regarding convergent validity, the ATTWM Perspective-Taking and ATTWM Empathic Concern showed a significant negative correlation with the sub-scales of Perspective-Taking, Empathic Concern, and Fantasy of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. The instrument demonstrated good psychometric qualities when used with the sample.
As a form of social communication at work, venting—expressing negative feelings about a person or event to others—is fairly ubiquitous. Yet little is known about how those who are the recipients of venting react affectively and behaviorally to this experience at work. To advance our understanding of venting receipt in the workplace, we integrate the archaic view of vicarious emotions into research related to venting at work to develop theory regarding how receiving venting is likely to evoke feelings of personal distress and empathy as employees react to and process this social information. In turn, we theorize that while personal distress leads to venting enactment, empathy leads to helping that can promote more positive social relations, highlighting the double‐edged nature of this phenomenon. Finally, beyond clarifying the theoretical ways that venting recipients react, we also consider how the broader social context—namely, coworker similarity—has the potential to shape these reactions. Across two within‐person field studies, both of which utilize a newly developed measure of venting receipt at work, and a supplemental recall experiment, our research highlights why and when venting at work can have divergent effects on venting recipients.
Bullying is a major problem in schools, involving aggressive and intentional behavior against others. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of animated media in enhancing empathy among high school students as a preventive measure against bullying. The research was conducted at State Senior High School 2 Bangkalan–Madura, using a pretest-posttest control group design. Students with low empathy levels were chosen through purposive sampling. The empathy of these students was measured using The Perth Empathy Scale (PES) and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). The study divided students into two groups: experimental group watched three animated videos about different types of bullying (physical, verbal, and relational), while the control group did not receive any intervention. The effectiveness of the animated videos was evaluated by comparing empathy levels before and after the intervention. The results showed that the experimental group had a slight increase in empathy, with an average N-Gain Score of 0.21, which is considered low. However, a statistical test showed a significant improvement in empathy in this group, with a Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.001 < 0.05, indicating that the videos made a meaningful difference. The control group did not show any significant change. This study concludes that animated media can be an effective tool to enhance empathy among adolescents, although the effect was small. It suggests that animated videos could be used in educational and psychological practices to help develop empathy in adolescents, which is crucial for preventing bullying in schools.
Bullying is a major problem in schools, involving aggressive and intentional behavior against others. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of animated media in enhancing empathy among high school students as a preventive measure against bullying. The research was conducted at State Senior High School 2 Bangkalan–Madura, using a pretest-posttest control group design. Students with low empathy levels were chosen through purposive sampling. The empathy of these students was measured using The Perth Empathy Scale (PES) and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). The study divided students into two groups: experimental group watched three animated videos about different types of bullying (physical, verbal, and relational), while the control group did not receive any intervention. The effectiveness of the animated videos was evaluated by comparing empathy levels before and after the intervention. The results showed that the experimental group had a slight increase in empathy, with an average N-Gain Score of 0.21, which is considered low. However, a statistical test showed a significant improvement in empathy in this group, with a Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.001 < 0.05, indicating that the videos made a meaningful difference. The control group did not show any significant change. This study concludes that animated media can be an effective tool to enhance empathy among adolescents, although the effect was small. It suggests that animated videos could be used in educational and psychological practices to help develop empathy in adolescents, which is crucial for preventing bullying in schools.
Virtual reality (VR) is increasingly employed to create immersive, interactive audiovisual narratives that accentuate emotion, storytelling, and user engagement. By harnessing the potential of VR, these avant-garde narratives aim to instill values of equity, justice, and fairness. This article critically examines the largely unsubstantiated assertion that VR is the ultimate tool for fostering empathy by means of a qualitative evaluation of the influence of prosocial VR audiovisual narratives. The study involved the production of the first episode of The Stigma Machine , a VR short film series in both traditional 2D and immersive VR formats, in a two-pronged production approach designed to examine the effects of the film on a sample of 44 university students from Spain ( n = 22) and Canada ( n = 22). The participants were segregated into two groups: Group 1 (1st VR Condition) viewed the VR experience first, followed by the traditional version, while Group 2 (1st Video Condition) viewed the two formats in reverse order. Data was collected before, during, and after viewing, using standardized questionnaires (interpersonal reactivity index, basic empathy scale, and Igroup presence questionnaire) and electroencephalogram devices to monitor brain activity. The dependent variables included: empathy, assessed using the interpersonal reactivity index and basic empathy scale surveys; electroencephalogram brain activity measures, indicating engagement, excitement, focus, interest, relaxation, and stress; presence, evaluated using the Igroup presence questionnaire; and various outcome variables. The results reveal no significant differences in presence and no significant changes to the empathy scores. The findings point to a need to focus more on narrative design and audiovisual content creation strategies than on VR technology itself.
