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RSM and VSM: Two New Routing Protocols for Underwater WSNs
Abstract
Due to unique characteristics of underwater environment , it is difficult to achieve energy efficiency, high through-put and low bit error rate. Radio signals do not propagate well in underwater environment so acoustic signals are used for communication. Acoustic signals offer low bandwidth, high bit error rate, low throughput and high end-to-end delay. Data packets often loose their path which effect throughput. To increase throughput, we proposed two schemes i.e. Regional Sink Mobility (RSM) and Vertical Sink Mobility (VSM). Sensor node does not need to have information of all other nodes. It only needs information of nodes closer to it. In RSM, we divide whole network into three regions of equal size. There is a mobile sink in each region. Sensor nodes either send data packets directly to sink or through neighbors if sink is in transmission range of any neighbor. In VSM, complete field is divided into ten equal sized regions. There are three mobile sinks. Data transmission mechanism is same as of RSM. At the end, extensive simulations are performed to verify the effectiveness of proposed schemes.
... One is called the Regional Sink Mobility (RSM) where the sinks move regionally to extract the data. Another scheme is called Vertical Sink Mobility (VSM) in which the sink travels vertically to collect data from the nodes [64]. In both the schemes, it is not needed to know the information of each and every node rather one node needs to know the information of its neighboring nodes. ...
... Data transmission in Regional Sink Mobility (RSM)[64]. ...
... Data transmission in Vertical Sink Mobility (VSM)[64]. ...
Water covers a greater part of the Earth's surface. However, little knowledge has been achieved regarding the underwater world as most parts of it remain unexplored. Oceans, including other water bodies, hold substantial natural resources and also the aquatic lives. These are mostly undiscovered and unknown due to the unsuited and hazardous underwater environments for the human. This inspires the unmanned exploration of these dicey environments. Neither unmanned exploration nor the distant real-time monitoring is possible without deploying Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (UWSN). Consequently, UWSN has drawn the interests of the researchers recently. This vast underwater world is possible to be monitored remotely from a distant location with much ease and less risk. The UWSN is required to be deployed over the volume of the water body to monitor and surveil. For vast water bodies like oceans, rivers and large lakes, data is collected from the different heights/depths of the water level which is then delivered to the surface sinks. Unlike terrestrial communication and radio waves, conventional mediums do not serve the purpose of underwater communication due to their high attenuation and low underwater-transmission range. Instead, an acoustic medium is able to transmit data in underwater more efficiently and reliably in comparison to other mediums. To transmit and relay the data reliably from the bottom of the sea to the sinks at the surface, multi-hop communication is utilized with different schemes. For seabed to surface sink communication, leading researchers proposed different routing protocols. The goal of these routing protocols is to make underwater communications more reliable, energy-efficient and delay efficient. This paper surveys the advancement of some of the routing protocols which eventually helps in finding the most efficient routing protocol and some recent applications for the UWSN. This work also summarizes the remaining challenging issues and the future trends of those considered routing protocols. This survey encourages further research efforts to improve the routing protocols of UWSN for enhanced underwater monitoring and exploration.
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) serve as a proficient source to monitor aquatic environment. However, data communications and information routing within these systems offer many challenges. To ensure sufficient network lifetime, energy efficiency in routing protocols serve as a major concern in UWSNs. This paper presents an energy competent cooperative routing scheme known as Region Based Courier-nodes Mobility with Incremental Cooperative (RBCMIC) routing. The proposed scheme uses broadcast nature of wireless nodes and performs an incremental cooperative routing. A rigorous evaluation and verification of the proposed scheme with current state-of-the-art yield improved energy efficiency, resulting in extended network lifetime. The results show that an overall improvement of 20% is witnessed in energy usage, whereas a notable 89% improvement is achieved in end-to-end delay in comparison to DEADS protocol.
