Solar Energy - The physics and engineering of photovoltaic conversion, technologies and systems
Abstract
This book uniquely covers both the physics of photovoltaic (PV) cells and the design of PV systems for real-life applications.
- Fundamental principles of semiconductor solar cells.
- PV technology: crystalline silicon solar cells; thin-film cells; PV modules; third-generation concepts.
- PV systems, from simple stand-alone, to complex systems connected to the grid; components; design; deployment; performance.
The book is an invaluable reference for researchers, industrial engineers and designers working in solar energy generation. The book is also ideal for university and third-level physics or engineering courses on solar photovoltaics, with exercises to check students’ understanding and reinforce learning. It is the perfect companion to the Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) on Solar Energy (DelftX, ET.3034TU) presented by co-author Arno Smets. The course is available in English on the nonprofit open source edX.org platform, and in Arabic on edraak.org. Over 100,000 students have already registered for these MOOCs.
Supplementary resource (1)
Data
August 2016
... Several inputs are required, including GHI, Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI), Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI), the ground albedo , the PV module angles, and the solar angles. For definitions of these parameters, the reader is referred to [21]. ...
... At every time step, the solar angles can be calculated from the plant location [21]. The albedo is imported as explained in Section 3.3. ...
... This irradiance comprises three components: diffuse, direct, and groundreflected. Whereas the latter two can be calculated deterministically using equations 18.18, 18.20, and 18.22 from [21], the diffuse component is determined using a diffuse transposition factor [22]. Different sky diffuse models exist for calculating this diffuse fraction. ...
... The overall convection transfer is made up of the two relative contributions from free and forced components. The total convective coefficient can be obtained by taking the cubic root of the cubes of the forced and free convective coefficients [19] : ...
... T sky can be determined as a function of the ambient temperature, humidity, cloud cover, and the altitude of the clouds. [19] On a cloudy day, the T sky approaches T amb . In contrast, under clear sky conditions, the sky temperature can drop far below T amb and it can be estimated by the following equation (all temperatures are expressed in Kelvins): ...
... A small increase in T M,avg can be observed in this case, since the length of the surfaces along which the heated air travels is now shorter and, consequently, there are fewer solar cells subjected to the enhanced turbulent convective cooling. Finally, the approximate module temperatures calculated according to two widely used empirical models-the NOCT and the Duffie-Beckman (DB) model (given by Equations (8) and (9), respectively [19] )-are also presented in Figure 3. It can be observed that in such conditions, where the PV device is not subjected to forced convective (wind) cooling, the values obtained by both empirical models agree well with FEM-based simulation re-sults. ...
In this work, the steady‐state spatial temperature distribution in commercial high‐efficiency crystalline silicon PV modules is studied using different FEM‐based thermal models that encompass conductive, convective, and radiative heat transfer mechanisms. The results show that the lateral temperature distribution within the PV module depends on the module inclination angle and may be highly inhomogeneous, with a temperature difference of ≈5 °C between its warmest and coolest solar cells. Furthermore, It is demonstrated that wind plays a crucial role in determining the operating temperature of PV devices. Specifically, it is shown that forced convection has an even more significant positive effect at higher wind speeds and larger PV module dimensions since the transformation of laminar to turbulent wind contributes to additional cooling. Finally, the power losses associated with the lateral temperature variations across the PV module are analyzed. The results show that the effect of temperature inhomogeneity plays a negligible role in the performance of standard single‐junction silicon PV modules due to a very small temperature coefficient of the solar cell short‐circuit current.
... O Equador celeste corresponde à projeção do Equador terrestre na esfera celeste e divide o céu em duas metades. Analogamente ao globo terrestre, na esfera celeste tem-se os polos Norte e Sul, as interseções imaginárias do eixo terrestre com o céu (Sayigh et al., 1977), (Milone et al., 2010), (Smets et al., 2016). ...
... O sistema de coordenadas astronômicas denominado sistema de coordenadas horizontal é preferido para localizar a posição do Sol no céu com relação a um sistema de coordenadas na Terra (Sayigh, 1977); é apontado por Smets et al. (2016), como o mais conveniente para aplicações fotovoltaicas, sendo também utilizado por vários outros autores. Por isso, esse será o único descrito a seguir. ...
... Por isso, esse será o único descrito a seguir. Outros como o sistema equatorial celeste, o equatorial local e o eclíptico, com seus planos fundamentais, coordenadas e representações gráficas peculiares, têm em comum o centro da Terra como origem (Sayigh, 1977), (Smets et al., 2016), (Oliveira e Saraiva, 2017). ...
Este artigo apresenta uma descrição didática a respeito da geometria Sol-Terra, e orientada pela terminologia da ABNT NBR 10899:2013. É enfatizado o ponto de vista do hemisfério Sul. Equações tradicionalmente fornecidas pela literatura pertinente são discutidas e ajustadas (quando necessário), de acordo com as convenções desta norma. Exemplos e resultados são mostrados com o emprego do programa MATLAB.
... Single-junction solar cells are the current standard for solar energy production. However, their power conversion efficiency is limited to around 33% by the detailed-balance limit for silicon cells [1]. This limit can be overcome by combining solar cells with different bandgaps into a multi-junction tandem solar cell. ...
... Specifically, for a given light spectrum, our goal is to maximize the average current generated by the tandem solar cells across the target angle range. The spectrum that we consider is the typical AM 1.5 spectrum of the sun [1], weighted by a factor sin(θ) to account for the total reduction in power due to the tilt θ of the device away from normal incidence. We sample this spectrum at N λ = 100 equidistant wavelengths between 310 nm and 1340 nm. ...
... Therefore, we need to find the theoretical description linking E(x, λ) to J sc,tot . In the following we use a mathematical description, based on the explanations found in Part 2 of [1]. The input irradiance on the top layer of the solar spectral splitter is given by the typical AM 1.5 spectrum of the sun [1] and we multiply it by a factor sin(θ) to account for the reduction in power due to the tilt θ of the device. ...
