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The ecological economics of land degradation: Impacts on ecosystem service values
Abstract
We use two datasets to characterize impacts on ecosystem services. The first is a spatially explicit measure of the impact of human consumption or 'demand' on ecosystem services as measured by the human appropriation of net primary productivity (HANPP) derived from population distributions and aggregate national statistics. The second is an actual measure of loss of productivity or a proxy measure of 'supply' of ecosystem services derived from biophysical models, agricultural census data, and other empirical measures. This proxy measure of land degradation is the ratio of actual NPP to potential NPP. The HANPP dataset suggests that current 'demand' for NPP exceeds 'supply' at a corresponding ecosystem service value of 6.3 trillion per year of ecosystem service value to impaired ecosystem function. Agriculture amounts to 2.8% of global GDP. With global GDP standing at 1.7 Trillion of the world's GDP. Our estimate of lost ecosystem services represent a significantly larger fraction (~ 10%) of global GDP. This is one reason the economics of land degradation is about a lot more than the market value of agricultural products alone.
... Land degradation is a complex issue primarily caused by the poor management of natural capital, such as soil, water, and vegetation [1]. The increasing demand for natural resources, particularly land for agricultural and forestry activities, limits land availability [2]. ...
... Factors like climate change, population growth, and urbanization can increase land productivity by increasing water and agrochemical use. However, increasing land use intensity can enhance crop yields without acquiring more land, but it also exerts significant environmental pressure, contributing to land degradation and adverse ecosystem impacts [1,3,4]. Therefore, efficient land use is crucial to avoid environmental damage, preserve natural resources, and promote a sustainable production system. ...
... The ∆EF is estimated based on the difference between the total annual produced biomass (A), the cumulative exergy consumption embodied in non-local resources (C), and the natural potential of biomass production (B), as described in Equation (1). ...
Land management is critical for the conservation of natural resources, particularly in agroforestry systems which rely heavily on land productivity and availability. Optimizing land utilization is critical for sustainable biomass production and is a key component of achieving effective, long-term sustainable land management. This study assesses the resource efficiency of agroforestry production systems with a novel exergy-based indicator (ΔEF). The indicator was used in the Biobío and Ñuble regions to assess the resource balance between six agricultural and two forestry production systems. The ΔEF values ranged from positive to negative, with positive values indicating better resource usage and negative values suggesting the opposite. Eucalyptus globulus had higher ΔEF values (18.06–19.5 MJex/m2.yr) than Pinus radiata (−2.71 to −1.47 MJex/m2.yr), indicating better sustainability due to its high biomass yields and lower harvesting period and resource consumption. Sugar beet, wheat, and potatoes were the most sustainable (8.57–154.6 MJex/m2.yr) because of their high yields and less intensive harvesting methods. Disparities in biomass yield, potential net primary production (NPPpot), and land management intensity drive differences in ΔEF across regions. Our findings enhance the understanding of local and non-local resource efficiency in agroforestry systems, revealing significant drivers to encourage more sustainable land management practices.
... Our baseline ecosystem service value dataset was derived from the same methodology used by Costanza et al. [30]. Here, we treat light pollution in a similar manner to land degradation, namely as an impact on the value of ecosystem services [31]. ...
... A description of the image processing and calibration of this dataset was provided by Sterckx et al. [32]. These 23 landcover classes were aggregated to broader categories based on available matching ecosystem service value categories from previous research [30]. Some ecosystem service values associated with these landcovers were updated using an updated version of the TEEB table [30]. ...
... These 23 landcover classes were aggregated to broader categories based on available matching ecosystem service value categories from previous research [30]. Some ecosystem service values associated with these landcovers were updated using an updated version of the TEEB table [30]. The ecosystem service values and aggregated landcovers are presented in Table 1. ...
Light pollution has detrimental impacts on wildlife, human health, and ecosystem functions and services. This paper explores the impact of light pollution on the value of ecosystem services. We use the Simplified All-Sky Light Pollution Ratio (sALR) as a proxy for the negative impact of light pollution and the Copernicus PROBA-V Global Landcover Database as our proxy of ecosystem service value based on previously published ecosystem service values associated with a variety of landcovers. We use the sALR value to ‘degrade’ the value of ecosystem services. This results in a 40% reduction in ecosystem service value in those areas of the world with maximum levels of light pollution. Using this methodology, the estimate of the annual loss of ecosystem service value due to light pollution is USD 3.4 trillion. This represents roughly 3% of the total global value of ecosystem services and 3% of the global GDP, estimated at roughly USD 100 trillion in 2022. A summary of how these losses are distributed amongst the world’s countries and landcovers is also presented.
... Despite the important role that ecosystem services play in maintaining natural processes and supporting sustainable livelihoods, their contribution has significantly reduced over time and across different geographical areas due to the human activities that changes in land use/land cover (LULC) are derived [10,11]. The transformation of LULC is the primary cause behind the significant changes observed in ecosystem services [11]. ...
... Despite the important role that ecosystem services play in maintaining natural processes and supporting sustainable livelihoods, their contribution has significantly reduced over time and across different geographical areas due to the human activities that changes in land use/land cover (LULC) are derived [10,11]. The transformation of LULC is the primary cause behind the significant changes observed in ecosystem services [11]. This transformation affects biological systems, which are crucial for facilitating essential human needs [12]. ...
In the northwestern Highlands of Ethiopia, a region characterized by diverse ecosystems, significant land use and land cover (LULC) changes have occurred due to a combination of environmental fragility and human pressures. The implications of these changes for ecosystem service values remain underexplored. This study quantifies the impact of LULC changes, with an emphasis on the expansion of plantation forests, on ecosystem service values in monetary terms to promote sustainable land management practices. Using Landsat images and the Random Forest algorithm in R, LULC patterns from 1985 to 2020 were analyzed, with the ecosystem service values estimated using locally adapted coefficients. The Random Forest classification demonstrated a high accuracy, with values of 0.97, 0.98, 0.96, and 0.97 for the LULC maps of 1985, 2000, 2015, and 2020, respectively. Croplands consistently dominated the landscape, accounting for 53.66% of the area in 1985, peaking at 67.35% in 2000, and then declining to 52.86% by 2020. Grasslands, initially the second-largest category, significantly decreased, while wetlands diminished from 14.38% in 1985 to 1.87% by 2020. Conversely, plantation forests, particularly Acacia decurrens, expanded from 0.4% of the area in 2000 to 28.13% by 2020, becoming the second-largest land cover type. The total ecosystem service value in the district declined from USD 219.52 million in 1985 to USD 39.23 million in 2020, primarily due to wetland degradation. However, plantation forests contributed USD 17.37 million in 2020, highlighting their significant role in restoring ecosystem services, particularly in erosion control, soil formation, nutrient recycling, climate regulation, and habitat provision. This study underscores the need for sustainable land management practices, including wetland restoration and sustainable plantation forestry, to enhance ecosystem services and ensure long-term ecological and economic sustainability.
... This conservation is crucial for maintaining the health and resilience of ecosystems, allowing species to thrive and adapt over time [42]. Research into ecosystem services is growing and providing valuable insights into the synergies and trade-offs between people and their natural environment, which supports life processes, and provides cultural and recreational benefits [43,44]. Understanding the impacts and mechanisms of IAS on biodiversity and ecosystem [33] and SEICAT [35]. ...
... This conservation is crucial for maintaining the health and resilience of ecosystems, allowing species to thrive and adapt over time [42]. Research into ecosystem services is growing and providing valuable insights into the synergies and trade-offs between people and their natural environment, which supports life processes, and provides cultural and recreational benefits [43,44]. Understanding the impacts and mechanisms of IAS on biodiversity and ecosystem services is essential for effective management, policy decisions, and the prioritizing of preventative or mitigation actions [16,18,21,[45][46][47]. ...
In the European Union, regulations and policies have been established to prevent and manage invasive alien species (IAS). The EU Regulation 1143/2014/EC, commonly known as the IAS Regulation, identifies species that pose significant ecological risks, requiring a coordinated response across all EU Member States. These species are classified as “species of Union concern” based on thorough risk assessments and standardized procedures within the EU. Accordingly, species are included in The List of Invasive Alien Species of Union Concern (the Union list), which is subject to regular updates through continuous species evaluations. Currently, the majority of the species on this list are terrestrial and freshwater with few marine species represented. The primary aim of this paper is to review the procedure for the inclusion of species in the Union list. The steps for inclusion are outlined by the IAS Regulation and associated legislation, which govern the risk assessment process. In addition, this paper synthesizes available scientific literature and official documents to summarize the impacts of Plotosus lineatus and Rugulopteryx okamurae on biodiversity and ecosystem services. The potential for future updates to the Union list is currently under consideration, and some marine species are within.
... Reforestation and restoration of degraded forests are considered among the most effective land-based strategies for sequestering carbon emissions to combat climate change (Griscom et al. 2017), and tree restoration might have positive impacts on food security (Ickowitz et al. 2022). Such perspectives implicitly assume that restoration efforts resulting in ecosystem services recovery-including climate regulation, clean air, fresh water, and soil fertility-translate into social, economic, and financial gains (Sutton et al. 2016). ...
... Land degradation is an incremental process that is estimated to have affected around 75% of the global land surface, including forests (IPBES 2019). Some estimate the global impact of deforestation and deteriorating agricultural productivity at about USD 6.3 trillion per year, arising from the loss of ecosystem services including climate regulation, clean air, fresh water, and soil fertility (Sutton et al. 2016). Adverse socioeconomic outcomes linked to land degradation include the loss of livelihoods and land productivity (Barbier and Hochard 2018). ...
This book takes a multidisciplinary perspective to analyze and discuss the various opportunities and challenges of restoring tree and forest cover to address regional and global environmental challenges that threaten human well-being and compromise sustainable development. It examines forest restoration commitments, policies and programs, and their planning and implementation at different scales and contexts, and how forest restoration helps to mitigate environmental, societal, and cultural challenges. The chapters explore the concept of forest restoration, how it can restitute forest ecosystem services, contribute to biodiversity conservation, and generate benefits and synergies, while recognizing the considerable costs, trade-offs, and variable feasibility of its implementation. The chapters review historic and contemporary forest restoration practice and governance, variations in approaches and implementation across the globe, and relevant technological advances. Using the insights from the ten topic-focused chapters, the book reflects on the possibility of sustainable and just approaches to meet the challenges that lie ahead to achieve ambitious international forest restoration targets and commitments.
... The study by Costanza et al. (1997) prompted a surge in interest in the comprehension and assessment of ESVs. As a result, various research endeavors attempted to calculate ESVs across different temporal and spatial scales (Arowolo et al., 2018;Costanza et al., 2014;Hu et al., 2008;Kreuter et al., 2001;Li et al., 2007;Liu et al., 2019;Song and Deng, 2017;Sutton et al., 2016;van der Ploeg et al., 2010). Several project groups and institutional initiatives have also contributed to ES research to provide scientific evaluations and tools for policy support, such as the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) and the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) (Costanza et al., 2014;. ...
... Likewise, Ethiopia which is characterized by diverse ecosystems and landscapes, has experienced significant LULC changes driven by population growth, agricultural expansion, and urbanization (Belay and Mengistu, 2019;Gitima et al., 2022;Regasa et al., 2021). The percentage of ES degradation in the country is approximately 17.7%, much higher than the global average of 9.2% (Sutton et al., 2016). Biedemariam et al. (2022) also estimated an annual loss of US$ 85 × 10 9 as a result of the conversion of forests, wetlands, shrublands, and grasslands into monofunctional landscapes. ...