Performance enhancement of Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs)
in terms of throughput maximization, energy conservation and Bit Error Rate (BER)
minimization is a potential research area. However, limited available bandwidth, high
propagation delay, highly dynamic network topology, and high error probability leads to
performance degradation in these networks. In this regard, many cooperative communication
protocols have been developed that either investigate the physical layer or the Medium
Access Control (MAC) layer, however, the network layer is still unexplored. More
specifically, cooperative routing has not yet been jointly considered with sink mobility.
Therefore, this paper aims to enhance the network reliability and efficiency via dominating
set based cooperative routing and sink mobility. The proposed work is validated via
simulations which show relatively improved performance of our proposed work in terms
the selected performance metrics.
We propose forwarding-function (íµí°¹ íµí°¹) based routing protocol for underwater sensor networks (UWSNs): improved adaptive mobility of courier nodes in threshold-optimized depth-based-routing (iAMCTD). Unlike existing depth-based acoustic protocols, the proposed protocol exploits network density for time-critical applications. In order to tackle flooding, path loss, and propagation latency, we calculate optimal holding time (íµí°» íµí±) and use routing metrics: localization-free signal-to-noise ratio (LSNR), signal quality index (SQI), energy cost function (ECF), and depth-dependent function (DDF). Our proposal provides on-demand routing by formulating hard threshold (íµí°» th), soft threshold (íµí± th), and prime energy limit (íµí±
prime). Simulation results verify effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed iAMCTD.
In this paper, we tackle one fundamental problem in Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs): robust, scalable and energy efficient
routing. UWSNs are significantly different from terrestrial sensor networks in the following aspects: low bandwidth, high
latency, node float mobility (resulting in high network dynamics), high error probability, and 3-dimensional space. These
new features bring many challenges to the network protocol design of UWSNs. In this paper, we propose a novel routing protocol,
called vector-based forwarding (VBF), to provide robust, scalable and energy efficient routing. VBF is essentially a position-based
routing approach: nodes close to the “vector” from the source to the destination will forward the message. In this way, only
a small fraction of the nodes are involved in routing. VBF also adopts a localized and distributed self-adaptation algorithm
which allows nodes to weigh the benefit of forwarding packets and thus reduce energy consumption by discarding the low benefit
packets. Through simulation experiments, we show the promising performance of VBF.
Deploying a multi-hop underwater acoustic sensor network (UASN) in a large area brings about new challenges in reliable data transmissions and survivability of network due to the limited underwater communication range/bandwidth and the limited energy of underwater sensor nodes. In order to address those challenges and achieve the objectives of maximization of data delivery ratio and minimization of energy consumption of underwater sensor nodes, this paper proposes a new underwater routing scheme, namely AURP (AUV-aided underwater routing protocol), which uses not only heterogeneous acoustic communication channels but also controlled mobility of multiple autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). In AURP, the total data transmissions are minimized by using AUVs as relay nodes, which collect sensed data from gateway nodes and then forward to the sink. Moreover, controlled mobility of AUVs makes it possible to apply a short-range high data rate underwater channel for transmissions of a large amount of data. To the best to our knowledge, this work is the first attempt to employ multiple AUVs as relay nodes in a multi-hop UASN to improve the network performance in terms of data delivery ratio and energy consumption. Simulations, which are incorporated with a realistic underwater acoustic communication channel model, are carried out to evaluate the performance of the proposed scheme, and the results indicate that a high delivery ratio and low energy consumption can be achieved.