Maximizing the power conversion efficiency of solar cells plays a crucial role in upscaling solar energy production. Combining two or more solar cells with different bandgaps into a multi-junction tandem solar cells lowers thermalization losses and increases the power conversion efficiency. Whilst the best efficiencies have been achieved by vertically stacking solar cells, the fabrication process is technologically demanding and leads to high production costs. Novel photovoltaic materials such as organic photovoltaics allow solution processing, which enables the cost effective production of lateral multijunctions, where the single subcells are aligned side by side. To fully unlock their optimal performance, lateral tandems require careful light management, redirecting different spectral bands to the corresponding solar cell. So far, solar spectral splitters suffered from a strong angle dependency, which caused a degradation in performance at the slightest deviation from normal incidence. In this contribution, we reduce this limitation and achieve an enhancement in the conversion efficiency across a wide range of incident angles by inverse designing a solar spectral splitter comprised of two free-form microstructured surfaces on the top and bottom of a supporting glass substrate. Moreover, thanks to the versatility of our methodology, we can tailor the angle-dependent functionality of our device. As such, we also design devices that are optimized to provide enhanced performance at certain oblique angles, which correspond to different times of the day, e.g., when the unit price of energy is higher.
... The implementation of this model is readily available as a MATLAB function from PV LIB [16]. Eq. (1) shows the calculation of the Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) from the GHI and the sun's elevation angle, [17]. ...
... These three quantities allow the calculation of the Plane-of-array irradiance POA . Eq. (2) [17] shows the calculation of POA . Note that it includes the three irradiance components obtained before. ...
... The model assumes an isotropic sky. This assumption implies that the diffuse irradiance is the same across the sky dome and the portion of the sky that the module, tilted at an angle , sees (sky view factor) is simplified as in Eq. (3) [17]. ...
... To estimate the AC production the SNL model (see Eq. 4-7) considering the technical specifications of the inverter, V DC and P DC [76]. ...
... According to [76], the main advantage of the SNL model is its consideration of sources causing non-linearity between DC and AC power for a given DC voltage. This results in a variable efficiency of the inverter, which is more accurate than assuming a linear efficiency. ...
... The accuracy of the SNL model depends on the available data to determine performance parameters; with the use of all required parameters, the model has an approximate error of 0.1% between modeled and measured inverter efficiency [76]. [77] also validate the SNL model against other mathematical models for estimating AC power. ...
The intermittent nature of photovoltaic (PV) solar energy, driven by variable weather, leads to power losses of 10-70% and an average energy production decrease of 25%. Accurate loss characterization and fault detection are crucial for reliable PV system performance and efficiency, integrating this data into control signal monitoring systems. Computational modeling of PV systems supports technological, economic, and performance analyses, but current models are often rigid, limiting advanced performance optimization and innovation. Conventional fault detection strategies are costly and often yield unreliable results due to complex data signal profiles. Artificial intelligence (AI), especially machine learning algorithms, offers improved fault detection by analyzing relationships between input parameters (e.g., meteorological and electrical) and output metrics (e.g., production). Once trained, these models can effectively identify faults by detecting deviations from expected performance. This research presents a computational model using the PVlib library in Python, incorporating a dynamic loss quantification algorithm that processes meteorological, operational, and technical data. An artificial neural network (ANN) trained on synthetic datasets with a five-minute resolution simulates real-world PV system faults. A dynamic threshold definition for fault detection is based on historical data from a PV system at Universidad de los Andes. Key contributions include: (i) a PV system model with a mean absolute error of 6.0% in daily energy estimation; (ii) dynamic loss quantification without specialized equipment; (iii) an AI-based algorithm for technical parameter estimation, avoiding special monitoring devices; and (iv) a fault detection model achieving 82.2% mean accuracy and 92.6% maximum accuracy.
... The classification of short-term storage for a few hours or days to cover times of bad weather is the most appropriate type batteries in the system. Parameters in deciding battery size that must be accounted for [30,31] are the battery efficiency ( ) (range: 83 to 97%) [17,20,28], depth of discharge (ɸ) equal to 70% (range between 30% to 80%) [20, 22, 28, 32, ], nominal battery voltage (ɣ), *** The rated power (or nominal power) of the solar module, expressed in Watt-Peak (Wp), is its capability under Standard Test Condition (STC) *** to generate module's peak output under ideal conditions [20,28]. ...
... The capacity of a solar charge controller † † † † [23,31,33] is generally rated in Amperage and Voltage. Though this device is mostly part of the inverter nowadays, the solar charge controller must be best suited to the design from catalogs that match the voltage of your PV array and batteries. ...
... The researcher chooses the latter because it is more efficient than the first [21,32,34]. It is vital to ascertain that the solar charge controller has sufficient capacity to manage the current generated by the PV array [23,31,33]. The controller size for a series charge controller is determined by the total PV input current given to the controller and the PV panel layout (series or parallel configuration). ...
Renewable energy production is urgently needed to sustain all sorts of life generations walking on this planet. This research designed an 18 kWh per day of grid-connected solar energy production with a backup system battery for self-consumption. The design is proposed in the Southeastern part of the Philippines (Eastern Mindanao), particularly a part with Type II Climate at a 10-degree tilt angle and zero degrees relative to the Azimuth. It is arranged in two strings of eight 360 Watts monocrystalline-silicon modules, two 3.6 kVA inverters, six parallel 54 Ampere-hour battery systems, and two 30 ampere capacity charge controllers. It was then simulated in the computer software PVSyst 7.2.12, resulting in a monthly average performance ratio of 0.811, which is relatively high relative to other designs and locations. Furthermore, 94.0 tons of carbon dioxide with a present value equal to Php 157,666.2 are prevented by the designed system for 252.074 megawatts-hours in its 30 years of power production. The designed system has an estimated 18.05% internal rate of return with a total social cost of carbon value of Php 236,501 of the 31m2 panel area.
... Elemental semiconductors have an electronic configuration with 4 valence electrons, which means that to obtain a stable electronic configuration, 4 other electrons have to be added. These electrons create covalent bonds with neighbouring atoms, and their spatial arrangement is equivalent to having one of them in the centre of the tetrahedron and the other atoms added to its vertices [9,33]. There are some basic crystalline structures, some represented in Fig. 2, in which the simple cubic has 1 atom/cell, the body centred cubic has 2 atoms/cell, and the face centred cubic and the simple hexagonal has 4 atoms/cell and 3/atoms/cell, respectively [34,35]. ...
... The electron is a quantum particle, having corpuscular and wave characteristics, both linked through Broglie's relation, defined by Eq. 6, which was proposed in 1924 [9,34,36,38]. In Eq. 6, h corresponds to the Plank's constant, ℏ is defined by h 2 , p is the electron linear momentum, k the wave number and the Broglie's wavelength. ...