... As cities expand, agricultural land or natural land from the rural-urban interface (i.e., peri-urban areas) changed to housing, business, or manufacturing properties (Christiawan & Nguyen, 2024;Mortoja et al., 2020). Peri-urban land conversion creates several challenges for peri-urban landscape management, which includes the loss of farmland (d' Amour et al., 2017), an erosion in native biodiversity (McKinney, 2002), and ecosystem depletion (Sutton et al., 2016). Furthermore, the loss of natural vegetation around cities diminishes public access to leisure activities and green spaces, potentially harming both mental and physical well-being (van den Bosch & Nieuwenhuijsen, 2017;van Vliet et al., 2020). ...
Recent peri-urbanization, primarily characterized by declining agricultural land and a growing population, is a primary driver of peri-urban dynamics. As urban-centric activities and demands rise, unmanaged urban sprawl causes socio-cultural disruptions, pollution, and economic instability. The intricate processes dependable for these negative impacts are primarily associated with population dynamics and land use changes. This study investigates the trends of demographic and land-use changes in the peri-urban area and evaluates the interrelationships between these two factors. We utilize the multi-decade population and land-use transformations from 1990 to 2020 in the peri-urban area of Denpasar City – one of the most metropolitan areas in Indonesia. The results reveal that the peri-urban areas encountered unprecedented population growth and urban sprawl. The results indicate that the inner peri-urban area has encountered more substantial changes in population and land use than the outer area. Nevertheless, specific demographic trends have a positive influence on peri-urban land-use transformation. This elucidates why land use is progressively diverging from household demographic dynamics, specifically in population growth, population density, and the proportion of males and individuals in non-productive age groups. The interlinked relationship between these variables suggests land use conversion in peri-urban areas. The results emphasize the need for governmental planners to carefully examine demographic and land-use trends when formulating regional cross-border plans to promote sustainable peri-urban development.
... Research has demonstrated that worldwide terrestrial environments have experienced different levels of deterioration, such as higher levels of carbon emissions, erosion of soil, decrease in biodiversity, and extinction of species. These degradations are caused by a combination of natural and human-induced factors, and this pattern is expected to worsen in the future (Rapport and Maffi, 2011;Sutton et al., 2016;Cerretelli et al., 2018). The natural factors that influence and drive the evolution of regional ecosystems over a relatively brief timeframe are typically stable and resistant to significant sudden changes. ...
Introduction
The Kuye River Basin, a typical erosion area of the Loess Plateau region with the second largest tributary of the Yellow River Basin, faces significant environmental challenges and intense human activities. Balancing environmental sustainability and economic development in this region is urgent.
Methods
Therefore, this study takes this basin as the object and evaluates the landscape ecological risk and human activity intensity from 2000 to 2022 based on land use/land cover, population distribution and nighttime lighting data. And a geographically weighted regression model was used to reveal the correlation between the two.
Results and discussion
Results showed that the average landscape ecological risk index in 2000, 2015, and 2022 were 9.01×10⁻⁴, 5.61×10⁻⁴, and 7.40×10⁻⁴, respectively. This shows that the overall landscape ecological risk index is low in the first 15 years and then gradually increases over time. Cultivated land, grassland and construction land are the main landscapes, the expansion of 7.95 times construction land is a key factor in the intensification of human activities, mainly concentrated in the northwest, followed by a gradual expansion towards the south-east, and likewise the landscape ecological risks follow the same trend. Medium to high intensity human activities exacerbate landscape ecological risks, with a significant positive correlation, while low intensity human activities cause little damage to landscape ecology. To achieve sustainability, it is necessary to effectively control construction land and improve land use structure. Then, in the planning work, priority will be given to the northwest region with high human activity intensity and high landscape ecological risks, and the governance direction will gradually shift to the southeast region. These findings provide empirical evidence to support decision-making and underscore the need for comprehensive strategies to mitigate landscape ecological risks and promote sustainable development in the Kuye River Basin.
... In that landscape, assumed as fragile since its long-term equilibrium depends on the maintenance of an adequate livestock stocking rate, sheep, cattle, and Iberian pigs graze on shallow soils covered by annual pastures and scattered trees, mostly holm oaks (Martínez-Valderrama et al., 2016;Tombolini et al., 2016). Land mismanagement provokes cascading degradation processes, from the occurrence of bare soil patches to soil compaction that reduces considerably pasture yield and quality (FAO, 1994;Sutton et al., 2016). Assuming that soil compaction occurs in livestock paths and in areas near paddocks, watering ponds, and fences gates, few studies have considered topographical position as an influencing factor of this complex process (Dregne, 2002;Mirdeilami et al., 2019). ...
In this contribution, we reviewed recent findings in rural development and regional sustainability focusing on both environmental issues and socioeconomic dynamics with a specific focus on Southern Europe. Assuming territorial disparities as a basic engine of unsustainable development paths in the area, we discussed key ecological, social, and economic factors (e.g., population growth, urban sprawl, coastalization, agricultural intensification, and land abandonment) shaping physical quality and monetary value of land resources. According to this knowledge ground, we highlighted the intimate relationship between social processes, rural poverty, and territorial disparities based on complex dynamics of environmental and geo-economic drivers of change. The lack in multitarget and multiscale policies approaching together sustainable development, environmental quality, and territorial disparities was finally debated as an original contribution to the study of Mediterranean rural systems.
... While incorporating the spirit of the Lisbon Treaty of 2007 and considering the priority need to stimulate sustainable economic growth fully integrated with environmental issues, the national and local strategies aimed at containing (or, if possible, removing) socioeconomic imbalances, have not always been completely effective (Sutton et al., 2016). Re-interpreting such imbalances requires a better (conceptual and operational) focus on economic and social cohesion, qualifying in turn the most effective mitigation strategies of environmental pressures (Moreda, 2018;Varghese & Singh, 2016). ...
The notion of “land capital” reflects multiple knowledge processes based on the kaleidoscopic interpretation and assessment of land resources that ecological and social sciences routinely develop in several theoretical assessments and operational exercises. Earlier studies have considered land quality and degradation as composite notions, and contributed to describe how one or more components of “land” capital has (have) deteriorated overtime, either quantitatively or qualitatively. Moreover, in recent years there seems to be an increasing interest in more systematic investigations of the socioeconomic factors that interact with natural capital (mainly soil and water) and that determine its possible degradation, through the use of both theoretical and empirical approaches. However, despite some scientific contributions, the relationship between sustainable rural development, land disparities and global changes (climate, soil, landscape) still appears to be underexplored. Based on these premises, we contribute the recent literature by (1) commenting on the distinctive development–environment relationship in different ecological and economic contexts, and (2) discussing the positive and normative importance of (rapidly changing) economic structures and selected socio-demographic characteristics at the base of this relationship. Assessing the drivers of socioeconomic convergence and divergence processes at the regional scale and evaluating the possible impact on the increasing spatial disparities in selected ecological backgrounds seem to be a valuable contribution to the environmental economics discipline with implications to sustainable development strategies. In this perspective, developmental policies are demonstrated the urgent need to incorporate measures reducing the impact of volatile changes in the economic base of a district—especially when a shift from traditional rural systems with low population density and limited accessibility to service-oriented, high-density territories is observed.
... In recent years, an increasing number of people have experienced ecological grief due to significant changes in their environment, and have mourned the death of more-than-human entities such as glaciers or iconic landscapes (Westoby et al., 2022). Increasing wildfires and extreme weather events, changing weather patterns, biodiversity loss and accumulating pollution have triggered global concerns about our planet and global ecosystems' productivity (Ceballos et al., 2017;Steffen et al., 2015;Sutton et al., 2016). These experiences of worry for the changing environment can lead to the development of ecological grief, which refers to "grief felt in relation to experiences or anticipated ecological losses, including the loss of species, ecosystems and meaningful landscapes due to acute or chronic environmental change" (Cunsolo & Ellis, 2018, p. 275). ...
In recent years, an increasing number of people have experienced ecological grief due to significant changes in their environment, mourning the death of more-than-human entities such as glaciers or iconic landscapes. In the southernmost regions of the Arctic, like Finnish Lapland, water and rain is estimated to gradually dominate over ice and snow due to global climate change. However, in the last 40 years, the Arctic tourism industry has grown based on representations of snow and ice, and even today, keeps promoting Finnish Lapland with images of guaranteed white vistas (Herva et al.,2020; Varnajot & Saarinen, 2022). The increasing gap between the dynamic reality and the static promotion of the Arctic in tourism can be understood as the death of the iconic white landscape of Lapland, and, in some cases, leads to the production of Arctic traumascapes. Traumascapes are defined as haunting places “where visible and invisible, past and present, physical and metaphysical come to coexist and share common space”(Tumarkin, 2019, p. 5), and visits to these specific sites of trauma are often referred to as dark tourism (Kaelber, 2007). In the Anthropocene however, dark tourism increasingly encompasses places associated with the death of more-than-human entities, such as the iconic vistas of Lapland (Varnajot & Saarinen, 2021). In line with this, this conceptual chapter investigates the intersections between dark tourism and traumascapes raised by the shrinking cryosphere in the context of Finnish Lapland. Finnish Lapland provides an interesting case where we can already observe some previews of Arctic tourism products being challenged due to changes in seasonality and lack of snow and ice. Therefore, by exploring the production of dark tourism practices in Finnish Lapland, this chapter aims to shed new light on the production of traumascapes in tourism on the one hand and to provide new conceptualizations concerning the idea of ‘Arctic traumascapes’ on the other.
... Ethiopia, known for its diverse ecosystems and landscapes, has undergone significant LULC changes due to interconnected factors like population growth, agricultural expansion, and urbanization (Assaye et al., 2024;Gitima et al., 2022;Mathewos et al., 2024b;Regasa et al., 2021;Sisay et al., 2023;Tadesse et al., 2024). These changes have led to land degradation, resulting in the loss of approximately 17.7% of the country's ESVs, surpassing the global average of 9.2% (Sutton et al., 2016). The conversion of natural landscapes (such as forests, wetlands, shrublands, and grasslands) into single-purpose areas has caused substantial economic losses, valued at US$85 billion annually (Biedemariam et al., 2022). ...
... Studying the factors influencing the supply of EA and EP helps accurately simulate future scenarios of ecosystem services, providing a basis for scientifically formulating strategies to enhance the supply capacity of these products. Numerous scholars have explored the impacts of natural and socio-economic factors on the supply of EA and EP [102][103][104][105][106][107]. Under the influence of coupled factors such as climate change, land use change, and socio-economic conditions, ecosystems can stably provide material, regulating, and cultural products that meet human well-being needs. ...
Ecological assets (EA) are fundamental to the supply of ecological products (EP). They underpin the provision of ecological functions by ecosystems, their existence, and health. However, a comprehensive assessment of EA and the supply of EP remains lacking. This study employs the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) method and identifies 215 relevant articles from the Scopus database. The study: (1) Analyzes selected literature by publication years, research themes, geographical distribution, affiliations, and stages. (2) Summarizes key advances and significant achievements in domestic and international research. (3) Formulates six critical scientific questions and provides recommendations based on the current status and characteristics of EA and the supply of EP in Karst World Heritage (WH) Sites. This study furnishes research insights for practitioners and policymakers in the field, contributing to the sustainable development of ecosystems in Karst WH Sites.