Le trouble de personnalité limite est associé à des problèmes relationnels et de régulation des émotions, des habiletés liées à la capacité d’empathie. Néanmoins, certaines recherches suggèrent la présence d’une empathie élevée chez les personnes présentant ce diagnostic. Cette étude vise à : 1) documenter les traits de personnalité limite en émergence (TPLÉ), l’empathie et les comportements prosociaux (CP) des enfants maltraités et issus de la population générale; 2) examiner les relations entre ces variables et 3) comparer les deux groupes. Soixante-quatorze enfants âgés de 6 à 12 ans (maltraités : n = 35; population générale : n = 39) ont rempli des questionnaires concernant l’empathie et les TPLÉ. Les éducateurs référents (enfants maltraités) et les mères (population générale) ont rempli des questionnaires sur l’empathie et les CP des enfants. Les résultats montrent une relation positive et significative entre l’empathie et les CP, ainsi qu’une relation négative et significative entre les TPLÉ et l’empathie cognitive. Des relations négatives significatives ont été repérées entre les différentes mesures de l’empathie et certaines sous-échelles des TPLÉ correspondant aux comportements d’autodestruction et aux relations interpersonnelles négatives, ainsi qu’entre ces sous-échelles et les CP. La relation négative entre ces sous-échelles et les CP s’explique en partie par la moins grande empathie cognitive des enfants enclins à manifester des comportements d’autodestruction et à entretenir des relations interpersonnelles négatives. Les deux groupes d’enfants se sont distingués quant aux trois variables. Ainsi, les enfants de la population générale présentent un niveau plus élevé d’empathie et de CP que les enfants maltraités. Ces derniers ont également obtenu des scores de TPLÉ significativement plus élevés. Cette étude permet de mieux comprendre les facteurs de risque associés aux TPLÉ.
Research objective: to consider possible causes of psychological heterogeneity of empathy [its constructive and destructive manifestations]. The specifics of the functions of different components and different levels of empathy in relation to the characteristics of mental activity are analyzed. Constructive and destructive manifestations of empathy are described, which are expressed both at the pole of high empathy and at the pole of low empathy. The existence of the splitting effect of both high and low indicators of empathy with the allocation of its productive and unproductive components is substantiated. The criterion for splitting the poles of empathy is the measure of formation [and the measure of interaction] of conceptual and metacognitive abilities. Thus, the multidimensional nature of empathy is characterized by three aspects: firstly, the complexity of the composition, taking into account the specifics of the functions of different components, secondly, the multilevel [the presence of lower and higher levels of emotional response] and, thirdly, the effect of splitting high and low empathy.
Biological drivers of empathy have been explored in an interdisciplinary manner for decades. Research that merges the psychological and genetic perspectives of empathy has recently gained interest, and more complex designs and analyses are needed. Empathy is a multidimensional construct that might be regarded both dispositionally (as a personality trait) and contextually (experienced and/or expressed in a particular relationship/situation). This study analyzed genetic variations associated with genes encoding oxytocin, arginine vasopressin, and receptors that regulate their secretion as predictors of the empathic dimensions of emotional (empathic concern and personal distress) and cognitive (perspective taking) dyadic factors of partners in heterosexual intimate relationships. Machine learning methods to capture both linear and nonlinear relationships between SNPs, RS1 and RS2 repeat polymorphisms and dimensions of empathy in couples were employed. A total of 442 individuals (221 couples) participated in this study. Empathy was measured by the Polish version of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index for Couples. The MassARRAY® 4 instrument, which combines mass spectrometry with endpoint PCR, was used for genotyping all 14 genetic variations. Microsatellite fragment analysis was performed by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The results confirmed the significance of certain genetic alterations linked to oxytocin, vasopressin, serotonin and estrogen for dispositional and dyadic empathy (mainly rs1884051, rs6311, RS1, rs4686302, and rs1042778) in couples. The effects were stronger for the prediction of emotional and dyadic empathy than for perspective taking. Separate analyses for women and men indicated different predictive effects of genes for empathy (for example, effects of rs53576 were indicated only in women), which are also experienced and expressed in couples. Different dimensions of empathy should be included when the genetic predictors of empathy are examined.
