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Learning and memory under stress: implications for the classroom
Abstract and Figures
Exams, tight deadlines and interpersonal conflicts are just a few examples of the many events that may result in high levels of stress in both students and teachers. Research over the past two decades identified stress and the hormones and neurotransmitters released during and after a stressful event as major modulators of human learning and memory processes, with critical implications for educational contexts. While stress around the time of learning is thought to enhance memory formation, thus leading to robust memories, stress markedly impairs memory retrieval, bearing, for instance, the risk of underachieving at exams. Recent evidence further indicates that stress may hamper the updating of memories in the light of new information and induce a shift from a flexible, ‘cognitive’ form of learning towards rather rigid, ‘habit’-like behaviour. Together, these stress-induced changes may explain some of the difficulties of learning and remembering under stress in the classroom. Taking these insights from psychology and neuroscience into account could bear the potential to facilitate processes of education for both students and teachers.
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... This feeling of stress may be a key mechanism that leads to improved memory retention observed when students use retrieval practice as a learning strategy (Pyc & Rawson, 2009;Vaughn & Kornell, 2019), but not all stress seems to be created equal. For instance, the literature on stress and memory highlights how learning can be enhanced under two unique conditions: when a stressor is contextually related to the learning task and when a stressor occurs at or near the time of the learning (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). However, when a stressor is contextually unrelated and occurs long before the learning task, then it is more likely to impede memory encoding, therefore making learning new material more difficult (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). ...
... For instance, the literature on stress and memory highlights how learning can be enhanced under two unique conditions: when a stressor is contextually related to the learning task and when a stressor occurs at or near the time of the learning (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). However, when a stressor is contextually unrelated and occurs long before the learning task, then it is more likely to impede memory encoding, therefore making learning new material more difficult (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). Despite having an association with discomfort and stress, few studies have directly examined the role of stress as it relates to benefits observed from retrieval practice. ...
... two key factors to consider when interpreting these findings are the temporal proximity of stress and the contextual match of the source of stress and the learning task, as both of these factors relate to memory encoding in different ways (see Figure 5 for conceptual rendering; Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). Regarding temporal proximity, when a stressful event is temporally distal to the moment when memory encoding occurs -as in the case of race-based stressors that occur before the retrieval task -memory encoding during the retrieval practice task is more likely to be impaired (de Quervain et al., 2000). ...
Retrieval practice is a well-documented study strategy that promotes learning. Stress, which can both enhance and harm learning, may be a key mechanism underlying the efficacy of disfluent learning strategies such as retrieval practice. However, little is known about how effective retrieval practice is for diverse groups of college students, who may experience greater daily race-based stress. In this study, a group of Latinx (n = 59) and White (n = 49) college students participated in a retrieval practice task involving Japanese vocabulary learning. Latinx students reported their experiences with race-based stressors including microaggressions, acculturative stress, and minority stress. Both Latinx and White students benefitted from retrieval practice, as evidenced by increased vocabulary knowledge after a 1-week delay. However, Latinx students’ reports of race-based stress were associated with worse overall performance on the task in comparison to their White peers. These findings suggest that while retrieval practice supports learning, important individual differences in this effect may exist related to students lived experiences.
... This is a holistic view of student success that recognizes the importance of both doing well and feeling well. Despite theory and evidence indicating that student success includes aspects of both academic performance and student experiences (Chou et al., 2011;de la Fuente et al., 2020;Denovan & Macaskill, 2017;Pascoe et al., 2020;Vogel & Schwabe, 2016), student success research frequently examines these outcomes in isolation. This study therefore examines the impact of stress beliefs on two types of student success outcomes: (a) academic performance and (b) student experiences. ...
... Stress is expected in academic settings where students are pursuing personally relevant goals and the context is evaluative, goal-oriented, and performance-based (Brooks, 2014;Jamieson et al., 2018;Park et al., 2018). Responding to stress adaptively is integral to wellbeing (Denovan & Macaskill, 2017) and adaptive learning (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). When not managed well, academic-related stress can reduce academic achievement, decrease motivation, increase risk of dropout, and reduce retention (Pascoe et al., 2020). ...
University students experience stress from academic demands. Stress is in fact expected in academic settings and important for achieving goals. How students experience the inevitable stress in the academic context, and whether stress is a support or hindrance for them, is related to their beliefs about stress. This study examined two types of beliefs regarding academic stress: (a) perceptions of being capable of coping with academic stress and demands, named coping self-efficacy, and (b) general beliefs regarding stress itself, named stress mindset, and the impact of those two stress beliefs on two types of outcomes related to student success: academic performance (GPA) and student experiences (mental health, perceived motivation challenges). Findings indicate coping self-efficacy positively predicts higher mental health and lower motivation challenges; neither stress mindset nor coping self-efficacy predicted GPA. Coping self-efficacy in the university context, which denotes feeling capable of managing stress and academic demands, emerged as a useful predictor of student success outcomes. As eliminating stress altogether is not practical or possible, this research focuses on beliefs about stress as important for student success.
... This perhaps, lays down a strong pavement on the students' perceptions of general classroom climate, considering it as a main aspect to develop a profound understanding of school stress. A study conducted by Vogel and Schwabe (2016) reported that the outcomes of the stress were found to be complex, with stress showing both augmenting and weakening effects on memory, depending on several parameters. Many factors, such as prerequisite to complete examinations and assessments, and meeting targets leads to massive stress, which eventually shows a detrimental impression on the learning and the memory process, that are the main attributes of the educational system (Joels et al., 2006;Schwabe et al., 2012). ...