... Land use and land cover (LULC) changes are recognised as major causes of ESs loss worldwide (Costanza et al., 2014;Kubiszewski et al., 2017;Chen et al., 2020;Sutton et al., 2016). One of the key processes driving this loss is urban expansion (Maimaiti et al., 2022). ...
Ecosystem services are crucial for human well-being as it offers benefits such as food production, water purification, and climate regulation. However, land use change caused by rapid urban expansion poses a significant threat to these services. We investigate the impact of urbanization on ecosystem services in the Kathmandu Valley, a region experiencing intense urban growth. We assessed changes in urban areas and their effects on four key ecosystem services: air quality regulation, carbon storage, food production, and habitat quality. We utilise historical and projected land use data from 2008 to 2032, and different socio-economic and geographical data. The future land use projection shows an increase in urban areas, from 97 km2 in 2008 to 231 km2 by 2032, a growth by 140% within a 24-year period. Majority of this conversion comes from cropland. This urban expansion results in a significant decline in ESs, particularly in food production and habitat quality. We project that by 2032, food production will decrease by 19%, habitat quality by 16%, air quality regulation by 5%, and carbon storage by 3%. Our analysis shows there is an urgent need for sustainable urban planning to balance development with the conservation of important ESs.
... From the provision of goods such as timber and fruit, to regulatory services such as flood mitigation and air purification, to the cultural and spiritual values of the natural environment, a sustainable and balanced delivery of ecosystem services is essential for society (Gómez-Baggethun and Groot, 2010). Ecosystem services are directly connected to the condition of the ecosystems; where ecosystems are degraded, their capacity to generate flows of ecosystem services is often reduced with cascading effects on human well-being and the economy (Delgado and Marín, 2020;Sutton et al., 2016). By quantifying, monitoring, and reporting on ecosystem condition and capacity to supply ecosystem services, a more informed management of ecosystems can be developed for sustainable supply of ecosystem services while protecting and restoring nature (Balvanera et al., 2006). ...
Ecosystem services are essential for human survival and wellbeing, and the quantity and quality of the services delivered by an ecosystem are dependent on its underlying condition. With many ecosystems degraded or in poor condition, the capacity to deliver key ecosystem services can be affected. The System of Environmental Economic Accounting-Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) is the international statistical framework developed to estimate and monitor changes in ecosystem extent, condition, and flow of ecosystem services. Although the condition of ecosystems underpins their capacity to supply a service, the connection between ecosystem condition and ecosystem services accounts is underdeveloped. This is because condition is usually assessed relative to an ideal reference state, whereas capacity to supply ecosystem services depends on both the condition of the ecosystem and the ecosystem service being considered. For example, a forest in one condition may have very different capacities to supply ecosystem services such as timber provisioning and recreational services. We propose a methodology to better integrate condition and ecosystem services accounts through development of an ecosystem capacity index. Building on condition accounts, we derived a capacity index and related capacity accounts, reflecting the capacity of each ecosystem asset to support the delivery of selected ecosystem services. We show that an ecosystem with a particular condition profile may have different capacity index values depending on the ecosystem service that is expected to be delivered. We provide case studies from two sites in the Republic of Ireland to illustrate the integration of capacity indices into ecosystem services accounts. This approach is an extension to ecosystem accounting that enables more rigorous connection of condition to ecosystem service supply by accounting for capacity.
... Wetland ecosystem services risk being undervalued by policymakers, resulting in economic losses (Turpie et al. 2010, Sharma et al. 2021. For example, swampy wetland ecosystem services saw a yearly decline of USD 9.9 trillion from 1997 to 2011, equivalent to 1.4 times China's GDP in 2011 (Costanza et al. 2014, Sutton et al. 2016). Nepal's Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve was demonstrated to provide an economic benefit of USD 982 per local household, highlighting the critical role of wetlands in local wellbeing and indicating the desirability of policies and incentives involving local communities in wetland management (Sharma et al. 2015). ...
In the West Asia region, the vulnerability of Ramsar Convention wetlands due to unsustainable utilization driven by water scarcity continues to grow. Here, a global surface water product generated by the European Joint Research Centre was used to assess changes in surface water in 77 wetlands listed under the Ramsar Convention over a 37-year period (1984–2021). By combining this product with a quantitative valuation model, estimates were made of the economic value of the ecosystem services provided by these wetlands, enabling the determination of the economic losses resulting from any reduction in surface water. We show that 20% (7550 km ² ) of permanent surface waters in Ramsar sites have disappeared or are no longer classified as permanent. Based on this, USD 106 billion of the economic value of wetlands ecosystem services have been lost. Additionally, 33% (12 100 km ² ) of seasonal surface waters in these wetlands have experienced a decrease in area. Iran and Iraq account for 90% of water losses, primarily in 34 wetlands (30 in Iran and 4 in Iraq). These findings underscore the urgent need for water management policies and conservation strategies in the West Asia region.
... Land degradation and associated impacts on ecosystem services are estimated to cost Australia billions of dollars annually (e.g. ELDI 2015; Sutton et al. 2016). We argue that emerging market opportunities need to better appreciate and embrace value systems and stewardship of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, delivering outcomes to the benefit of natural systems generally. ...
Globally, there is a growing interest and potential for investment in Nature-based Solutions (NbS) to protect, manage or restore ecosystems through incentive schemes including Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES), Nature Repair, Carbon Markets, and Common Asset Trusts. Collectively, these NbS markets establish interchangeable mechanisms to help address biodiversity and climate crises, as well as socio-economic issues concerning many Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs). IPLCs manage and/or own almost 32% of the world’s land area through customary and community-based tenure arrangements. Since 2000 several PES schemes have been implemented in Australia. These schemes have been overwhelmingly implemented as public-good expenditure, with governments providing ~90% of total funding. Indigenous people have either the legal right to run a carbon market or nature repair project, or have the right to veto others from running a project, over 57% of the Australian land mass, increasing to 63% in savanna and 85% in desert regions. In this paper we critically assess opportunities and challenges for Australia’s Indigenous estate associated with existing and emerging NbS market approaches, especially the Commonwealth’s current Savanna Fire Management (SFM) and Human Induced Regeneration methods, evolving Integrated Farm & Land Management (IFLM) and Blue Carbon methods, and proposed Nature Repair (NR) market. To date, Indigenous NbS interests have focused especially on SFM across northern Australia, with prospective opportunities especially for IFLM and NR markets. Notably, most available schemes focus on remediation of degraded lands and seas, with little attention given to maintaining habitats and ecosystems in less-degraded condition. Investing in the additional management effort needed to preserve and enhance these ecosystems is an economically rational strategy. As demonstrated by successful international and national examples, government-funded Common Asset Trusts can provide effective models for the governance of stewardship schemes relevant to on-going care for relatively intact ecosystems. In discussion we summarise key methodological, institutional, and policy opportunities and challenges for constructive Indigenous engagement with developing NbS markets. Our purpose is to provide an Indigenous land and sea management context to inform the development of rapidly evolving NbS markets in Australia.
... These changes could, on the other hand, amplify the susceptibility of ecosystems and large fluctuations in ES supply [1,101]. In the past decades, the products and benefits that nature provides have greatly declined [1,45,62,101,102] due to conversion of forest ecosystems. Like several others [20,41], many tropical watersheds, including the case study sites, are found in areas that typically do not provide adequate conservation measures. ...
Watershed ecosystems are important for the provision of multiple ecosystem services (ES) that are critical to human welfare. Few studies particularly in the tropics assess the multiple ecosystem services, economic value, and effect of land use change on economic value. This paper provides evidence of the quantitative. economic value and effect of land use change on the economic value of watershed ESs from Barekese and Owabi in Ghana. Geospatial analysis and the stated preference method were used for the study. Primary and secondary data were collected from households, institutions, and other sources to quantify and estimate ecosystem services. The geospatial analysis showed that forest degradation and deforestation have increased over the last three decades in the watershed with settlements and cropland being the major land use changes. The two watersheds provide many ecosystem services, including provisioning services (water, fuelwood, bushmeat, fish), regulating services (carbon sequestration, water supply, water purification, soil fertility), and cultural services (ecotourism). An aggregated economic value for the ESs of GH₵ 707.701 x 10⁶ (110.645 x 10⁶ (33.783 x 10⁶ ($5857.76/ha/yr) respectively. Our analysis showed that conversion of forest to other land uses resulted in a significant reduction in the value of ecosystem services. Conversion of the watershed to Tree Crop, Food Crop, Grassland or Settlement could reduce the economic value of ESs by 4%–80 %. The study demonstrates that ecosystem services assessment could provide important information for conservation and development policies related to watershed management in the tropics. To ensure ecosystem service supply, the risks of land use change should be considered in watershed conservation strategies including land use zoning and adaptive management systems.
... Furthermore, forest depletion has dire effects on ecosystem services, particularly carbon sequestration. Sutton et al. (2016) highlight the substantial economic losses resulting from impaired ecosystem services due to deforestation, amounting to over 6.3 trillion US dollars or 8.3% of global gross domestic product (GDP) in 2016. Forests play a crucial role as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and mitigating climate change. ...
This study investigates environmental sustainability and growth trends in Nigeria over a 30-year period (1991–2020), focusing on key indicators such as agriculture value added, forest area, employment in agriculture, employment in industry, and renewable energy consumption. Time series analysis reveals a linear increase in deforested land. and agricultural expansion, alongside a decline in agricultural employment, which stabilised around 2013. Employment in the industry showed a dip until 2011, then increased steadily. Gender disaggregated data highlights a notable disparity in agricultural employment, with significantly more males engaged compared
to females. Using regression analysis with leaps, autoregressive distributed lag models, and Granger causality tests, the study identifies strong associations between
deforested land and predictor variables such as agricultural land percentage, employment in industry, and renewable energy consumption. The results show that these variables significantly predict deforestation. Interestingly, a significant negative
association was found between employment in agriculture and deforestation, although
causality tests indicated no significant causation, suggesting a nuanced relationship
influenced by factors like land-use conflicts and climate change. These findings highlight the nexus between socio-economic factors and environmental outcomes, emphasising the need for targeted policies to address deforestation, promote sustainable land management, and reduce gender disparities in agriculture. This research provides valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders
aiming to foster sustainable development and inclusive economic growth in Nigeria and across Africa.
Keywords: agricultural land-use change; deforestation; economic development;
environmental sustainability; renewable energy; time series analysis.
... Changes in precipitation and the occurrence of more extreme weather events may have long-lasting impacts on forest health. Attempts to calculate degradation estimated that Bulgaria lost 25.2% of its ecosystem value due to degradation in 2015 (Sutton et al., 2016). Forests help maintain soil health and prevent erosion, but they are also affected by degradation. ...
This report is part of the research achievements of the Sino-Bulgarian Joint Lab on Climate Change Adaptative Governance for Rural Ecosystem, which is supported by the Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality. The report synthesizes most relevant data and information on rural climate change, disaster risk reduction, and adaptation actions and policies at rural area. The report is designed as a quick reference source for development practitioners to better integrate climate resilience in development planning and policy making for sustainable rural development.