In this study we will, examine the complicated psychological and social forces that produce political attitudes. The paper reveals the twofold nature of the cognitive processes; how emotive and cognitive biases influence reasoning about politics. The findings reveal that one of the common types of directional motivated reasoning is one in which the pre-held belief impacts the treatment of political information, which in turn results in biased assessment of political personalities and issues. Other than that, this research discusses the role of conversation and deliberation in the promotion of reflective political opinions. Discussion with others persuades a person to express an opinion and to listen to others that develop one's thinking of political matters. The paper also discusses the emotions, such as anxiety and anger, associated with political judgment, maintaining that such emotions distort and occlude any lucid judgment about political performance. It also reveals that scientific curiosity acts to offset such one-sidedness: "The more scientifically curious anyone is, the more open they will be to information that runs counter to pre-existing points of view, allowing them to reason more impartially." Findings underpin views that a critical thinking-open discussion environment will be highly instrumental in raising political awareness and understanding. The present study bequeaths an important understanding of the psychological mechanisms underlying the construction of political opinion and the social processes that can help consolidate or contest these opinions. Controlling these factors sets up a better ability to confront polarization and misinformation in modern political discourses
Background:
Studying empathy in borderline personality disorder (BPD) is essential because difficulties with interpersonal functioning are integral.
Objectives:
This scoping and narrative review explores the aetiological theory that BPD is an innate anomaly of cognitive empathy, with a normal or heightened emotional empathy.
Eligibility criteria and sources of evidence:
Ovid MEDLINE(R) ALL was searched using the terms empathy; theory of mind; mentalisation or mentalising; borderline empathy; emotion recognition and BPD. For inclusion in the scoping review, articles needed to empirically assess an empathic skill in people with BPD, or self-reported empathy in a BPD group compared to controls, or empathic skill as a 'borderline feature' in a nonclinical sample.
Charting method:
The results of empirical studies were categorised as per their methodological approach, with results in the BPD group reported as comparable, enhanced or reduced compared to controls.
Results:
320 articles were returned, with 38 eligible. The majority affirmed that people with BPD have an anomalous empathetic ability, especially a deficient cognitive empathy. Furthermore, this is trait, evident early in development, correlates with syndrome severity, and is mediated by atypical neural networks.
Conclusions:
This substantiates the theory that BPD is, at least in major part, an innate empathy anomaly.
Objective: Our goal was to compare the original conceptualization of the alexithymia construct with the attention-appraisal model, focusing primarily on the removal of the reduced imaginal activity component, a seminal aspect of the construct in the original model. We also examined associations between alexithymia and emotional distress and emotion regulation, attachment, and trauma, and whether alexithymia is a transdiagnostic risk factor. We discuss differences between the models in the treatment of alexithymia and also differences in measurement.
Method: We conducted a narrative review of the scientific literature validating the original model of alexithymia and examined the comparatively few empirical studies evaluating the attention-appraisal model. Articles describing contemporary theoretical ideas about the relationship between imagination and emotion were reviewed, as well as studies exploring associations between alexithymia and imaginal activity.
Results: The attention-appraisal model of alexithymia is theoretically derived and examined empirically in studies using correlation/measurement-based methods that employed self-report measures with mostly non-clinical samples and conducted primarily by researchers led by developers of the model. The original model of alexithymia is derived from observations of patients in clinical settings; its validity is supported by findings from hundreds of empirical investigations spanning nearly four decades with nonclinical and a variety of clinical samples using both correlation-based and experimental studies and methods of measurement other than self-report, and by independent teams of researchers. The reduced imaginal activity component of the alexithymia construct is mostly supported by these studies.
Conclusions: Because of the dearth of studies with clinical samples, the absence of investigations by independent researchers, and the limited range of methods and measurements to evaluate and assess the model, there is insufficient evidence to warrant removal of the imaginal activity component of the alexithymia construct and for replacing the original conceptualization of the construct with the attention-appraisal model.
Empathy, a cornerstone of social interaction, involves shared representation, eliciting vicarious emotions. However, its influence on shared perceptual representations, particularly in foundational domains such as distance perception, remains unexplored. In this study, we introduce a novel adaptation of the empathy for pain task to investigate empathy’s influence on distance perception. We also examine how two personality traits, trait empathy and alexithymia, modulate this relationship. Utilizing eye-tracking technology, we examine how attention allocation to different facial and bodily features affects empathy’s impact on distance perception. Our findings indicate that empathy biases individuals to perceive targets as closer, with trait empathy reinforcing this effect and alexithymia attenuating it. Furthermore, we demonstrate that heightened attention to eyes and face correlates with perceiving targets as closer, while attention to hand shows the opposite trend. These results underscore the broader influence of empathy beyond shared emotions, revealing its capacity to alter perceptual processes. By elucidating the interplay between personality traits and visual inputs in shaping these alterations, our study offers valuable insights for future research exploring the role of shared representation in empathy across various perceptual domains.