... In opposition, in an indirect semiconductor, the top of the valence band is not aligned with the bottom of the conduction band, having different momentum values. [9,25,30,33,36,39]. So, stimulating the movement of an electron from the valence to the conduction band requires energy supplied by a photon and momentum facilitated by oscillations of the crystal lattice, which are delineated both as waves (vibrations) and as particles (phonons). ...
Semiconductors play a crucial role in modern technology across various fields. The term “semiconductor” was introduced in the XVIII century, marking the beginning of a journey filled with discoveries and technological advancements. This article offers a comprehensive review of the historical landmarks in semiconductor development and explores the associated phenomena concerning different types of photodetectors. It also examines the key performance metrics of commonly used semiconductor materials, considering the structural variations. Additionally, the article highlights various applications of semiconductors, illustrating their significance in everyday life. By doing so, it aims to engage new readers while providing a foundational understanding for those interested in delving into this field.
... When a light pulse hits a solar cell device, high-energy photons propel electrons from the valence band to the conduction band of the absorber layer, creating electron-hole pairs in the carrier generation process [82]. As shown in Figure 9a, the generation rate peaks at the absorber-HTL interface and is greater for absorbers with more MA cations. ...
... As shown in Figure 9a, the generation rate peaks at the absorber-HTL interface and is greater for absorbers with more MA cations. On the other hand, recombination occurs when excess carriers pair up and annihilate each other, resulting in an increased saturation current density that decreases the current that can be collected and reduces the energy conversion efficiency [82]. As shown in Figure 9b, single cation absorbers have the least recombination rate, while the active layer (FA) 0.75 (MA) 0.25 SnI 3 has the lowest recombination rate among cation-mixing absorbers. ...
... Additionally, the external quantum efficiency (QE), which is the ratio of the number of photogenerated charge carriers to the number of photons that hit the cell's surface, serves as a vital parameter for solar cell efficiency assessment. The QE is a function of the incident light's wavelength, λ, and is measured by exposing the cell to monochromatic light and then calculating the photocurrent, I ph , through the device [82]. As depicted in Figure 10b, the QE curves vary for different absorbers to different wavelengths, and all absorber layers exhibit a maximum QE of 85% at the green wavelength of 550 nm. ...
The development of environmentally friendly and highly efficient inverted perovskite solar cells (PSCs) poses a formidable challenge. The potential toxicity of absorbers and the pressing need to effectively passivate interlayers in hybrid organic-inorganic photovoltaics (PV) present major obstacles. To surmount these formidable challenges, we resorted to the SCAPS-1D and SILVACO ATLAS-2D device simulators to leverage theoretical design strategies that engender hysteresis-reduced, efficient, and stable PSCs that are grounded in composition and interface engineering. Further, we carried out optoelectronic characterization measurements to glean a better understanding of the physical mechanisms that govern the operation of the device. The device utilizes mixed-cation perovskites FAMASnI3 as the absorber layer and employs zinc oxide (ZnO) and phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PC61BM) as a double electron transport layer (HTL). A double-hole transport layer (ETL) consists of nickel oxide (NiO) and copper iodide (CuI), ensuring a trap-free junction for hole collection and good contact. This inverted PSC structure, combined with the mentioned layers, achieved high power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of 24.27% and 23.50% in 1D and 2D simulations, respectively. This study effectively illustrates that composition and interface engineering enable eco-friendly perovskite solar cells, leading to improved performance and advancing clean energy.
... Crystalline silicon PV technology uses crystalline silicon wafers as the active light-absorbing material for the PV devices. Typically, large-area monocrystalline silicon wafers with near perfect crystal structures are processed into individual solar cells, which are then interconnected and laminated into a solar module [5]. The crystalline silicon solar cells can be classified based on the device architecture that is used. ...
... Indeed only the conventional absorption coefficient ( , 0, ) is needed, and Eqs. (3)(4)(5) in this chapter apply equally well to dye molecules as to semiconductors. A dye molecule can have an internal chemical potential determined by the excess probability ex of being in the excited state, relative to 0 the usual Boltzmann probability, = ln( ex / 0 ). ...
Photovoltaics—a mature technology—is set to play a vital role in achieving a carbon-free energy system. This article examines the pivotal role of optics in advancing photovoltaics. We identify key scientific research areas where the optics community can make significant contributions. We are guided by the central question: How can optics facilitate the large-scale deployment of photovoltaics necessary for decarbonizing our societies?
... Crystalline silicon PV technology uses crystalline silicon wafers as the active light-absorbing material for the PV devices. Typically, large-area monocrystalline silicon wafers with near perfect crystal structures are processed into individual solar cells, which are then interconnected and laminated into a solar module [5]. The crystalline silicon solar cells can be classified based on the device architecture that is used. ...
... Indeed only the conventional absorption coefficient ( , 0, ) is needed, and Eqs. (3)(4)(5) in this chapter apply equally well to dye molecules as to semiconductors. A dye molecule can have an internal chemical potential determined by the excess probability ex of being in the excited state, relative to 0 the usual Boltzmann probability, = ln( ex / 0 ). ...
Photovoltaics—a mature technology—is set to play a vital role in achieving a carbon-free energy system. This article examines the pivotal role of optics in advancing photovoltaics. We identify key scientific research areas where the optics community can make significant contributions. We are guided by the central question: How can optics facilitate the large-scale deployment of photovoltaics necessary for decarbonizing our societies?
... Crystalline silicon PV technology uses crystalline silicon wafers as the active light-absorbing material for the PV devices. Typically, large-area monocrystalline silicon wafers with near perfect crystal structures are processed into individual solar cells, which are then interconnected and laminated into a solar module [5]. The crystalline silicon solar cells can be classified based on the device architecture that is used. ...
... Indeed only the conventional absorption coefficient ( , 0, ) is needed, and Eqs. (3)(4)(5) in this chapter apply equally well to dye molecules as to semiconductors. A dye molecule can have an internal chemical potential determined by the excess probability ex of being in the excited state, relative to 0 the usual Boltzmann probability, = ln( ex / 0 ). ...