In this paper, we investigate a mobicast, also called a mobile geocast, problem in three-dimensional (3-D) underwater sensor networks (USNs), which aims to overcome the hole problem and minimizes the energy consumption of the sensor nodes while maximizing the data collection. In this paper, all underwater sensor nodes are randomly distributed in a 3-D underwater environment in the sea to form a 3-D USN. Considered a mobile sink or an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), all possible sensor nodes near the AUV form a 3-D geographic zone called a 3-D zone of reference (3-D ZOR). The AUV travels a user-defined route and continuously collects data from sensor nodes within a series of 3-D ZORs at different times. The main problem is how to efficiently collect data from sensor nodes within a 3-D ZOR while those sensor nodes are usually in sleep mode for a long period. The routing protocol relies on two phases: the first phase consists of collecting data within a 3-D ZOR, and the second phase consists of waking up those sensor nodes in the next 3-D ZOR to be queried while trying to avoid topology holes. To save power, only sensor nodes in a 3-D ZOR are notified to enter the active mode in order to deliver sensed results to the AUV. The specific characteristics of USNs, including low communication bandwidth, large propagation delay, and ocean current, are significantly different from wireless sensor networks. To consider the characteristics of USNs, a new mobicast routing protocol is developed in 3-D USNs. The key design challenge is to develop a power-saving mobicast protocol in 3-D USNs to overcome the unpredictable 3-D hole problem. To solve the hole problem, an “apple slice” technique is used to build multiple segments to surround the hole and to assure routing path continuity. Finally, performance analysis is derived, and simulation results illustrate the performance improvement in successful delivery rate, power consumption, and message overhead.
Due to harsh aqueous environments, non-negligible node mobility and large network scale, localization for large-scale mobile underwater sensor networks is very challenging. In this paper, by utilizing the predictable mobility patterns of underwater objects, we propose a scheme, called Scalable Localization scheme with Mobility Prediction (SLMP), for underwater sensor networks. In SLMP, localization is performed in a hierarchical way, and the whole localization process is divided into two parts: anchor node localization and ordinary node localization. During the localization process, every node predicts its future mobility pattern according to its past known location information, and it can estimate its future location based on the predicted mobility pattern. Anchor nodes with known locations in the network will control the localization process in order to balance the trade-off between localization accuracy, localization coverage, and communication cost. We conduct extensive simulations, and our results show that SLMP can greatly reduce localization communication cost while maintaining relatively high localization coverage and localization accuracy.
This paper demonstrates the advantages of using controlled mobility in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) for increasing their lifetime, i.e., the period of time the network is able to provide its intended functionalities. More specifically, for WSNs that comprise a large number of statically placed sensor nodes transmitting data to a collection point (the sink), we show that by controlling the sink movements we can obtain remarkable lifetime improvements. In order to determine sink movements, we first define a Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) analytical model whose solution determines those sink routes that maximize network lifetime. Our contribution expands further by defining the first heuristics for controlled sink movements that are fully distributed and localized. Our Greedy Maximum Residual Energy (GMRE) heuristic moves the sink from its current location to a new site as if drawn toward the area where nodes have the highest residual energy. We also introduce a simple distributed mobility scheme (Random Movement or RM) according to which the sink moves uncontrolled and randomly throughout the network. The different mobility schemes are compared through extensive ns2-based simulations in networks with different nodes deployment, data routing protocols, and constraints on the sink movements. In all considered scenarios, we observe that moving the sink always increases network lifetime. In particular, our experiments show that controlling the mobility of the sink leads to remarkable improvements, which are as high as sixfold compared to having the sink statically (and optimally) placed, and as high as twofold compared to uncontrolled mobility.
Many routing protocols are proposed regarding energy efficiency in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs). We propose sparsity-aware energy efficient clustering (SEEC) protocol for UWSNs. SEEC specially search sparse regions of the network. We divide the network region into subregions of equal size and search sparse and dense regions of the network field with the help of sparsity search algorithm (SSA) and density search algorithm (DSA). SEEC improves network lifetime through sink mobility in sparse regions and clustering in dense regions of the network. SEEC also achieves network stability with optimal number of clusters formation in dense regions of the network where each dense region logically represents a static cluster. The division of the network region into subregions control routing hole problem in the UWSNs. SEEC minimizes network energy consumption with balanced scheme operations. Effectiveness of our proposed protocol is verified by simulation results.