This theoretical article summarizes the various psychological and motivational processes that underlie prosocial decision-making. To this aim, we propose a novel way to organize and synthesize research related to emotions, thoughts, and beliefs (i.e., psychological mechanisms) that motivate or demotivate human prosociality. This is done with a new typology including four overarching interrelated categories, each encompassing multiple subcategories: (a) emotions; (b) moral principles; (c) anticipated impact; and (d) anticipated personal consequences. We highlight differences and commonalities to other influential frameworks and showcase how the proposed typology can help researchers and practitioners better differentiate and understand the diverse psychological mechanisms that underlie human prosociality.
Many everyday empathetic experiences arise within our social interactions and depend significantly on interpersonal closeness. However, the interbrain processes underlying social-oriented empathy by interpersonal closeness remain unclear. To address this gap, we conducted a dyadic social judgement task with dyads of friends and strangers, where targets received social evaluative feedback and empathizers observed the scenario in different experimental trials. Results showed that dyads of friends exhibited greater affect sharing than strangers when witnessing their partners being accepted or rejected. This was supported by the more pronounced event-related potential similarity in friends during the 340−840 ms post-feedback window, mediating the link between interpersonal closeness and affect sharing. Furthermore, witnessing emotional feedback elicited greater interbrain neural synchronization of brain α-oscillation between the empathizer’s left prefrontal cortex and the target’s left temporoparietal junction in dyads of friends compared with those of strangers. This empathy-related synchronization was associated with mutual affect sharing within dyads of friends but not within dyads of strangers. Our findings highlight the sensitivity of empathy to interpersonal closeness, which links to sustained attention and detailed evaluation in social scenarios, along with functional communication between brain regions for mentalizing and emotional regulation. These insights have therapeutic potential for improving social functioning and relationship satisfaction.
Serving as a social glue in interactions, consumer empathy takes center stage in shaping a pleasant customer experience. Our holistic framework of an empathic customer experience, rooted in the perception–action model of empathy and established customer experience conceptualizations, unveils the close interrelationship between consumer empathy and customer experiences. Grounded in a systematic literature review and a conceptual synthesis, our study contributes to customer experience research by conceptualizing consumer empathy as a cognitive and affective customer experience response, potentially accompanied by supplementary customer experience responses, which we refer to as an empathic customer experience. This study advances empathy literature by offering a systematic overview of an empathic customer experience, covering stimuli at touchpoints that induce an empathic customer experience during consumer interactions, potential contextual factors, and evaluative outcomes of an empathic customer experience. From our results, we derive an agenda with several research directions for the joint investigation of consumer empathy and customer experience to contribute to both research fields. In addition, our framework provides insights for managers, including recommendations for designing stimuli to evoke an empathic customer experience.
Background
Explanations for why social media users propagate misinformation include failure of classical reasoning (over-reliance on intuitive heuristics), motivated reasoning (conforming to group opinion), and personality traits (e.g., narcissism). However, there is a lack of consensus on which explanation is most predictive of misinformation spread. Previous work is also limited by not distinguishing between passive (i.e., “liking”) and active (i.e., “retweeting”) propagation behaviors.
Methods
To examine this issue, 858 Twitter users were recruited to engage in a Twitter simulation task in which they were shown real tweets on public health topics (e.g., COVID-19 vaccines) and given the option to “like”, “reply”, “retweet”, “quote”, or select “no engagement”. Survey assessments were then given to measure variables corresponding to explanations for: classical reasoning [cognitive reflective thinking (CRT)], motivated reasoning (religiosity, political conservatism, and trust in medical science), and personality traits (openness to new experiences, conscientiousness, empathy, narcissism).
Results
Cognitive reflective thinking, conscientiousness, openness, and emotional concern empathy were all negatively associated with liking misinformation, but not significantly associated with retweeting it. Trust in medical scientists was negatively associated with retweeting misinformation, while grandiose narcissism and religiosity were positively associated. An exploratory analysis on engagement with misinformation corrections shows that conscientiousness, openness, and CRT were negatively associated with liking corrections while political liberalism, trust in medical scientists, religiosity, and grandiose narcissism were positively associated. Grandiose narcissism was the only factor positively associated with retweeting corrections.