... A computer can be used to program this setup to scan through the light spectrum and determine the response of the device. It is essential to measure a reference diode whose spectral response is already calibrated before measuring the solar cell device [58]. Newport's QuantX-300 quantum efficiency measurement system was used to obtain the EQE spectra of the best devices in the measurement range of 350-900 nm. ...
... EQE test set-up. Adapted from[58] ...
The increasing energy demand and need to mitigate climate change have driven the search for renewable energy sources. Solar energy, particularly photovoltaics, has emerged as a promising solution, owing to its abundance and versatility. While silicon-based solar cells currently dominate the market, perovskite materials have gained attention as cost-effective alternatives with a tunable bandgap that allows the absorption of light from a wider spectrum. However, the toxicity of lead in perovskite compositions necessitates the development of lead-free alternatives. In this context, this thesis focuses on improving solar cells based on Cu2AgBiI6 (CABI), a wide-bandgap lead-free perovskite-inspired material (PIM), by doping it at the A-site. Various organic and inorganic cations are considered as potential dopants, and their effects on the structural, optical, and morphological properties of CABI thin films are investigated. The doped CABI films are then used to fabricate and characterize solar cell devices. The results demonstrate that doping concentrations up to 5% can improve the film quality and device performance, but higher concentrations introduce impurities and adverse effects. This study provides insights into the potential of A-site doping in CABI and offers guidance for optimizing device performance. Further research should explore alternative dopants and characterization techniques to enhance our understanding and advance the field of PIMs-based photovoltaics. Ultimately, these efforts will contribute to the development of efficient and environmentally friendly solar energy conversion technologies.
... When a light pulse hits a solar cell device, high-energy photons propel electrons from the valence band to the conduction band of the absorber layer, creating electron-hole pairs in the carrier generation process 90 . As shown in Fig. 9a, the generation rate peaks at the absorber-HTL interface and is greater for absorbers with more MA cations. ...
... On the other hand, recombination occurs when excess carriers pair up and recombine, resulting in an increased saturation current density that decreases the current that can be collected and reduces the energy conversion efficiency 90 . As shown in Fig. 9b, single cation absorbers have the least recombination rate, while the active layer (FA) 0.75 (MA) 0.25 SnI 3 has the lowest recombination rate among the cation-mixing absorbers. ...
... When a light pulse hits a solar cell device, high-energy photons propel electrons from the valence band to the conduction band of the absorber layer, creating electron-hole pairs in the carrier generation process 90 . As shown in Fig. 9a, the generation rate peaks at the absorber-HTL interface and is greater for absorbers with more MA cations. ...
... On the other hand, recombination occurs when excess carriers pair up and recombine, resulting in an increased saturation current density that decreases the current that can be collected and reduces the energy conversion efficiency 90 . As shown in Fig. 9b, single cation absorbers have the least recombination rate, while the active layer (FA) 0.75 (MA) 0.25 SnI 3 has the lowest recombination rate among the cation-mixing absorbers. ...
Developing environmentally friendly and highly efficient inverted perovskite solar cells (PSCs) encounters significant challenges, specifically the potential toxicity and degradation of thin films in hybrid organic-inorganic photovoltaics (PV). We employed theoretical design strategies that produce hysteresis-reduced, efficient, and stable PSCs based on composition and interface engineering. The devices include a mixed-organic-cation perovskite formamidinium methylammonium tin iodide (FAMASnI3) as an absorber layer and zinc oxide (ZnO) together with a passivation film phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PC61BM) as a double-electron transport layer (DETL). Furthermore, a nickel oxide (NiO) layer and a trap-free junction copper iodide (CuI) are used as a double-hole transport layer (DHTL). The optoelectronic characterization measurements were carried out to understand the physical mechanisms that govern the operation of the devices. The high power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of 24.27% and 23.50% were achieved in 1D and 2D simulations, respectively. This study illustrates that composition and interface engineering enable eco-friendly perovskite solar cells, improving performance and advancing clean energy.
... Two additional resistive elements can be introduced to the early model described [5]. The first one is called series resistance R s and takes into account the effect of the bulk resistance of the junction, the contact resistance between the junction and the electrodes, and the resistance of the electrodes themselves [9]. The other resistance is called shunt resistance R sh and incorporates the effect of all non-linear currents flowing through the ohmic path across the n-p junction [10]. ...
... Then, I ph and I o can be expressed as functions of Θ 3 . Replacing I ph (Θ 3 ) and I o (Θ 3 ) on Eq. (4), the three-parameter SDM (SDM-3) is formally defined as indicated by Eq. (9). ...
... The fill factor (FF) displays the maximum power output that can be achieved. The following equation can express this factor, Smets et al. [27]: ...
... The solar efficiency of a photovoltaic panel, can be defined as the ratio of electrical energy output to incident radiation and could be expressed as [27]: ...
... A solar cell is an essential solar energy generation system unit in which sunlight is immediately converted into electrical energy. The n-type refers to the negatively charged ICMScE electrons contributed by the donor impurity atoms, and the p-type refers to the positively charged holes created by the acceptor impurity atoms, referring to Figure 1 of the P.V. structure [57]. 3. Finally, the separated electrons can drive the electrical circuit. ...
... A p-n junction P.V. cell.The working principle of solar cells is based on the photovoltaic effect. The P.V. effect can be divided into three critical procedures[57,58].1. Absorption of photons in electronic semiconductor p-n junctions to generate charge carriers (electron-hole pairs). ...
The remarkable developments in photovoltaic (P.V.) technology over the past five years require a new assessment of its performance and potential for future advancement. Photovoltaic (P.V.) technology development, divided into four, should begin to be studied and implemented in schools through STEM education. Solar cells or photovoltaic (P.V.) offer an important and timely field for STEM education exploration due to their potential to generate broad social, environmental, and health benefits by mitigating climate change, pollution, water scarcity, and more. This article reviews many of the basics of solar cells, such as the working principle of solar cells, solar cell materials, the state of the art of solar cells, and applications of solar cells in everyday life. Furthermore, this article presents the application of solar cells in STEM education. The application of solar cells in STEM education will be discussed regarding the interdisciplinarity of STEM subjects in the context of solar cells. In addition, this paper also explores the hands-on activities done on the topic of solar cells and the challenges and prospects of STEM education in solar sell for future learning.