... These changes have led to conflicts with sedentary crop producers and increasing marginalization of pastoral communities. In addition, the reductions in ecosystem services due to vegetation degradation are estimated at~US$10 trillion annually 4 . This loss in dryland productivity further aggravates social and economic inequalities and food insecurity, touching six of the United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs): #1 no poverty, #2 zero hunger, #8 decent work & economic growth, #10 reduced inequalities, #13 climate action, and #15 life on land 5 . ...
Decomposing the responses of ecosystem structure and function in drylands to changes in human-environmental forcing is a pressing challenge. Though trend detection studies are extensive, these studies often fail to attribute them to potential spatiotemporal drivers. Most attribution studies use a single empirical model or a causal graph that cannot be generalized or extrapolated to larger scales or account for spatial changes and multiple independent processes. Here, we proposed and tested a multi-stage, multi-model framework that detects vegetation trends and attributes them to ten independent social-environmental system (SES) drivers in Kazakhstan (KZ). The time series segmented residual trend analysis showed that 45.71% of KZ experienced vegetation degradation, with land use change as the predominant contributor (22.54%; 0.54 million km²), followed by climate change and climate variability. Pixel-wise fitted Granger Causality and random forest models revealed that sheep & goat density and snow cover had dominant negative and positive impacts on vegetation in degraded areas, respectively. Overall, we attribute vegetation changes to SES driver impacts for 19.81% of KZ (out of 2.39 million km²). The identified vegetation degradation hotspots from this study will help identify locations where restoration projects could have a greater impact and achieve land degradation neutrality in KZ.
... The concept of payments for ecosystem services (PES) suggests that landowners do not engage in environmentally harmful practices (or fail to implement beneficial ones) out of carelessness or malice, but rather due to perverse incentives and market failures (Sutton et al., 2016;Taye et al., 2021;Turkelboom et al., 2018). Stated another way, environmentally friendly management, even if socially optimal, can impose opportunity costs that may not be financially sustainable in the face of market competition (Bingham, 2021;Uthes and Matzdorf, 2016). ...
Auction theory has made major contributions to overcoming allocation problems involving asymmetric information and common-pool resources, leading to multiple Nobel Prizes and serving as a foundation for multi-billion-dollar markets. Despite evidence that related mechanisms could enhance the performance of payments for ecosystem services (PES), adoption has been sporadic and inconsistent. One possibility is that the relevant peer reviewed literature has low visibility or consensus design elements are not sufficiently accessible to interested experts. To overcome this barrier, we adopt a straightforward approach: we asked the PES auction subfield to describe itself. In collaboration with an expert panel (n = 32) whose affiliations span more than two dozen universities and research bodies across three continents-including top-ranked economists, ecosystem services theorists, and practitioners with experience designing and implementing PES programs with and without auctions-we synthesize a birds-eye view of ecosystem services auctions for an interdisciplinary audience. Through an iterative, mixed-method Delphi consultation, we identify broad consensus about fundamental elements of theory and practice, including what functions auctions tend to perform well, common challenges, and key factors influencing their performance. By selecting topics that panelists appeared to disagree about for further discussion, we also highlight open questions and potential research frontiers. We conclude with a reflection on using the Delphi method to foster exchange between time-constrained experts.
... Global Sutton et al. (2016) 13 ...
Land degradation (LD) is a severe and well-known global concern. Therefore, this review aimed to find broader connections between LD and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This literature review aims to synthesize the definitions, processes, assessments, and challenges associated with LD. Furthermore, we developed a universally applicable and concise definition of LD that links a wide range of contexts and studies. Specifically, we categorized LD-related processes into physical, chemical, and biological processes and synthesized 20 methods/formulas used in the assessment of LD. Finally, we synthesized the most significant challenges in the context of the resolution of LD and provided corresponding recommendations. The review also identified the main SDG targets that LD directly affects and the role of LD in relation to the SDGs. Overall, we expect this literature review to be a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners aiming to obtain a comprehensive understanding of LD. The findings of this study shed light on various aspects of LD concerning the SDGs. The LD and the SDGs' processes, challenges, and interactions can be a valuable resource for researchers and policymakers. The information can facilitate sustainable and scientifically rooted use of land resources and provide knowledge and advice on combating LD to reach the specific SDGs associated with LD.
... Recent estimates suggest that up to 20% of Earth's surface is comprised of ecosystems that have become severely degraded (Nkonya et al., 2016;Sutton et al., 2016). Replanting vegetation is increasingly being used to ameliorate this through the attempted reestablishment of ecosystems akin to native reference conditions (Gann et al., 2019). ...
Societal Impact Statement
Large quantities of diverse native seeds are required to scale up global restoration efforts. However, it remains unclear for many ecosystems how the diversity of available seed in commercial stocks reflects the composition of the ecosystems where vegetation is being remade. This study highlights existing shortfalls in the diversity of seed presently available for use in restoration and identifies gaps in the seed supply chain while providing a new method for optimising species selection given these constraints. This work underscores how improved collaboration between stakeholders is required to strengthen the seed supply chain and help remake functionally diverse vegetation.
Summary
Restoration using native seed is frequently implemented to restore degraded ecosystems. However, it remains unclear how constraints on the diversity of germplasm available for use in restoration may limit the recovery of both species and plant functional diversity.
Using a dataset of seed availability for Australia's major vegetation types, we explore variation in the diversity and breadth of functional traits (leaf mass per area, seed mass, plant height) for species where seed is available on commercial markets relative to unavailable. Using these data, we simulate theoretical seed mixes derived from two species pools: (1) constrained by the current market of commercially available seed, and (2) assuming all native species can be planted; then we compare differences in functional diversity (dispersion) as an exercise to explore possible limitations within the current seed supply.
Seed from only 12% of Australian plant species (2992 species) is presently available for immediate purchase. Seed was more frequently available for trees and shrubs than for understorey species. Available species were on average taller, with thicker, longer‐lived leaves than unavailable species. Overall, functional dispersion was lower for seed mixes generated using available seed compared with those drawn from all species.
Solutions are required to address seed shortfalls so that plantings are not only species rich but also functionally diverse. We develop two options: (1) quantifying and addressing gaps in the seed supply chain that currently limit the capacity for practitioners to restore diverse vegetation; and (2) applying a trait‐informed species‐selection method to plantings that maximises functional diversity using available seed.
... Numerous studies in the past have explored the interconnections between LULC and ecosystem services, for example, soil organic carbon (Collard & Zammit, 2006), climate regulation and nutrient cycling (Li et al., 2007;Zhao et al., 2004), water regulation (Fiquepron et al., 2013), as well as ecotourism and recreation potential (Nahuelhual et al., 2014). Modifications in LULC significantly influence the spatial distribution and the potential ecosystem services provided by riverine wetlands (Arowolo et al., 2018;Sutton et al., 2016;Yi et al., 2017). In India, riverine wetland ecosystems and their services are particularly susceptible to threats from urban growth, mining activities, dam constructions (Ghosh & Das, 2019;Liang et al., 2016;Pal & Talukdar, 2020), and the transformation of wetlands for alternative land uses (Das et al., 2022;Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2019). ...
Anthropogenic activities have drastically transformed natural landscapes, profoundly impacting land use and land cover (LULC) and, consequently, the provision and functionality of ecosystem service values (ESVs). Evaluating the changes in LULC and their influence on ESVs is imperative to protect ecologically fragile ecosystems from degradation. This study focuses on a highly sensitive Upper Ganga riverine wetland in India, covering Hapur, Amroha, Bulandshahr, and Sambhal districts, which is well-known for its significant endemic flora and fauna. The study analyzes the subtle variability in ecosystem services offered by the various LULC biomes, including riverine wetland, built-up, cropland, forest, sandbar, and unused land. LULC classification is carried out using Landsat satellite imagery 5 and 8 for the years 2000, 2010, and 2020, using the random forest method. The spatiotemporal changing pattern of ESVs is assessed utilizing the value transfer method with two distinct value coefficients: global value coefficients (C14) for a worldwide perspective and modified local value coefficients X08 for a more specific local context. The results show a significant increase in built-up and unused land, with a corresponding decrease in wetlands and forests from 2000 to 2020. The combined ESVs for all the districts are worth US 2139 million (X08) in the year 2000, which declined to US 1770 million (X08) in the year 2020. The sensitivity analysis reveals that the coefficient of sensitivity (CS) is below one for all biomes, suggesting the robustness of the employed value coefficients in estimating ESVs. Moreover, the analysis identifies cropland, followed by forests and wetlands, as the LULC biomes most responsive to changes. This research provides crucial insights to stakeholders and policymakers for developing sustainable land management practices aimed at enhancing the ecological worth of the Upper Ganga Riverine Wetland.
... In the face of the ongoing decline in invertebrate populations (Seibold et al. 2019;van Klink et al. 2022), mitigating the impacts of agricultural practices on pollinators has become of paramount importance (Kovács-Hostyánszki et al. 2017;Sutton et al. 2016). Over the past decades, intensive agricultural management has led to reduced habitat quality and landscape simplification, resulting in biotic homogenization (Gamez-Virues et al. 2015) and displacement of specialists by generalist species (Perović et al. 2015). ...
Halting and reversing the ongoing insect decline requires in-depth knowledge on key drivers. Due to their sensitivity to habitat quality, butterflies are valuable indicators for grassland management intensity, including mowing. However, most studies examining mowing regime impacts on butterflies are limited to small spatial extents. Here, we tested the potential of citizen science butterfly monitoring data for assessing landscape-level effects of mowing regimes (number of mowing events and timing of the first event) and edge density (density of boundaries between different land-cover types) on butterfly richness, abundance, and community composition. We used generalised linear mixed-effects models to relate nationwide data from the German Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (DEBMS) to high-resolution satellite imagery on mowing events in permanent grasslands (grasslands excluded from crop rotation). As butterfly transects may not consistently be located within grasslands, we ran our models for different thresholds from 0 to 50%, representing increasing shares of the transect route situated within permanent grasslands (10% intervals). We did not find significant associations between mowing regimes and butterflies when focussing on species richness and abundance of all species inhabiting open land. However, we found strong positive associations of delayed mowing with the abundance of grassland specialists with increasing grassland shares per transect. Further, we found negative associations of delayed mowing with the annual number of generations and of more frequent mowing with the abundance of specialists, depending on the share of grassland per transect. Edge density had a positive association with species richness and abundance of species inhabiting open land, as well as abundance of grassland indicator species and grassland specialists in landscapes with a low grassland share per transect. Our findings underscore the importance of low-intensity managed permanent grasslands at the landscape scale for specialised butterflies. Additionally, we highlight the importance of a high density of boundaries for open-land and specialised butterflies, particularly in landscapes with highly fragmented permanent grasslands. To improve future analyses of grassland management impacts, we recommend expanding DEBMS monitoring sites to cover a larger grassland management intensity gradient and to place more transects within grasslands.
... In the past two decades, numerous studies have been conducted to assess the impact of LULC change on ecosystem function and services (Alemneh et al., 2019;Molla et al., 2022). These studies have examined ecosystem service values (ESVs) at various spatial scales and have consistently revealed significant declines in ESVs at national and subnational levels (Assessment, 2005;Crespin and Simonetti, 2016;Sutton et al., 2016;Abate et al., 2022). For instance, changes in LULC in Africa have put immense pressure on ecosystem services, resulting in significant consequences for rural livelihoods (Arowolo et al., 2018;Scholes et al., 2018;Badamfirooz and Mousazadeh, 2019). ...