Discussion
Findings support an inhibitory role for classical reasoning in the passive spread of misinformation (e.g., “liking”), and a major role for narcissistic tendencies and motivated reasoning in active propagating behaviors (“retweeting”). Results further suggest differences in passive and active propagation, as multiple factors influence liking behavior while retweeting is primarily influenced by two factors. Implications for ecologically valid study designs are also discussed to account for greater nuance in social media behaviors in experimental research.
The development of assertiveness and empathy in the school environment contributes to creating a positive atmosphere, preventing bullying, promoting socio-emotional development, and improving academic performance. Therefore, the objective of this study is to analyze the level of assertiveness and empathy in aggressors and victims in school coexistence in primary education in an urban municipality in the province of Granada (Spain), with the aim of proposing an innovative teaching practice in response to this coexistence environment and improving the quality of education. The approach was quantitative, with a descriptive design. The sample consisted of 47 participants from the 6th grade, aged between 11 and 13 years (M = 11.43; SD = 0.50), to whom the Assertive Behavior Scale for Children (CABS) and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index were applied to measure assertiveness and empathy, respectively. The results revealed that students who act as aggressors or consider themselves victims show lower levels in both competencies (3.90% aggressors, 30.30% victims, 69.70% non-victims). Therefore, assertiveness and empathy are not only independent skills but are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. Thus, to reduce aggressive behaviors and situations of victimization, it is essential to promote both assertiveness and empathy. It is concluded that by developing these skills, more effective and respectful communication is promoted, which can decrease conflicts and improve school coexistence.
The development of an adequate assessment instrument is a necessary prerequisite for social psychological research on loneliness. Two studies provide methodological refinement in the measurement of loneliness. Study 1 presents a revised version of the self-report UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Loneliness Scale, designed to counter the possible effects of response bias in the original scale, and reports concurrent validity evidence for the revised measure. Study 2 demonstrates that although loneliness is correlated with measures of negative affect, social risk taking, and affiliative tendencies, it is nonetheless a distinct psychological experience.
Past difficulties in demonstrating a link between accuracy in person perception and "empathy" are reviewed. The advantages of a forced choice accuracy assessment technique, in which observers view target subjects on video tape and then attempt to match targets with three-word self-descriptions, are discussed. Two studies designed to validate the method were performed. In both studies observers' accuracy in matching targets with self-descriptions exceeded chance. The effects on accuracy of observers' perspective-taking ability and targets' self-consciousness were also explored. Study I revealed that subjects scoring high on a measure of perspective-taking (Davis, 1980) were more accurate than low perspective-takers as predicted. Study II showed that target subjects high in private self-consciousness (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) were more easily matched with their self-descriptions than were targets low in private self-consciousness. Study II also showed that the effects on accuracy of both observers' perspective-taking abilities and targets' selfconsciousness were related to the length of time targets were observed. The theoretical connections between perspective-taking and both stereotype and differential accuracy are discussed.
Proposes a 2-stage model of empathic mediation of helping behavior, which holds that taking the perspective of a person in need increases empathic emotion; this in turn increases helping. Ss in 2 experiments learned of another person's need from taped radio broadcasts and were subsequently given an opportunity to offer help to that person. The experiments used different strategies for manipulating empathic emotional response to the other's plight. In Exp I, using 44 male and female undergraduates, the empathic emotion of some Ss was experimentally reduced by a misattribution of arousal technique; in Exp II, using 33 female undergraduates, the empathic emotion of some Ss was experimentally increased by a false feedback of arousal technique. Results of each experiment support the proposed model. Ss who experienced the most empathic emotion also offered the most help. Results of Exp I indicate that perspective taking did not directly affect helping; it affected helping only through its effect on empathic emotion. Motivational implications are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A factor analysis of the Self-Monitoring Scale yielded 3 replicated factors: Acting, Extraversion, and Other-Directedness. Acting includes being good at and liking to speak and entertain. Other-Directedness is a willingness to change one's behavior to suit other people, and Extraversion is self-explanatory. Other-Directedness correlates positively with Shyness and Neuroticism and negatively with Self-Esteem. Extraversion correlates negatively with Shyness and positively with Self-Esteem and Sociability. Two of the scale's 3 factors, therefore, have opposite patterns of correlations with other personality dimensions. The 3 factors help to explain certain discrepancies found in previous research with the Self-Monitoring Scale. For future research, it is suggested that scores for each of the factors are more appropriate than full scale scores. It is concluded that there may be a gap between the construct of Self-Monitoring and the way it is operationalized in the scale. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies investigated the relationship between shyness (tension and inhibition with others) and sociability (preference for being with others rather than being alone) using 952 undergraduates. A factor analysis of shyness and sociability items revealed 2 distinct factors, indicating that shyness and sociability are distinct personality dispositions. Self-reported shyness showed only a moderate negative correlation with self-reported sociability. Furthermore, the measures of shyness and sociability had different patterns of correlations with other personality scales (e.g., the Public and Private Self-Consciousness scales of the Self-Consciousness Inventory, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the EASI [Emotionality, Activity, Sociability, Impulsivity] Temperament Survey). On the basis of these findings, it is concluded that shyness is not just low sociability. Next, 4 groups of Ss were selected: shy–sociable, shy–unsociable, unshy–sociable, and unshy–unsociable. Pairs of these Ss, matched for both traits, interacted for 5 min. Shy–sociable Ss talked less, averted their gaze more, and engaged in more self-manipulation than did the other 3 groups. In studying social behavior, it should be known whether Ss are shy but also whether they are sociable. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Thesis--University of Texas at Austin. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 209-219).