... fluid-dynamics model [55]. The same requirements determine the electrical sub-model, which range from constant efficiency expressions [13] to 2-diode model approximation [56]. ...
... Eqs. (11)-(14) [56] are implemented to estimate the short-circuit current density ( ) and the open-circuit voltage ( ) of every cell, where front and rear sides are modelled as parallel circuits. Specifically, two different EQE curves are adopted to distinguish front and rear cells, namely ( ) and ( ). ...
East/West (E/W) vertical bifacial photovoltaic (PV) modules can achieve higher profits than the conventional North/South (N/S) tilted configuration depending on the design choices and external conditions. In this study a model based on 2D view factor concept is developed to estimate the power generated by a large-scale bifacial PV farm, considering the non-uniformity of the incident irradiance and the spectral impact. A validation using measured data is performed, focusing on the non-uniformity of the rear irradiance. This model is used to compare the profitability between E/W vertical and N/S tilted PV farm configurations, considering higher prices during noon with respect to morning/evening periods. The results identify the ratio between these two price values as the key variable that influences the comparison between the PV farm configurations. Specifically, a sufficiently high price ratio ensures the higher profitability of E/W vertical modules, however, the exact value is dependent on the location and the design variables. In general, higher row-to-row distance and lower diffuse fraction enhance the profitability of the E/W vertical over the N/S tilted configuration. On the other hand, elevation of the modules, curtailment strategies and hybrid solutions have a minor influence.
... A typical module comprises multiple cells connected in series to increase voltage or in parallel to boost current, encapsulated with transparent materials to maximize light capture while ensuring structural integrity [81], [82]. For instance, a module with 36 silicon cells, each generating 0.5 V, can produce 18 V, sufficient for charging a 12 V battery [83]. To meet higher power demands, modules are assembled into arrays by interconnecting them in series and parallel configurations. ...
... Diagram boost converter. [13] Dengan menerapkan keseimbangan volt-detik induktor pada induktor seperti yang dijelaskan, diperoleh hubungan antara tegangan input dan output. ...
Penelitian ini membahas analisis energi listrik pada pemodelan & simulasi MATLAB/Simulink pada PLTS on-grid menggunakan boost converter dan inverter untuk mensuplai beban listrik rumah tangga 220V satu fasa AC, berlokasi di Samarinda, Kalimantan Timur. Pemodelan & simulasi berdasarkan konfigurasi PLTS on-grid dengan boost converter dan inverter sesuai kebutuhan daya beban listrik rumah satu fasa. PLTS didesain memiliki jam operasional total 288,597653 Ah dan memerlukan arus 65,59 A. Panel surya yang digunakan, Canadian Solar Modul CS60-300P, dengan 5 modul seri, 8 modul paralel, total 40 modul. Total daya listrik beban harian 4.718,49 W, dan total konsumsi energi listrik harian 46,397 kWh. Hasil simulasi, pada sisi keluaran panel PV, diperoleh Vrms 119,7 V, Irms 109.6 A, daya aktif 4.944 W. Pada sisi keluaran inverter, diperoleh Vrms 128,9 V, Irms 37,61 A, daya aktif 315,1 W, daya reaktif 873,6 VAR, pf = 0,3445, f = 49,99 Hz. Pada sisi keluaran beban grid, diperoleh Vrms 220,0 V, Irms 37,6 A, daya aktif 4.555 W, daya reaktif 4.388 VAR, pf = 0,7201 dan f = 50 Hz. Juga diperoleh, rugi-rugi daya 389 W, dan η = 92,13%.
... Energy has a large number of different forms, and there is a formula for each one. These are: gravitational energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, elastic energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, radiant energy, nuclear energy, mass energy [1]. Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale. ...
his paper presents an analysis of the (5kW) solar system connected to the grid. This system is designed to feed a residential building with a total daily load of 22870 Wh/day, and the system is installed on an area of from the ceiling. The system contains 10 panels Trina solar 500Wp type connected to each other in series. A 5kW inverter from GoodWe, and 12 of 50AH Lead acid batteries belonging to pylontec that connected to each other in series to store the energy generated by the panels in the daytime and use it later. The helioscope software is used to see the available area of the roof to determine the most appropriate place to install the panels, and PVsyst7.2, which analyzes the project and concludes the results related to the project for development and improvement. The system produces about 8178 kWh per year with an estimated performance rate of 67.9% and the normal daily production of the system is 4.14 kWh, while the loss resulting from the panels is estimated at 1.42 Kwh/day. The project also has an added value as it is considered environmentally friendly as it emits carbon radiation of about98.1????co2.
... This feature is highly important for building multi-junction solar cells that can gather a larger range of wavelengths, potentially outperforming typical single-junction cells [81]. However, durability and high production costs are the primary concerns; hence, it is critical to ensure that solar cells can withstand these temperatures without significantly degrading performance [82]. ...
The reduction in the supply of fossil fuel available, combined with global warming’s effects on the atmosphere, has led to the discovery of employing sustainable energy for everyday activities. Road energy harvesting is one example of sustainable energy that can be used, as the majority of people spend a substantial amount of their daily activities commuting from one location to another, and numerous types of transportation generate heat that can be converted into energy. This alternative energy source can be implemented on the road, considering that roads are critical infrastructure that has a significant effect on a country’s economy. Furthermore, road infrastructure has been contributing towards the affordability of urbanization and migration, whether locally or internationally. Currently, researchers are working towards integrating road energy harvesting around the world by incorporating various types of materials and technology connected via a sensing system. Many materials have been attempted, including ceramics, polymers, lead-free, nanomaterials, single crystals, and composites. Other possible sources to generate energy from roadways, such as solar power, thermal energy, and kinetic energy, have been investigated as well. However, many studies available only focused on the disclosure of novel materials or the review of technologies produced for road energy harvesting. There have been limited studies that focused on a comprehensive review of various materials and technologies and their implications for the performance of road energy harvesting. Hence, the main objective of this research is to undertake a thorough and in-depth review in order to identify the best materials and technologies for certain types of application in road energy harvesting. The paper discusses energy-harvesting technology, sensing systems, and the potential network based on them. Comprehensive analyses were conducted to evaluate in-depth comparisons between different materials and technologies used for road energy harvesting. The novelty of this study is related to the appropriate efficient, durable, and sustainable materials and technologies for their relevant potential application. The results of this review paper are original since it is the first of its kind, and, to the best knowledge of the authors’ knowledge, a similar study is not available in the open literature.