... Ecosystem services offer various direct or indirect positive benefits of nature to people, which are categorized by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEM) as provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services [1]. Ecosystem services are increasingly being destroyed and threatened due to the utilitarian consumption of natural resources [2,3]. Biodiversity has long been the uppermost concern in conservation planning, and over the last decade or two [4][5][6][7], high-value ecosystem service areas have become of great importance [8][9][10]. ...
The importance of protecting ecosystem services has been increasingly recognized due to their substantial benefits for human beings. Traditional conservation planning methods for locating and designing prioritized areas focus on high-value areas. However, ecosystem services have an intrinsic correlation of trade-offs and synergies among them; thus, solely selecting high-value areas cannot ensure efficiency in the conservation of multiple ecosystem services. Pursuing the protection of one ecosystem service may compromise the effectiveness of conserving others. Therefore, this study aims to develop a method for identifying the optimal ecosystem service protected areas in more efficient ways by quantifying the spatial relationships of ecosystem services on a local scale. We examined the correlations between all possible paired combinations of four ecosystem services using the Local Moran’s I and classified them into five cluster types in the Yangtze River Basin. To address conflicting solutions for multiple ecosystem service goals, we employed systematic conservation planning to identify priority areas for ecosystem service protection, following the principles of representativeness, complementarity, and persistence. By establishing scenarios that optimize each and all ecosystem services at target levels of 20%, 40%, 60%, and 80%, we observed that any two of the four services were positively correlated, occupying vast areas in the Yangtze River Basin. However, the high-value areas of each ecosystem service did not coincide in their spatial distributions. Under the same target, more high-value areas could be selected as the best solutions by only optimizing a single ecosystem service. The degree of overlap between priority areas varied considerably across optimizations for individual ecosystem services, particularly when setting lower targets. Our findings suggest that integrated conservation planning for all ecosystem services is more efficient than layering multiple single plans. Understanding the correlations between ecosystem services can lead to more effective management and sustainable decision making.
... Sin embargo, las actividades humanas impulsadas por la creciente demanda por estos servicios disminuyen la capacidad de resiliencia de los ecosistemas, y, por tanto, su capacidad para proveerlos (Díaz et al., 2006, Martín-López et al., 2007. En las últimas décadas, los SE vienen siendo degradados significativamente (TEEB, 2010, Sutton et al., 2016. A nivel global, se estima que el 60% de los servicios de los ecosistemas se han degradado y el 40% de los bosques se han perdido en solo 50 años (MEA 2005). ...
Mantener ecosistemas funcionales resulta crucial para el bienestar humano. Lamentablemente, se estima que alrededor del 60% de estos servicios han sido degradados a nivel mundial, lo que afecta su productividad y disminuye su resiliencia. Las soluciones basadas en la naturaleza se consideran una estrategia para contrarrestar la deforestación, la degradación del suelo, la disminución de la biodiversidad y el cambio climático. No obstante, la ausencia de financiamiento y de incentivos económicos puede representar un desafío para llevar a cabo estas acciones. En este artículo se discute los mecanismos económicos que buscan incentivar la conservación y la recuperación de la provisión de los servicios ecosistémicos (SE), como Pagos por Servicios Ambientales (PSA), programas de gobierno y mercados para la conservación. Una herramienta para viabilizar estas estrategias es la valoración económica de servicios ecosistémicos, que asigna valores monetarios a los beneficios que los ecosistemas proporcionan a las personas y sus actividades económicas. No obstante, la valoración económica es una herramienta cuantitativa y tangible sobre el valor del cambio en la provisión de los SE, incluye sesgos y limitaciones que deben ser considerados al interpretar los resultados. Se concluye que los instrumentos económicos pueden contribuir a mejorar la gobernanza ambiental, sin embargo, es crucial reconocer que no son soluciones universales. Su efectividad está condicionada por el contexto específico de su aplicación, pero además la falta de evidencia clara sobre la relación entre los beneficios ambientales y las estrategias propuestas plantea desafíos significativos, particularmente en el contexto peruano.
... Appendix A offers a summary of the classified USTs for the year 2020, whilst Appendix B shows the absolute changes in surface area for all 80 classified USTs between 2010 and 2020. Loss of cropland is significant, as it not only highlights reduced land for food production [84][85][86][87] but also the changing labour market and employment prospects [4,88,89] and, importantly, the loss of ecosystem services-particularly those associated with regulating floods [90], fresh air production [91][92][93], and carbon sequestration [94,95]. The number of agricultural-forestry-fishery households decreased by 6.38% annually during our assessment period, while the contribution of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries to the overall HCMC economic performance decreased from 1% in 2020 to 0.6% by 2020 [42]. ...
This paper contributes to the understanding of the recent urban development of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Previous studies have aimed at quantifying the city’s spatial growth yet have disregarded its inherent morphological and socio-economic heterogeneity. To overcome this knowledge gap, we employ an urban structure type approach for the spatially explicit quantification of urbanisation patterns for the period 2010–2020, categorising 77,000 blocks across the entire administrative area of 2095 km2. The approach allows us to understand the basic underlying processes of urbanisation, both quantitatively and qualitatively, and the main growth corridors along the rural–urban gradient. By contextualizing and combining our findings within current literature and official planning reports, we discern between traditional urban growth and the contemporary new town development patterns, highlighting their driving forces and policy implications. Incremental plot-by-plot development along the northwest development corridor is observed as the principal mode of urban development, whilst bypass urbanisation is seen along both the eastern and southern development corridors. Our block-based results highlight the city’s key growth challenges and provide insights on a scale that is meaningful for official spatial and infrastructure planning, and periodic analysis and monitoring. As far as the authors are aware, this is the first time that an urban structure type approach was applied to understand the rapid urban growth dynamics of an emerging megacity in Southeast Asia.
... Thus, land degradation is increasingly becoming one of the major challenges that society is currently facing. Therefore, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) expressed the need to prevent further degradation and to restore degraded lands at the 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (RIO +20) where the target of zero net land degradation was set (Sutton et al. 2016). Combating land degradation is also part of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as the third indicator of SDG 15 (Life on Land) which aims to protect, restore, and sustainably manage terrestrial ecosystems, forests, biodiversity, and combat desertification and land degradation (Keesstra, Visser, and De Cleen 2021). ...
More than 75% of the global land has already suffered degradation, leading to the recognition of land degradation as one of the foremost challenges society faces. This recognition stems from its profound adverse impacts on natural ecosystem functioning, biodiversity, soil productivity, and food availability. Consequently, understanding the spatial distribution of land degradation across all scales becomes imperative. This study employed land cover change and soil organic carbon (SOC) stock assessments to analyse land degradation within the eThekwini Municipality beyond the baseline period (2000-2015). Utilizing remote sensing and machine learning techniques, this research examined land degradation within the eThekwini Municipality over the period spanning 2000 to 2022. Landsat 7 (Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus-ETM+), Landsat 8 (Operational Land Imager 1-OLI1), and Landsat 9 (Operational Land Imager 2-OLI2) images were employed to extract variables for both land cover change and SOC stock prediction through XGBoost, LightGBM, Random Forest (RF), and Support Vector Machine (SVM) models. Among these models, LightGBM demonstrates superior performance, achieving an overall accuracy of 80.646 in land cover predictions and 77.869 in SOC stock predictions. Analysis of land cover change within the eThekwini Municipality unveiled a shift from forests and shrubland landscapes to cropland and built-up areas. This shift results in the municipality encountering losses in SOC stock between 2015 and 2022. The model predicted that most SOC stock losses occur at the 20-50 cm depth (9.27%), in comparison to the 7.21% loss at the 0-20 cm depth. These findings underscore the pivotal role of remote sensing and machine learning in aiding policymakers to assess land degradation and implement pertinent measures to enhance the landscape.
... The global degraded areas (~ 23%) have increased at 5-10 million ha per annum and have affected ~ 1.5 billion population (Stavi & Lal, 2015). Olsson and Schaepman (2008), Suttons et al., (2016), and Turner et al. (2016) have also calculated the cost of land degradation on a global scale. Kumar and Sharma (2020) have identified ~ 2.2 million hectares of reclaimed sodic soils that have contributed 17 million tons of food grain per annum, generated 15.5 billion rupees as assured income, and employed 2.8 million man-days. ...
Dynamics of soil salinity and sodicity is a common feature driven by anthropogenic causes such as soil reclamation, the effect of extreme climate events, disturbed salt, and water balance in irrigated areas that are devoid of any good quality groundwater source and adequate natural surface drainage condition in a semiarid climatic region. Periodic soil salinity assessment is therefore vital to know the current soil salinity status, plan reclamation, and/or management strategies for sustained agricultural growth and livelihood security. Temporal studies using Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) LISS III data, at pre- (1997) and post-reclamation (2017) stages have indicated spatial changes as reclaimed areas (~ 35%) and dynamics of soil salinity as increased areas (~ 61%) under irrigation across the Gangetic plain of Haryana State. The prominent areas of reclaimed sodic soil soils were located in the old alluvial plain which covered Panipat (12.32%), Karnal (6.01%), and Jind (5.9%) districts. Based on pH, ECe, and ESP values, these were classified as slight (Sso1, 8.75%), moderate (Sso2, 24.73%), and strong (Sso3, 18.20%) sodic soils, respectively. Significant salinity-inflictions (emerging areas) were identified at low-lying, poorly drained, irrigated soils in south and central Haryana that cover Jhajjar (13.99%), Sirsa (11.06%), Hisar (10.15%), Rohtak (8.73%), Bhiwani (6.43%), Palwal (4.31%), and Rewari (3.01%) districts. Slight (Ssa1, 16.82%), and moderate (Ssa2, 22.13%), categories are dominant soils, respectively. Among the landforms, significant areas (28.24%) were identified in the old alluvial plain with sand dunes (OAPSD), aeo-fluvial plain (AFP, 8.6%), and fluvio-aeolian plain (FAP, 6.0%), respectively. Dominant areas of reclaimed soils (14.4%) were identified in OAPSD. The soil analysis data indicated that these soil are moderate to strongly sodic (pH 8.7–11.0) and saline (ECe 4–26 dS m⁻¹). The reclaimed sodic soils showed prominent improvement in soil pH and sodicity levels (pH 8.3–9.2) at 0–15 cm depth and are commonly located in the Ghaggar and Yamuna river plains. Poor quality groundwater with high Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) was dominant at selected locations under the arid and semiarid climate. The database can also be used as a reference database for further monitoring of soil salinity status particularly in the irrigated regions. Currently, it is also used as a primary database for harmonization, monitoring, and reconciling of similar soils of the world under the Global Soil Partnership projects.
... Mounting evidence underscores a pressing concern, the global decline of wildlife populations and their (Sutton et al. 2016). The drivers behind these declines are multifaceted and complex, encompassing rapid human population growth, alterations in land use, habitat fragmentation, infrastructure expansion, trophy hunting, bushmeat trade, climate change, disease outbreaks, the proliferation of firearms, lax law enforcement, governance challenges, resource competition with livestock, and glaring socioeconomic disparities. ...