The design of routing protocols for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) poses many challenges due to long propagation, high mobility, limited bandwidth, multi-path and Doppler effect. Because of the void-hole caused by the uneven distribution of nodes and sparse deployment, the selection of next hop forwarding nodes only based on the state of current node may result in the failure of forwarding in the local sparse region. In order to reduce the probability of encountering void holes in the sparse networks, in this paper we present weighting depth and forwarding area division DBR routing protocol, called WDFAD-DBR. The novelties of WDFAD-DBR lie in: firstly, next forwarding nodes are selected according to the weighting sum of depth difference of two hops, which considers not only the current depth but also the depth of expected next hop. In this way, the probability of meeting void holes is effectively reduced. Secondly, the mechanisms for forwarding area division and neighbor node prediction are designed to reduce the energy consumption caused by duplicated packets and neighbors' requests, respectively. Thirdly, we make theoretical analyses on routing performance in case of considering channel contending with respect to delivery ratio, energy consumption and average end-to-end delay. Finally we conduct extensive simulations using NS-3 simulator to verify the effectiveness and validity of WDFAD-DBR.
Recently, Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) have attracted much research attention from both academia and industry,
in order to explore the vast underwater environment. However, designing network protocols is challenging in UWSNs since UWSNs
have peculiar characteristics of large propagation delay, high error rate, low bandwidth and limited energy. In UWSNs, improving
the energy efficiency is one of the most important issues since the replacement of the batteries of such nodes is very expensive
due to harsh underwater environment. Hence, in this paper, we propose an energy efficient routing protocol, named EEDBR (Energy-Efficient
Depth Based Routing protocol) for UWSNs. Our proposed protocol utilizes the depth of the sensor nodes for forwarding the data
packets. Furthermore, the residual energy of the sensor nodes is also taken into account in order to improve the network life-time.
Based on the comprehensive simulation using NS2, we observe that our proposed routing protocol contributes to the performance
improvements in terms of the network lifetime, energy consumption and end-to-end delay.
KeywordsUnderwater wireless sensor networks–routing–network life-time–residual energy
Due to adverse aqueous environments, non-negligible node mobility and large network scale, localization for large-scale mobile underwater sensor networks is very challenging. In this paper, by utilizing the predictable mobility patterns of underwater objects, we propose a scheme, called Scalable Localization scheme with mobility prediction (SLMP), for underwater sensor networks. In SLMP, localization is performed in a hierarchical way, and the whole localization process is divided into two parts: anchor node localization and ordinary node localization. During the localization process, every node predicts its future mobility pattern according to its past known location information, and it can estimate its future location based on its predicted mobility pattern. Anchor nodes with known locations in the network will control the whole localization process in order to balance the tradeoff between localization accuracy, localization coverage and communication cost. We conduct extensive simulations, and our results show that SLMP can greatly reduce localization communication cost while maintaining relatively high localization coverage and localization accuracy.
Providing scalable and ecient routing services in underwater sensor net- works (UWSNs) is very challenging due to the unique characteristics of UWSNs. Firstly, UWSNs often employ acoustic channels for communications because radio signals do not work well in water. Compared with radio-frequency channels, acous- tic channels feature much lower bandwidths and several orders of magnitudes longer propagation delays. Secondly, UWSNs usually have very dynamic topology as sen- sors move passively with water currents. Some routing protocols have been proposed to address the challenging problem in UWSNs. However, most of them assume that the full-dimensional location information of all sensor nodes in a network is known in prior through a localization process, which is yet another challenging issue to be solved in UWSNs. In this paper, we propose a depth-based routing (DBR) protocol. DBR does not require full-dimensional location information of sensor nodes. Instead, it needs only local depth information, which can be easily obtained with an inex- pensive depth sensor that can be equipped in every underwater sensor node. A key advantage of our protocol is that it can handle network dynamics eciently with- out the assistance of a localization service. Moreover, our routing protocol can take advantage of a multiple-sink underwater sensor network architecture without intro- ducing extra cost. We conduct extensive simulations. The results show that DBR can achieve very high packet delivery ratios (at least 95%) for dense networks with only small communication cost.
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