... The former reduces the voltage and increases the current delivered to the load; the latter increases the voltage and reduces the current supplied to the load. Both DC-DC converters have a high efficiency so that most of the power extracted from the PV module can be delivered to the load [47]. The Boost converter has power efficiencies ranging from 90% to 100% [48]. ...
This paper proposes a robust maximum power point tracking algorithm based on a super twisting sliding modes controller. The underlying idea is solving the classical trajectory tracking control problem where the maximum power point defines the reference path. This trajectory is determined through two approaches: a) using the simplest linear and multiple regression models that can be constructed from the solar irradiance and temperature, and b) considering optimum operating parameters derived from the photovoltaic system’s characteristics. The proposal is compared with the classical methods Perturbation and Observation and Incremental Conductance, as well as with two recently reported hybrid algorithm based on Artificial Neural Networks: one uses the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm and the other applies Bayesian regularization to generate current and voltage references, respectively. Both use a Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller to solve the maximum power point tracking problem. Numerical simulations confirm the effectiveness of the method proposed in this work regarding convergence time, power efficiency, and amplitude of oscillations. Furthermore, it has been shown that, although no significant differences in the system response are observed with respect to the Artificial Neural Networks-based methods, the proposed algorithm with a reference generated through a linear regression constitutes a low-complexity solution that does not require a temperature sensor to efficiently solve the maximum power point tracking problem.
... O elemento fundamental que compõe os painéis utilizados em geração distribuída é a célula fotovoltaica, a qual é modelada pelo circuito equivalente ilustrado na Fig. 1. Neste trabalho, adotamos a aproximação ℎ → ∞, válida para células de alta qualidade (Isabella et al., 2016). O equacionamento deste circuito com essa aproximação leva à característica I-V dada pela Eq. (1). ...
No presente trabalho, propõe-se a implementação computacional de um modelo de simulação de painéis fotovoltaicos baseado em uma versão modificada de um equacionamento clássico da célula fotovoltaica. A modificação proposta inclui o efeito da variação de temperatura sobre a corrente fotogerada, aumentando a precisão do modelo original. É realizada uma análise comparativa da operação de um sistema fotovoltaico em três situações distintas, a saber: com o uso de filtragem passiva das componentes harmônicas geradas via filtro LC e com filtragem destas por meio de filtros ativos, que opera sobre os sinais de potência em sua entrada com os algoritmos Recursive Least Squares e Fuzzy.
... It has become a critical component of renewable energy development strategies worldwide, aligning with the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG-7), which aims to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. Solar energy can be utilized through several methods, including solar thermal, photovoltaic, and photochemical processes [1]. Among these, solar photovoltaic (PV) power generation plays a pivotal role in renewable energy adoption due to its ability to directly convert solar energy into electricity. ...
The performance of photovoltaic (PV) cells is significantly influenced by their operating temperature. While conventional active cooling methods are limited by economic feasibility, passive cooling strategies often face challenges related to insufficient heat dissipation capacity. This study presents a bio-inspired evaporative heat sink, modeled on the transpiration and water transport mechanisms of plant leaves, which leverages porous media flow and heat transfer. The device uses capillary pressure, generated through the evaporation of the cooling medium under sunlight, to maintain continuous coolant flow, thereby achieving effective cooling. An experimental setup was developed to validate the device’s performance under a heat flux density of 1200 W/m2, resulting in a maximum temperature reduction of 5 °C. This study also investigated the effects of porous medium thickness and porosity on thermal performance. The results showed that increasing the thickness of the porous medium reduces cooling efficiency due to reduced fluid flow. In contrast, the effect of porosity was temperature-dependent: at evaporation temperatures below 67 °C, a porosity of 0.4 provided better cooling, while at higher temperatures, a porosity of 0.6 was more effective. These findings confirm the feasibility of the proposed device and provide valuable insights into optimizing porous media properties to enhance the passive cooling of photovoltaic cells.
... These materials are particularly appealing due to their cost-effective growth procedures and high optical absorption capabilities. However, the reliance on rare elements like indium (In) and tellurium (Te) in CIGS and CdTe poses significant challenges for large-scale deployment, particularly at terawatt levels [5]. In parallel, silicon based thin-film solar cells have also been extensively studied to address the material usage concerns of wafer-based silicon cells and to enhance efficiency through innovative light-trapping systems [6]. ...
This study aims to explore the integration of Bi2S3 as an electron transport layer (ETL) in BaSi2-based thin-film solar cells for the enhanced performance. Using the globally accepted SCAPS-1D simulation tool, a novel device architecture consisting of Al/SnO2:F/Bi2S3/BaSi2/Ni was systematically designed and optimized. Key optimization parameters include the thicknesses, carrier concentrations, bulk defect densities of each layer, interface defects, operating temperature, and the influence of series and shunt resistance on overall efficiency. The simulation results reveal that a BaSi2 layer with an optimized thickness of 1 µm and a doping concentration of 5 x 1019 cm-3, yields noteworthy outcomes. Specifically, champion efficiency (
... As previously mentioned, practical c-Si solar cells commonly incorporate such a LH junction, also known as a back surface field (BSF). In addition to facilitating tunneling, the BSF serves as a barrier that prevents minority holes in the n-region from diffusing to the defective metal-semiconductor interface [22]. Consequently, SRH recombination is reduced and the open-circuit voltage ( ) is enhanced. ...
A thorough understanding of the small-signal response of solar cells can reveal intrinsic device characteristics and pave the way for innovations. This study investigates the impedance of crystalline silicon PN junction devices using TCAD simulations, focusing on the impact of frequency, bias voltage, and the presence of a low-high (LH) junction. It is shown that the PN junction exhibits a fixed RC-loop behavior at low frequencies, but undergoes relaxation in both resistance and capacitance as frequency increases. Moreover, it is revealed that the addition of a LH junction impacts the impedance by altering , , and the series resistance . Contrary to conventional modeling approaches, which often include an additional RC-loop to represent the LH junction, this study suggests that such a representation does not represent the underlying physics, particularly the frequency-dependent behavior of and .