Occurrence of severe drought in northeastern Kenya has emerged as a critical threat to the giraffe population in the region, exacerbating a multitude of pre-existing challenges. The primary concern stems from the drying up of acacia trees, a crucial feed source for giraffes. As these trees wither due to the prolonged drought, the giraffes are confronted with a diminishing feed supply, leading to malnutrition and an alarming decline in their overall population. One immediate consequence of the drought is the migration of giraffes to neighboring countries such as Ethiopia and Somalia in search of sustenance. Unfortunately, the situation in these regions, particularly Somalia, has been aggravated by persistent civil unrest since 1991. The ongoing conflict not only exacerbates the challenges faced by giraffes but also poses additional threats to their survival. The violence and instability in these areas hinder conservation efforts, making it more difficult to implement protective measures and conservation programs. Beyond the drought and migration, giraffes in northeastern Kenya are grappling with a host of other issues. Habitat loss, primarily driven by human activities such as deforestation and land development, further diminishes the available living space for giraffes. The encroachment of agriculture, expanding settlements, and infrastructure development contribute to the shrinking of their natural habitats.
... Land use/cover (LULC) represents the closest connection between humans and nature, and it significantly impacts ecosystem structures and functions through biogeochemical cycle processes [11]. As such, LULC is a major driver of ecosystem service value (ESV) change and is decisive in maintaining ecosystem service functions [12,13]. ...
Key ecological function areas play a crucial role in safeguarding and rehabilitating ecosystems and mitigating regional ecological degradation. Unraveling the interconnectedness between land use/cover (LULC) transformation and the ecosystem service value (ESV) in these regions is of profound importance for sustainable development. In this paper, the LULC response in the Tumen River Basin (TRB) to an assessment of ESV from 2000 to 2020 was explored. An advanced equivalent factor that incorporates both biomass and socioeconomic factors was used to evaluate the ESV of the TRB. Taking the potential impact of factors such as temperature (TEM), precipitation (PRE), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), digital elevation model (DEM), soil organic matter content (SOMC), and human activity intensity of land surface (HAILS) into account, the patch-generating land use simulation model (PLUS) was used to simulate and predict the spatial evolution of the ESV under different land resource management strategies in 2030. The results indicate an increasing trend in the total ESV in the study area from 2000 to 2020, with forested land accounting for nearly 94% of the total ESV for the TRB. HAILS, DEM, and NDVI were identified as the main factors affecting the spatial differentiation of ESV. A negative correlation (−0.65) was found between ESV and the landscape shape ndex (LSI), indicating that more irregularly shaped landscapes have a lower ESV. Positive correlations were observed between the Shannon’s Diversity Index (SHDI) (0.72) and the Aggregation Index (AI) (0.60), suggesting that more diverse and interconnected landscapes have a higher ESV. The PLUS simulation results provide valuable data-based support for achieving planning objectives under different land resource management strategies. Specifically, these findings can serve as a reference for the integrated planning of land resources and environmental protection, promoting the sustainable development of ecological functional areas along the northeast border of China.
A comprehensive understanding of the spatial and temporal patterns of changes in ecosystem services, along with their driving factors, is crucial for managing ecosystems effectively and ensuring sustainable development in the area. Intense human activities and rapid urbanization have led to frequent land use/cover changes. Nanning, as a rapidly developing city, has received increasing attention for its ecosystem services. This research assesses the valuation of ecosystem services by employing the equivalent factor approach, utilizing land use data from Nanning City spanning the period from 2000 to 2020. It analyzes the spatial and temporal dynamics of these services and identifies key drivers through the application of a GeoDetector model. The results show the following: (1) Between 2000 and 2020, forests were the predominant ecosystem in Nanning City. During this period, significant land type conversions occurred, with the largest outflow from arable land and the largest inflow to construction land. (2) Over the 20 years, the aggregate value of ecosystem services (ESV) in Nanning exhibited a declining trend, culminating in a net reduction of USD 1056.8 million. Forest land ESVs constituted the largest proportion of the total value, exceeding 59%. Among the individual ESVs, hydrological regulation and climate regulation were the predominant services, collectively accounting for over 48% of the total value, with hydrological regulation contributing 20.7% and climate regulation 27.7%. (3) The ESVs in Nanning City exhibit pronounced spatial differentiation, with higher values concentrated in the central regions and lower values in peripheral zones. Notably, the high-value zones are experiencing a reduction in size, while the low-value zones are progressively expanding. (4) The findings from the GeoDetector analysis indicate that soil organic matter, urbanization rate, annual sunshine, financial expenditure, and population density are the primary determinants affecting ESV. Furthermore, the explanatory power of these influencing factors is substantially increased following interactive detection. This research provides a scientific basis for developing land management strategies and policies in Nanning City and holds substantial significance for advancing sustainable regional development.
Seedball technology is an uncomplicated and economical method for pelleting seeds, utilizing readily available materials like sand, loam, wood ash, and seeds themselves to enhance initial crop establishment. It is an inexpensive method that is unique and regulated and gives rise to new plants in areas lacking in flora, deforested areas, grasslands, and cultivable land used for agriculture and horticulture worldwide. Around the world, seed balls have grown to be a significant component of natural farming and conservation projects. With the use of inexpensive seed ball technology, this program aims to improve ecosystems and create a healthy environment in light of the financial differences between the public and private sectors. For the foundation of forests or the remnants of trees in an area where there was previously no tree cover, seed ball technology is helpful. Many agricultural and horticultural crops may be produced in difficult soils with seed ball technology without the need for field preparation, such as weeding, watering, or plowing, and with protection from ants, birds, and other unfavorable abiotic and biotic stresses. This chapter sheds light on different aspects of using seed balls for the restoration of degraded lands and tries to bring together available information regarding preparation techniques and usage methods of seed balls in order to improve seed establishment in degraded areas.
Soil sustains life and provides ecosystem services relevant for the environment, society, and the economy. However, soil is a finite resource and is vulnerable to degradation that reduces its ability to provide goods and services. The Mediterranean region is the area most susceptible to soil degradation and desertification within Europe, with ongoing climate change and increasing human pressure pushing soil natural capital to critical limits. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of direct and indirect drivers of soil degradation and future prospects for the Mediterranean region. Soil degradation in the region is caused by multiple drivers, including extreme climate events (e.g., droughts, floods), and human disturbances associated with land use and land (mis)management. Land use intensification (e.g., intensive agriculture and forestry, urbanization) and abandonment (e.g., uncontrolled biomass expansion, collapse of terraces) increase soil degradation. Some indirect drivers, such as demographic change, access to technology, market forces, and political aspects, also affect soil degradation. Based on climate and land use change projections, soil degradation is expected to continue or accelerate. With increasing recognition of the important role of soils in supporting achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, improved soil management and restoration measures may counterbalance predicted trends. Better understanding of the impacts of soil degradation drivers at different spatial and temporal scales is relevant for effectively managing the problem. Joint efforts by scientists from different disciplines, politicians, decision-makers, and landowners are required to devise and implement effective strategies to improve soil quality and achieve land degradation neutrality.
This study investigates the Dynamic Coupling between Land Use Economic Efficiency (LUEE) and Urban Ecological Resilience (UER) in the Yellow River Basin (YRB). This exploration is pivotal for elucidating the interaction mechanisms between economic growth and ecological governance. Furthermore, understanding this relationship is essential for fostering high-quality, sustainable urban development in the YRB. Utilizing panel data from 56 cities spanning 2003 to 2020, this study employed the coupling coordination degree (CCD) model, spatial correlation analysis, Kernel density estimation, convergence model, and Geodetector to systematically analyze the spatio-temporal distribution, dynamic trend, and determinants of the CCD between LUEE and UER in the YRB. The findings indicate that: (1) A general upward trend in both LUEE and UER, accompanied by a steady improvement in their CCD. (2) Significant spatial disparities in their CCD, with higher levels in the lower reaches. (3) Marked positive spatial autocorrelation, predominantly characterized by clusters where high (low) values are surrounded by high (low) values. (4) Regarding the impact of individual factors, government fiscal budget expenditure demonstrates the most robust explanatory power for the CCD within the YRB. Concerning the effects of two-factor interactions, the interplay between industrial structure upgrading and government fiscal budget expenditure emerges as the most significant determinant in influencing the CCD between LUEE and UER. This study enhances our comprehensive understanding of the interplay between economic and ecological systems. It offers scientific insights and strategic direction for harmonizing ecological governance with urban economic growth at both the regional and global scales.
Human activity and climate change are degrading the environmentally fragile Loess Plateau in dry and semiarid regions. Land deterioration threatens human and ecological existence. To prevent additional land degradation and ensure the ecological development and quality of arable land in the region, China launched “Grain for Green” in the late 1990s. This effort greatly boosted Loess Plateau vegetation. However, land degradation is complex, and so we must also examine natural and social variables to prevent additional degradation. Thus, this study presents a comprehensive index system to quantify land degradation on the Loess Plateau and uses machine learning to anticipate high‐risk locations. The project improved land degradation, and the spatial distribution of degradation risk is high in the northern and low in the eastern and southern regions of the Plateau. Gross Domestic Product and population density are the main drivers of land degradation. Industrialization and urbanization have raised the risk of land degradation, which now accounts for 1%–2% of the area. This study emphasizes sustainable land management in the Loess Plateau, a critical area for sustainable development in China. The integrated assessment indicator system and random forest modeling machine learning help grasp the current status and future preventive measures. The outcome of this study advances the Loess Plateau land degradation research and sustainable land management. The research findings possess significant scientific reference value in terms of mitigating and managing land degradation in environmentally vulnerable regions worldwide.
Land degradation poses major environmental and economic problems to Côte d'Ivoire because of the dependence of its economy on agriculture. There is a lot of literature measuring the effects of land degradation on crop productivity or qualitatively describing economic impacts on farmers' livelihoods. However, there is little knowledge available quantifying the economic losses in agriculture due to land degradation within a methodologically rigorous causal framework. Therefore, we evaluate the net farming income reduction caused by land degradation in the Trays ecosystem in Cote d'Ivoire using an instrumental variable two‐stage least square‐IV method and primary household surveys and soil sampling data collected from 780 farmers in this study area. The findings indicate that soil organic matter (SOM), education, property rights, and farm size squares positively influence the net farming income, while plot slope, erosion, and farm size reduce the net farmer incomes. Specifically, a reduction of 0.07 units on average of the net farming income is observed when the SOM decreases by 1 percentage point. These findings help us draw the attention of the farmers, government, and non‐governmental organizations to the necessity of adopting sustainable land management practices to deal with land degradation, and improve farmers' income and the population's welfare through maintaining fertile and healthy soils.