Discusses the development of a 64-item self-raport measure of empathy, constructed by comparing the responses of group with high- and low-rated empathy, using the combined MMPI-CPI item pool. After providing evidence concerning the scale's reliability and validity, an attempt is made to show its relevance for specifically moral conduct by relating empathy scale scores to real life indexes of socially appropriate behavior and to certain previously well-validated measures of personality. (39 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The revision of the Wechsler-Bellevue Adult Intelligence Scale retains the type of item categories but has numerous changes in the items. Standardization is based on a stratified sample of 1700 adults ages 16 to 64. Additional norms are given for ages above 64 based on a different group of subjects. Reliabilities for verbal, performance and full scale IQ's are .96, .93, and .97, and for the subtests range from .65 to .96. Manual includes directions for administering, IQ tables, and scaled score tables. Officially the title is to be abbreviated WAIS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents an interactive theory of personality which assumes that there are inborn tendencies that underlie individual differences in personality. 4 such dispositions (temperaments) are identified, and their measurement, similarities in different populations (e.g., twins), and their stability during childhood are discussed. Innate sex differences in personality are also examined and implications for clinical problems (e.g., hyperkinesis and psychopathy) are discussed. (11 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Proposes a social psychological construct of self-monitoring (self-observation and self-control guided by situational cues to social appropriateness) of expressive behavior and self-presentation. An internally consistent, temporally stable self-report measure of individual differences in self-monitoring was constructed. 4 converging laboratory and field studies of peer perception ratings, criterion group membership, self-control of facial and vocal emotional expressive behavior, and attention to normative social comparison information were conducted with undergraduates to demonstrate the convergent and discriminant validity of the Self-Monitoring Scale (SM). The use of SM to investigate hypotheses concerning consistency in expression across situations and between channels of expressive behavior is discussed. (28 ref)
Two short (16 item) forms of the Helmreich, Stapp, and Ervin (1974) Texas Social Behavior Inventory, a validated, objective measure of self-esteem or social competence are presented. Normative data and other statistics are described for males and females. Correlations between each short form and long (32-item) scale were .97. Factor analysis and part-whole correlations verified the similarity of the two forms. The utility of the scale in research is described.
A selective review of various conceptual positions within a historic framework is used to address four issues: whether an empathic response is an understanding or sharing of affect; whether an empathic response is a response to an object, another’s affect, and/or circumstance; which mechanisms explain empathy, and is self-other differentiation required by various definitions. This discussion is related to an examination of representative, predictive and situational measures. Comments are made regarding the reliability and construct validity of certain measures. The implications of this evidence for the use and the development of measures are advanced. A cognitive theoretical perspective is applied, in which variables that influence empathic learning are discussed with several applications of data, to assist in our understanding of empathy.Copyright © 1975 S. Karger AG, Basel
This paper seeks to disentangle some of the many effects which contribute to social perception scores, and to identify separately measurable components." The components of the Accuracy (with which the judge perceives Others) score and of the Assumed Similarity (between the judge and another person) score are discussed in the text and formulated mathematically in an appendix. Illustrations are provided of applications of the model, for the practical use of judgments in the clinic, the school, and elsewhere. Understanding and use of social perception data will be enhanced by "careful subdivision of global measures" and by more explicit theory in order to reduce the investigator's "measures to the genuinely relevant components." 34 references.
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