... Black also has the highest temperature absorption value compared to other colors, such as green and blue. This happens because black absorbs all light or rays that fall on objects that are exposed to light [93] [94] In accordance with the theory of black body radiation theory that a black body absorbs all intentional radiation regardless of the wavelength and direction of the incident light [95] [96] [97]. Black bodies have more energy for each surface that is exposed to radiation. ...
Indonesia has a variety of cultures that can be used for ethnoscience-based learning. Indonesian culture will be better known if it is integrated into education, one of which is physics learning. One of the cultures that exist in Indonesia is the Remo Dance which is a traditional dance originating from East Java. Dance is a cultural heritage that we need to preserve because culture is a reflection of a nation. This research was conducted with the aim of identifying the physics concepts contained in the Remo Gagrak Anyar Dance so that they can be integrated into physics learning activities. This study uses a qualitative descriptive method with observations, interviews, and a literature study. Based on the results obtained, there are physics concepts in Remo Dance, including the material of muscle force, Newton's third law, gravity, circular motion, static balance, sound sources, and light. The results of this study indicate that there is potential in ethnoscience-based physics teaching materials and can be applied to physics learning to help students improve understanding and learning outcomes. Other local cultural studies can be carried out to facilitate contextual understanding of the material in various subjects and aim to preserve the culture of the Indonesian nation.
... During shading, one or more cells of the photovoltaic module switch to a dark mode and behave like a diode. In this mode, the cell or cells are connected in the opposite direction compared to the other participating cells in the solar module (Smets et al., 2016). As a result, there is a partial or complete reduction in the generated energy, as well as thermal stress on the shaded cell or cells (Wang & Hsu, 2011). ...
The current article presents an analysis of the impact of shading on the characteristics of a solar string, with and without the presence of bypass diodes. A solar string consisting of four solar modules was used for this purpose. Experiments were sequentially conducted by connecting one, two, and four bypass diodes. The study was conducted in laboratory conditions using an artificial light source while maintaining the cell temperature mode. The obtained results were analyzed concerning the volt-ampere characteristics, power characteristics, and the coefficient of performance of the photovoltaic string. All the obtained characteristics are compared with the characteristics of the non-shaded solar string.
... The textured upper surface with inverted-pyramid structures covering with a double anti-reflective coating (ARC) is the most important characteristic of these cells to reduce the upper surface cell reflection and recombination rate. Currently, PERL solar cells produce efficiencies approaching 25% using microtechniques under the standard AM1.5 spectrum [24][25][26]. Despite these high efficiencies, there are opportunities for further improvement by trapping light with double-sided pyramidal textures which are found to be more capable of trapping light than one-sided texture cells [27,28]. ...
Perovskite/Silicon tandem solar cells have earned substantial attention in the field of photovoltaics (PVs) due to their potential high-efficiency energy conversion. The provided TCAD simulation in the current work aims at delivering a novel design for a 4-T Perovskite/PERL p-type Si tandem solar cell. The main structure consists of ITO/CuSCN/Perovskite/PC60PM/AZO/AgNW as the top cell and a conventional PERL p-Si as the bottom cell. Simulation results showed that the proposed top cell structure achieves a significant performance after substituting Zn(O0.3,S0.7) for AZO and PC60PM electron transport layers (ETLs), while replacing CuSCN with CuI as a suitable alternative for the hole transport layer (HTL). These modifications achieved an efficiency of 19.81% for the top cell. The bottom cell also attained a noteworthy level of performance by using bifacial dual-side-textured construction with efficiencies reaching 29.11% and 14.08% for bare and filtered cells, respectively. With these combined modifications, the PCE (power conversion efficiency) reached 33.89%, showing significant improvement compared to the base structure.
... Two additional resistive elements can be introduced to the early model described [5]. The first one is called series resistance s and takes into account the effect of the bulk resistance of the junction, the contact resistance between the junction and the electrodes, and the resistance of the electrodes themselves [9]. The other resistance is called shunt resistance sh and incorporates the effect of all non-linear currents flowing through the ohmic path across the n-p junction [10]. ...
... The ground view factor under free horizon condition is obtained by (1 À cosq)/2, where q is the tilt angle of installation. 80 Polysilicon consumption modeling The minimum amount of polysilicon per unit of power (CPP) is calculated by knowing the mass of Si wafers, number and efficiency of cells within the module. Since installations are reported based on the nominal power of the modules and the cells might not cover the whole module area, one can write the following equation to calculate CPP at cell and module level in the unit of g/kW 55 . ...
Here, we first visualize the achievable global efficiency for single-junction crystalline silicon cells and demonstrate how different regional markets have radically varied requirements for Si wafer thickness and injection level. Our findings showed that 219 g/kW of polysilicon can be conserved while producing slightly more electricity when c- Si cells are manufactured based on the global geographical market instead of standard test conditions. Then, we investigate the bifacial silicon cell and show that its optimal wafer thickness should be 1.67–2.89 times thicker than its monofacial counterpart, depending on the geographical region. Further, we study a double-junction two-terminal Si-based cell, reevaluate its theoretical limit as 42.8%, and illustrate that globally, tandem cells’ efficiency will only be slightly decreased when significantly reducing the bottom cell Si wafer thickness (−0.3%/mm). The outcomes of this study offer a blueprint to strategically design solar cells for target geographic markets, ensuring the conservation of substantial polysilicon volumes.
... The wavelength ranges at which photons coming from sun emit the highest energy is between 400 and 700 nm. In this wavelength range, the point where the highest irradiance value is reached is at 550 nm [25]. Therefore, the absorbance and transmittance values with respect changing spin acceleration values at 550 nm are given in figure 8. ...
The optimization of the TiO2 mesoporous structure plays significant role in dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) to produce efficient devices. In this study, the TiO2 mesoporous layer was coated by using a spin coating equipment with different spin accelerations. As a consequence of this investigation, the impacts of the spin coating acceleration on the optoelectronic and electrical performance characteristics of the DSSC were investigated. It has been shown that altering the spin coating acceleration has a direct impact on the mesoporous layer, which in turn influences the absorption ability of dye. The light absorbance of the sample A5 (coated at 2000 rpm/s) ascended drastically in accordance to other samples. Thanks to this augmentation in absorbance, the current density (JSC) and power conversion efficiency (PCE) values also improved. According to electrochemical impedance spectroscopy analysis, it was attained that recombination resistance values increases with the rising spin coating acceleration rates after 500 rpm/s and reaches up to highest value at 2000 rpm/s. A relatively longer electron lifetime of 40.36 ms and recombination resistance of 12.22 were obtained for the device coated at the rate of 2000 rpm/s. The device coated at a rate of 2000 rpm/s had a PCE (5.51%) that was superior than other devices because of its improved light collecting ability, quick electron transport, suppressed electron recombination, and having longer electron life time. As a starting point for future investigations and applications, results of present study provide an insight into the optimal spin coating parameters for DSSC applications.