Growing demand of resources increases pressure on ecosystem services (ES) and biodiversity. Monetary valuation of ES is frequently seen as a decision-support tool by providing explicit values for unconsidered, non-market goods and services. Here we present global value transfer functions by using a meta-analytic framework for the synthesis of 194 case studies capturing 839 monetary values of ES. For 12 ES the variance of monetary values could be explained with a subset of 93 study- and site-specific variables by utilizing boosted regression trees. This provides the first global quantification of uncertainties and transferability of monetary valuations. Models explain from 18% (water provision) to 44% (food provision) of variance and provide statistically reliable extrapolations for 70% (water provision) to 91% (food provision) of the terrestrial earth surface. Although the application of different valuation methods is a source of uncertainty, we found evidence that assuming homogeneity of ecosystems is a major error in value transfer function models. Food provision is positively correlated with better life domains and variables indicating positive conditions for human well-being. Water provision and recreation service show that weak ownerships affect valuation of other common goods negatively (e.g. non-privately owned forests). Furthermore, we found support for the shifting baseline hypothesis in valuing climate regulation. Ecological conditions and societal vulnerability determine valuation of extreme event prevention. Valuation of habitat services is negatively correlated with indicators characterizing less favorable areas. Our analysis represents a stepping stone to establish a standardized integration of and reporting on uncertainties for reliable and valid benefit transfer as an important component for decision support.
Small and medium enterprises have difficulties keeping up-to-date and developing and commercialising innovations. To reduce the risk and the cost of this process and strengthen firms' innovation capacity, inter-organisational collaboration is being encouraged by incubators and science and technology parks. Here, we consider tenants from incubators and science parks in an emerging country and analyse specific attributes of collaboration such as goal congruency, governance and knowledge complementarity and their relationship to collaborative R&D project results. The objective of this article is to analyse the influence of these R&D collaboration attributes on the results of R&D projects. Our theoretical framework was empirically tested through a quantitative survey conducted among 119 Brazilian tenants, whose data were analysed using structural equation modelling. We found that some collaborative attributes are significantly related to innovative project results. These results yield interesting implications and insights regarding inter-organisational collaboration and innovation within incubators and science parks, stimulating the debate among scholars and practitioners.C. (2016) 'Collaborative R&D and project results within Brazilian incubators and science parks', Int.
The comparison of the Ecological Footprint and its counterpart (i.e. biocapacity) allow for a classification of the world's countries as ecological creditors (Ecological Footprint lower than biocapacity) or debtors (Ecological Footprint higher than biocapacity). This classification is a national scale assessment on an annual time scale that provides a view of the ecological assets appropriated by the local population versus the natural ecological endowment of a country. We show that GDP per capita over a certain threshold is related with the worsening of the footprint balance in countries classified as ecological debtors. On the other hand, this correlation is lost when ecological creditor nations are considered. There is evidence that governments and investors from high GDP countries are playing a crucial role in impacting the environment at the global scale which is significantly affecting the geography of sustainability and preventing equal opportunities for development. In particular, international market dynamics and the concentration of economic power facilitate the transfer of biocapacity related to “land grabbing”, i.e. large scale acquisition of agricultural land. This transfer mainly occurs from low to high GDP countries, regardless of the actual need of foreign biocapacity, as expressed by the national footprint balance. A first estimation of the amount of biocapacity involved in this phenomenon is provided in this paper in order to better understand its implications on global sustainability and national and international land use policy.
Degraded lands have often been suggested as a solution to issues of land scarcity and as an ideal way to meet mounting global demands for agricultural goods, but their locations and conditions are not well known. Four approaches have been used to assess degraded lands at the global scale: expert opinion, satellite observation, biophysical models, and taking inventory of abandoned agricultural lands. We review prominent databases and methodologies used to estimate the area of degraded land, translate these data into a common framework for comparison, and highlight reasons for discrepancies between the numbers. Global estimates of total degraded area vary from less than 1 billion ha to over 6 billion ha, with equally wide disagreement in their spatial distribution. The risk of overestimating the availability and productive potential of these areas is severe, as it may divert attention from efforts to reduce food and agricultural waste or the demand for land-intensive commodities.
Soil, an important component of land, has numerous functions and ecosystem services essential to all terrestrial life. Soil degradation, decline in its capacity to support functions and provide ecosystem services, is caused by accelerated erosion, salinization, elemental imbalance, acidification, depletion of soil organic carbon (SOC), reduction in soil biodiversity, and decline in soil structure and tilth. Desertification, a sub-set of degradation, specifically refers to decline in soil quality and functions in arid climates. Climate change affects and is affected by soil degradation through a positive feed back due to increase in mineralization of SOC pool and the radiative forcing. Desertification may lead to a net increase in temperature despite change in albedo of the denuded surface. Feedbacks and threshold amplify the risks of degradation, and the projected climate change may exacerbate all four types of drought (i.e., meteorological, hydrological, pedagogical, and ecological). The mutually reinforcing positive feedbacks between soil degradation and climate change are strongly influenced by social, economic, political, and cultural factors. There exists a strong link between poverty, desperateness, and societal collapse on soil degradation and climate change. Restoration of degraded and desertified soils, converting marginal agricultural areas to rangeland and forest land, and adoption of recommended management practices have a large technical potential to sequester carbon and off-set anthropogenic emissions, improve the environment, and enhance and sustain agronomic productivity. Important among recommended management practices are using conservation agriculture and mulch farming, establishing cover crops, adopting strategies of integrated nutrient management, and those which create positive C and nutrient budgets and soil/water conservation within a watershed. Long-term research is needed which is hypothesis-driven, uses modern innovative research and modeling tools, is based on community involvement, and provides decision support systems to policy makers and land managers.
The global change research community needs to renew its social contract with society by moving beyond a focus on biophysical
limits and toward solution-oriented research to provide realistic, context-specific pathways to a sustainable future. A focus
on planetary opportunities is based on the premise that societies adapt to change and have historically implemented solutions—for
example, to protect watersheds, improve food security, and reduce harmful atmospheric emissions. Daunting social and biophysical
challenges for achieving a sustainable future demand that the global change research community work to provide underpinnings
for workable solutions at multiple scales of governance. Global change research must reorient itself from a focus on biophysically
oriented, global-scale analysis of humanity's negative impact on the Earth system to consider the needs of decisionmakers
from household to global scales.
A unique combination of satellite and socioeconomic data were used to explore the relationship between human consumption and the carbon cycle. The amount of Earth's net primary production (NPP) required to support human activities is a powerful measure of the aggregate impact on the biosphere and indicator of societal vulnerability to climate change. Biophysical models were applied to consumption data to estimate the annual amount of Earth's terrestrial net primary production humans require for food, fiber (including fabrication) and fuel using the same modeling architecture as satellite-supported NPP measurements. The amount of NPP required was calculated on a per capita basis and projected onto a global map of population to create a spatially explicit map of NPP-carbon ``demand'' in units of elemental carbon. NPP demand was compared to a map of Earth's average annual net primary production or ``supply'' created using 17 years (1982-1998) of AVHRR vegetation index to produce a geographically accurate balance sheet of NPP-carbon ``supply'' and ``demand'' for the globe. Globally, humans consume 20% of Earth's total net primary production on land. Regionally, the NPP-carbon balance percentage varies from 6% to over 70% and locally from near 0% to over 30,000% in major urban areas. Scenarios modeling the impact of per capita consumption, population growth, and technology suggest that NPP demand is likely to increase substantially in the next 40 years despite better harvesting and processing efficiencies.
Landscapes generate a wide range of valuable ecosystem services, yet land-use decisions often ignore the value of these services.
Using the example of the United Kingdom, we show the significance of land-use change not only for agricultural production
but also for emissions and sequestration of greenhouse gases, open-access recreational visits, urban green space, and wild-species
diversity. We use spatially explicit models in conjunction with valuation methods to estimate comparable economic values for
these services, taking account of climate change impacts. We show that, although decisions that focus solely on agriculture
reduce overall ecosystem service values, highly significant value increases can be obtained from targeted planning by incorporating
all potential services and their values and that this approach also conserves wild-species diversity.
The services of ecological systems and the natural capital stocksthat produce them are critical to the functioning of the
Earth’s life-support system. They contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent
part of the total economic value of the planet.We have estimated the current economic value of 17 ecosystem services
for 16 biomes, based on published studies and a few original calculations. For the entire biosphere, the value (most of
which is outside the market) is estimated to be in the range of US33trillion per year. Because of the nature of the uncertainties, thismust be considered a minimum estimate. Global
gross national product total is around US$18 trillion per year.
Aim To map and characterize anthropogenic transformation of the terrestrial biosphere before and during the Industrial Revolution, from 1700 to 2000.
Location Global.
Methods Anthropogenic biomes (anthromes) were mapped for 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2000 using a rule‐based anthrome classification model applied to gridded global data for human population density and land use. Anthropogenic transformation of terrestrial biomes was then characterized by map comparisons at century intervals.
Results In 1700, nearly half of the terrestrial biosphere was wild, without human settlements or substantial land use. Most of the remainder was in a seminatural state (45%) having only minor use for agriculture and settlements. By 2000, the opposite was true, with the majority of the biosphere in agricultural and settled anthromes, less than 20% seminatural and only a quarter left wild. Anthropogenic transformation of the biosphere during the Industrial Revolution resulted about equally from land‐use expansion into wildlands and intensification of land use within seminatural anthromes. Transformation pathways differed strongly between biomes and regions, with some remaining mostly wild but with the majority almost completely transformed into rangelands, croplands and villages. In the process of transforming almost 39% of earth's total ice‐free surface into agricultural land and settlements, an additional 37% of global land without such use has become embedded within agricultural and settled anthromes.
Main conclusions Between 1700 and 2000, the terrestrial biosphere made the critical transition from mostly wild to mostly anthropogenic, passing the 50% mark early in the 20th century. At present, and ever more in the future, the form and process of terrestrial ecosystems in most biomes will be predominantly anthropogenic, the product of land use and other direct human interactions with ecosystems. Ecological research and conservation efforts in all but a few biomes would benefit from a primary focus on the novel remnant, recovering and managed ecosystems embedded within used lands.
This paper presents a modeling approach aimed at seasonal resolution of global climatic and edaphic controls on patterns of terrestrial ecosystem production and soil microbial respiration. We use satellite imagery (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer and International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project solar radiation), along with historical climate (monthly temperature and precipitation) and soil attributes (texture, C and N contents) from global (1°) data sets as model inputs. The Carnegie-Ames-Stanford approach (CASA) Biosphere model runs on a monthly time interval to simulate seasonal patterns in net plant carbon fixation, biomass and nutrient allocation, litterfall, soil nitrogen mineralization, and microbial CO2 production. The model estimate of global terrestrial net primary production is 48 Pg C yr-1 with a maximum light use efficiency of 0.39 g C MJ-1 PAR. Over 70% of terrestrial net production takes place between 30°N and 30°S latitude. Seasonal variations in atmospheric CO2 concentrations from three stations in the Geophysical Monitoring for Climate Change Flask Sampling Network correlate significantly with estimated net ecosystem production values by latitude. -from Authors
Increasing population and consumption are placing unprecedented demands on agriculture and natural resources. Today, approximately a billion people are chronically malnourished while our agricultural systems are concurrently degrading land, water, biodiversity and climate on a global scale. To meet the world's future food security and sustainability needs, food production must grow substantially while, at the same time, agriculture's environmental footprint must shrink dramatically. Here we analyse solutions to this dilemma, showing that tremendous progress could be made by halting agricultural expansion, closing 'yield gaps' on underperforming lands, increasing cropping efficiency, shifting diets and reducing waste. Together, these strategies could double food production while greatly reducing the environmental impacts of agriculture.