Organic solar cells (OSCs) represent a promising renewable energy technology due to their flexibility, low production cost, and environmental sustainability. To advance OSC efficiency and stability, density functional theory (DFT) has emerged as a powerful computational tool, enabling the prediction and optimization of critical properties at the molecular and device levels. This review highlights the key properties of bulk heterojunction solar (BHJ) solar cells and dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) that can be accurately computed using DFT, including electronic structure properties (HOMO–LUMO energy levels, bandgap energies, and exciton binding energies, which influence charge separation and transport); optical properties (absorption spectra and light-harvesting efficiency, essential for maximizing photon capture); charge transport properties (reorganization energies, electron, and hole mobilities, and charge transfer rates that govern carrier dynamics within devices); interfacial properties (energy alignment at donor–acceptor interfaces, contributing to efficient charge separation and minimizing recombination); and chemical reactivity descriptors (ionization potential, electron affinity, chemical hardness, and electrophilicity, which facilitate material screening for OSC applications). We also show how to compute OSCs’ power conversion efficiency (PCE) from DFT.
The review also discusses the importance of selecting appropriate exchange–correlation functionals and basis sets to ensure the accuracy of DFT predictions. By providing reliable computational insights, DFT accelerates the rational design of OSC materials, guides experimental efforts, and reduces resource demands. This work underscores DFT’s pivotal role in optimizing OSC performance and fostering the development of next-generation photovoltaic technologies.
A energia solar destaca-se por ser uma das fontes mais representativas das energias renováveis , sendo aplicada em todos os continentes do globo e com grande perspectivas de ampliação em seu uso. Entretanto as placas solares apresentam uma vida útil de aproximadamente 25 anos , e após esse período é necessário trocar a celular solar por uma nova , pois alguns componentes se deterioram ao longo do tempo , podendo gerar um resíduo indesejado e perigoso ao meio ambiente, além do desperdícios de componentes de alto valor agregados que podem ser descartados sem que ocorra um tratamento adequado . Por esse motivo este trabalho irá apresentar um método para a reprocessamento/reciclagem das células solar , colocando em foco a recuperação de silício multicristalino obtidos através de ataques químicos que tem como finalidade uma alternativa para um destino mais adequado e lucrativo para esses resíduo . A comprovação dos resultados vem a partir de imagens de escâner que comprovam a eficácia dos ataques pela superfície do substrato de silício .
The results of an analytical review of a large number of publications on the problem of improving the efficiency of thermoelectric generators (TEG) over the past decade are presented. An analysis of historical data on the thermodynamic justification of the efficiency of thermoelectric generators is presented. The following areas are analyzed: the problem of increasing the figure of merit Z through the creation of new material science technologies and new materials, the creation of multi-segment thermoelectric elements for a wide temperature range (300 ÷ 1200 K), the efficiency of heat supply to the TEG and cooling. The methods for calculating the thermodynamic efficiency of TEG are presented. It is shown that the efficiency of TEG is limited to ½ of the Carnot value for ZT values of 1-3. Modern materials allow the production of TEG with ZT values less than 1. However, the application of TEG has promising prospects with the increase in the intensity of heat supply and cooling processes. The main directions and trends (physical, chemical, technological) in the creation and improvement of TEG are identified. Some practical solutions presented in the literature, as well as the authors' solution for improving the thermodynamic efficiency of boiler units using TEG, are shown.
The Ankara University Ayaş Horticulture Research and Application Station was chosen as the study area for this investigation. It is situated in the Uğurçayırı neighborhood of Ayaş district, in the center of the districts of Ayaş, Güdül, Beypazarı, and Polatlı. Saplings, vegetables, fruits, clover, medicinal, and spice plants are all produced on the 406 decares land. The analysis employed a variety of solar energy potential sources, including Ayaş, GEPA, MGM HELİOSAT, PVGIS, IRENA, Solar Med Atlas, NASA SSE, SOLARGIS, Global Solar Atlas, and NREL data. In addition, the design cost of a 60 kW photovoltaic system connected to the grid in Ayaş and the daily average/annual total production values according to months were calculated, taking into account the installed solar energy capacity and production values of the Ministry of Energy in the area. The annual solar radiation for Ayaş is 1628 kWh/m2. The average daily electricity production is 252 kWh, and the total annual production is 91,980 kWh. The installation cost of a 60 kW PV system is 50,150 USD. The repayment period of the system is six years. Furthermore, the PV system will mitigate 59.7 kilograms of CO2 emissions annually.
This paper presents an investigation of CIGS solar cell using 2D modelling using SILVACO Atlas TCAD tools under drift–diffusion and with Boltzmann distribution across the Cds/CIGS layer interface. The impact of SRV (surface recombination velocity) over the heterojunction interface on nature of optical and electrical properties of Cds/CIGS junction is investigated. Investigation of different back mirror contact silver, copper gold, palladium and titanium by replacing molybdenum back mirror contact to improve photo absorption in the layer. In this work, there is calibration of CIGS and ZnO doping was investigated under illumination of AM1.5G. In addition, we investigated impact of Cds + CIGS thickness and cathode work function at different values. Under AM1.5 illumination at 300 K, the best power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 22.59% is achieved with a thinner absorber of around 0.5 μm thick.
Introduction to Photovoltaics: Harnessing the Power of the Sun” is a comprehensive guide that illuminates the fascinating world of photovoltaics, the science of converting sunlight into electricity. This book serves as an essential primer for those interested in understanding how sunlight can be harnessed for power generation. It delves into the principles of photovoltaic energy conversion, explores the different types of photovoltaic systems, and discusses the latest advancements in this growing field. The book aims to empower readers with the knowledge to tap into the immense power of the sun, contributing to a sustainable and green future. Whether you’re a student, a professional in the field, or a curious reader, this book provides a valuable introduction to the limitless potential of solar energy.
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