"Approaches to natural resource management are often based on a presumed ability to predict probabilistic responses to management and external drivers such as climate. They also tend to assume that the manager is outside the system being managed. However, where the objectives include long-term sustainability, linked social-ecological systems (SESs) behave as complex adaptive systems, with the managers as integral components of the system. Moreover, uncertainties are large and it may be difficult to reduce them as fast as the system changes. Sustainability involves maintaining the functionality of a system when it is perturbed, or maintaining the elements needed to renew or reorganize if a large perturbation radically alters structure and function. The ability to do this is termed 'resilience.' This paper presents an evolving approach to analyzing resilience in SESs, as a basis for managing resilience. We propose a framework with four steps, involving close involvement of SES stakeholders. It begins with a stakeholder-led development of a conceptual model of the system, including its historical profile (how it got to be what it is) and preliminary assessments of the drivers of the supply of key ecosystem goods and services. Step 2 deals with identifying the range of unpredictable and uncontrollable drivers, stakeholder visions for the future, and contrasting possible future policies, weaving these three factors into a limited set of future scenarios. Step 3 uses the outputs from steps 1 and 2 to explore the SES for resilience in an iterative way. It generally includes the development of simple models of the system's dynamics for exploring attributes that affect resilience. Step 4 is a stakeholder evaluation of the process and outcomes in terms of policy and management implications. This approach to resilience analysis is illustrated using two stylized examples."
The services of ecological systems and the natural capital stocks that produce them are critical to the functioning of the Earth's life-support system. They contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent part of the total economic value of the planet. We have estimated the current economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 18 biomes, based on published studies and a few original calculations. For the entire biosphere, the value (most of which in outside the market) in estimated to be in the range of US33 trillion per year. Because of the nature of the uncertainties, thin must be considered a minimum estimate. Global gross national product total is around US$18 trillion per year.
Identifying and quantifying planetary boundaries that must not be transgressed could help prevent human activities from causing unacceptable environmental change, argue Johan Rockström and colleagues.
Debate on global soil degradation, its extent and agronomic impact, can only be resolved through understanding of the processes and factors leading to establishment of the cause-effect relationships for major soils, ecoregions, and land uses. Systematic evaluation through long-term experimentation is needed for establishing quantitative criteria of (i) soil quality in relation to specific functions; (ii) soil degradation in relation to critical limits of key soil properties and processes; and (iii) soil resilience in relation to the ease of restoration through judicious management and discriminate use of essential input. Quantitative assessment of soil degradation can be obtained by evaluating its impact on productivity for different land uses and management systems. Interdisciplinary research is needed to quantify soil degradation effects on decrease in productivity, reduction in biomass, and decline in environment quality throught pollution and eutrophication of natural waters and emission of radiatively-active gases from terrestrial ecosystems to the atmosphere. Data from long-term field experiments in principal ecoregions are specifically needed to (i) establish relationships between soil quality versus soil degradation and soil quality versus soil resilience; (ii) identify indicators of soil quality and soil resilience; and (iii) establish critical limits of important properties for soil degradation and soil resilience. There is a need to develop and standardize techniques for measuring soil resilience.
Previous global estimates of the human impact on terrestrial photosynthesis products depended heavily on extrapolation from plot-scale measurements. Here, we estimated this impact with the use of recent data, many of which were collected at global and continental scales. Monte Carlo techniques that incorporate known and estimated error in our parameters provided estimates of uncertainty. We estimate that humans appropriate 10 to 55% of terrestrial photosynthesis products. This broad range reflects uncertainty in key parameters and makes it difficult to ascertain whether we are approaching crisis levels in our use of the planet's resources. Improved estimates will require high-resolution global measures within agricultural lands and tropical forests.
Sustainability requires living within the regenerative capacity of the biosphere. In an attempt to measure the extent to which humanity satisfies this requirement, we use existing data to translate human demand on the environment into the area required for the production of food and other goods, together with the absorption of wastes. Our accounts indicate that human demand may well have exceeded the biosphere's regenerative capacity since the 1980s. According to this preliminary and exploratory assessment, humanity's load corresponded to 70% of the capacity of the global biosphere in 1961, and grew to 120% in 1999.
The human population and its consumption profoundly affect the Earth's ecosystems. A particularly compelling measure of humanity's cumulative impact is the fraction of the planet's net primary production that we appropriate for our own use. Net primary production--the net amount of solar energy converted to plant organic matter through photosynthesis--can be measured in units of elemental carbon and represents the primary food energy source for the world's ecosystems. Human appropriation of net primary production, apart from leaving less for other species to use, alters the composition of the atmosphere, levels of biodiversity, energy flows within food webs and the provision of important ecosystem services. Here we present a global map showing the amount of net primary production required by humans and compare it to the total amount generated on the landscape. We then derive a spatial balance sheet of net primary production 'supply' and 'demand' for the world. We show that human appropriation of net primary production varies spatially from almost zero to many times the local primary production. These analyses reveal the uneven footprint of human consumption and related environmental impacts, indicate the degree to which human populations depend on net primary production 'imports' and suggest policy options for slowing future growth of human appropriation of net primary production.
Human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP), the aggregate impact of land use on biomass available each year in ecosystems, is a prominent measure of the human domination of the biosphere. We present a comprehensive assessment of global HANPP based on vegetation modeling, agricultural and forestry statistics, and geographical information systems data on land use, land cover, and soil degradation that localizes human impact on ecosystems. We found an aggregate global HANPP value of 15.6 Pg C/yr or 23.8% of potential net primary productivity, of which 53% was contributed by harvest, 40% by land-use-induced productivity changes, and 7% by human-induced fires. This is a remarkable impact on the biosphere caused by just one species. We present maps quantifying human-induced changes in trophic energy flows in ecosystems that illustrate spatial patterns in the human domination of ecosystems, thus emphasizing land use as a pervasive factor of global importance. Land use transforms earth's terrestrial surface, resulting in changes in biogeochemical cycles and in the ability of ecosystems to deliver services critical to human well being. The results suggest that large-scale schemes to substitute biomass for fossil fuels should be viewed cautiously because massive additional pressures on ecosystems might result from increased biomass harvest.
• biomass
• global environmental change
• human impact
• biosphere
• land use
Earths resources are consumed by one of its 5-30 million species homo sapiens or man at a rate disproportionately greater than any other species. Mans impact on the biosphere is measured in terms of net primary production (NPP). NPP is the amount of energy remaining after the respiration of primary producers (mostly plants) is subtracted from the total amount of biologically fixed energy (mostly solar). Human output is determined by 1) the direct NPP used for food fuel fiber or timber which yields a low estimate 2) all NPP of cropland devoted to human activity and 3) both 1) and 2) and land conversion for cities or pastures as well as conversion which results in desertification and overuse of lands. This last output determination yields a high estimate. Calculations are made for global NPP and each of the 3 estimates of low intermediate and high human output. Data are based on estimates by Ajtay et al. Armentano and Loucks and Houghton et al. and on the Food and Agriculture Organizations (FAO) summaries. Petagram (Pg) is used to calculate organic matter; this is equivalent to 10 to the 15th power grams or 10 to the 9th power metric tons. Carbon has been converted to organic matter by multiplying by 2.2. Matter in kilocalories has been converted to organic matter by dividing by 5. Intermediate or conservative estimates have been included. The standard of biomass is 1244 Pg and an annual NPP to 132.1. The NPP of marine and freshwater ecosystems is considered to be 92.4 Pg which is a low estimate. The low calculation of human (5 billion persons) consumption of plants at a caloric intake of 2500 kilocalories/person/day is .91 Pg of organic matter which equals .76 Pg of vegetable matter. The global production of human food is 1/7 Pg for grains and for human and livestock fed or .85 Pg of dry grain material and .3 Pg in nongrain dry material with dry grain material and .3 Pg in nongrain dry material with a subtraction of 20% for water content. 34% or .39 Pg is lost to waste and spoilage. Consumption by livestock forest usage and aquatic ecosystems is computed. The overall estimate for human use if 7.2 Pg of organic matter/year or 3% of total NPP/year. The intermediate figures take into account cropland pastureland forest use and conversion; the overall estimate of human use is 42.6 Pg of NPP/year of 19.0% (42.6/224.5) of NPP (30.7% on land and 2.2% on seas). The high estimate yields human use of 58.1 Pg/year on land or 40% (58.1/149.6) of potential land productivity or 25% (60.1/149.8 + 92.4) of land and water NPP. The remaining 60% of land is also affected by humans. The figures reflect the current patterns of exploitation distribution and consumption of a much larger population. These patterns amount to using >50% of NPP of land; there must be limits to growth.
The current mainstream model of the global economy is based on a number of assumptions about the way the world works, what the economy is, and what the economy is for. (See Table 11-1.) These assumptions arose in an earlier period, when the world was relatively empty of humans and their artifacts. Built capital was the limiting factor, while natural capital was abundant. It made sense not to worry too much about environmental "externalities", since they could be assumed to be relatively small and ultimately solvable. It also made sense to focus on the growth of the market economy, as measured by gross domestic product (GDP), as a primary means to improve human welfare. And it made sense to think of the economy as only marketed goods and services and to think of the goal as increasing the amount of these that were produced and consumed.
The earth provides myriad ecosystem services or ‘benefits’ that enable and enhance human existence. Humanity, in turn, imposes myriad environmental impacts or ‘costs’ on the earth. We explore the idea of mapping these ‘costs’ and ‘benefits’ using proxy measures. We set the total value of the world's ecosystem services to be equal to the total cost of anthropogenic environmental impacts at fifty trillion dollars (roughly the global GDP in the year 2000). A global representation of ecosystem service value is mapped at 1km2 resolution using Net Primary Productivity (NPP) as a proxy measure of ecosystem service value (‘benefit’). A similar global representation of environmental impact is mapped using pavement (i.e., anthropogenically created impervious surface area or ISA) as a proxy measure of ‘cost’. Subtracting the 50 trillion mapped onto ISA from the 50 trillion mapped onto NPP produces a 1km2 resolution map of those areas where: (1) human imposed costs exceed naturally supplied benefits, resulting in an ecological deficit, (2) human costs balance with environmental benefits and (3) environmental benefits exceed human costs, resulting in an ecological surplus. Mapping this ecological balance produces a spatially explicit and monetized representation of ecological sustainability that can be aggregated to national, sub-national, and regional levels. Aggregations of this map at the national level are compared with other national measures of biophysical sustainability such as the Global Footprint Network's ‘Eco-Deficit’. An additional benefit of this approach is that the national values derived from this difference map suggest a starting point for discussions of the dollar values and costs of both under and over consumption of ecosystem services on the part of the nations of the world.
The restoration of New Orleans and the rest of the Mississippi delta after Hurricane Katrina can become another disaster waiting to happen, or it can become a model of sustainable development. Sea level is rising, precipitation patterns are changing, hurricane intensity is increasing, energy costs are predicted to soar, and the city is continuing to sink. Most of New Orleans is currently from 0.6 to 5 m (2-15 feet) below sea level. The conventional approach of simply rebuilding the levees and the city behind them will only delay the inevitable. If New Orleans, and the delta in which it is located, can develop and pursue a new paradigm, it could be a truly unique, sustainable, and desirable city, and an inspiration to people around the world. This paper discusses the underlying causes and implications of the Katrina disaster, basic goals for a sustainable redevelopment initiative, and seven principles necessary for a sustainable vision for the future of New Orleans and the Mississippi delta.