... Nearly 16.3% of the students replied that they are facing difficulty in communicating, whereas the remaining students have cited several other reasons for behavioral effects they have noticed in the recent past. A study conducted by Vogel and Schwabe (2016) reported that the effects of stress were found to be complex in nature, leading to show impact on the memory, varying with various parameters. It can be inferred that the students need support from their parents and teachers, and need regular counseling to cope up with the behavioral changes. ...
Stress is the state of worry or mental situation caused due to the situations that everyone faces in everyday life, sometimes it seems to be minor, however, shows an unidentified impact. The present generation is witnessing the stress as a part of life and unavoidable. The main objective of this study was to study and understand the stress levels of the current generation students, particularly, school going students, as they will become the roots of the future. This study was also aimed at studying the relationship between stress and coping strategies adopted by the students and propose appropriate stress coping mechanisms, with respect to the schools visited. The results suggest that there is a need for the schools to operate hybrid-counseling centers for the students apart from their parents support to provide necessary support in effectively handling the stressful conditions. The results further suggest that the teachers employ information and communication technology (ICT) tools to instill conceptual learning, ultimately aiming to minimize stress in the academics. Furthermore, it is also suggested that the schools should encourage the students and make it mandatory to implement yoga techniques, which would instill self-controlling techniques, discipline and help in combating the stressful conditions.
... These time constraints can certainly be a factor for SLP students enrolled in multiple courses and clinical experiences, who have reported time management as an extreme stressor during graduate school (Lieberman et al., 2018). The physiological experience of stress impacts both memory formation and recall, such that student stress can negatively impact the storage of details while reading and the retrieval of learned information while taking quizzes (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). ...
... Stress is an important factor to consider in graduate students, particularly in the field of communication sciences and disorders (Beck et al., 2020;Beck et al., 2021;Lieberman et al., 2018). Stress can impact performance on assignments due to interference with memory recall and can also interfere with the integration of new learning and existing knowledge (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). Allowing students to choose a less stressful quiz format may limit the negative consequences of stress on learning. ...
... Stress hormones disrupt both the short-term and long-term memory formation and retrieval process. 11 These hormones activate the limbic system in order to reinstate endocrine homeostasis and protect individuals in the long run. There are two components of the limbic system that respond to increases in stress: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), leading to the immediate release of catecholamines like epinephrine, and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which releases glucocorticoids like cortisol. ...
... 23 Specifically, the stress response impairs memory retrieval over 20 minutes after the stressor. 11 In line with the aforementioned study on rats, humans who experienced stress 25 minutes before a memory recall test exhibited impaired memory function compared to a control group. 24 Those in the stress group still had weakened memory recall during testing 90 minutes after stress exposure, despite recovered cortisol levels. ...
... Current evidence also suggests that stress can hinder the updating of memories confronted with new information and trigger a shift from a flexible, 'cognitive' form of learning to more rigid, 'habitual' behavior. Taken together, these stress-related changes may explain some of the difficulties in learning and remembering under stress (Vogel & Schwabe 2016). High levels of stress can impair cognitive function, attention and memory recall, resulting in difficulty concentrating, processing information and retaining new knowledge. ...
... While teachers cannot control stress that occurs outside of school, they can take precautions to protect students within the classroom and school environment. Stress in the classroom can interfere with learning and social connectedness with peers, thus affecting students' social-emotional development (Creager, 2022;Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). Teachers adopting a trauma-informed approach consider students' mental health needs in addition to education needs, thus utilizing a more holistic pedagogical approach that supports student development. ...
... The interaction of emotion and learning takes place primarly via an influence on attention (Frederickson, 2001;Pekrun, 2014), cognition (Abele, 1995;Frederickson, 2001;Pekrun, 2014), memory (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016), interest and motivational effects (Abele, 1995;Pekrun, 2014). In addition, researchers could show that emotions also have an influence on self-regulation (Pekrun, 2014) and the use of learning strategies (Acosta-Gonzaga & Ramirez-Arellano, 2021). ...
The emotional experience of situations and interactions with other people plays an important role in teaching and learning processes and interacts with cognitive as well as motivational and intentional factors in the acquisition of knowledge. In our qualitative investigation, we explored participants' experiences in the initial phase of a community-based research service-learning project that dealt with issues of social inequality, poverty and homelessness. We were particularly interested in the affective processes in the project's planning phase and during the first meetings between community partners, homeless people and the participating students. After completing the course, we conducted guided qualitative online interviews with the course participants. The interviews were fully transcribed verbatim. We then coded and analysed the data using qualitative content analysis approach. It became apparent that the students were particularly anxious and apprehensive about working with vulnerable groups of people. This manifested itself in uncertainty, nervousness, fears and negative feelings. Regarding the collaboration with the community partners, the emotional situation varied among the students in the initial phase. We conclude that students' fears, anxieties, and uncertainties in the planning phase of a service-learning or community-based research project should be taken seriously. A relaxed and positive atmosphere at the first meetings can be viewed as particularly important for project progression and the students' future learning success.
... In its physiological aspect, these stimuli are found in electrochemical processes and neurotransmitters, where various substances released in the brain stimulate physical, emotional, communicative, and behavioral responses. Methods like the universal design for learning (UDL) are clear about the potential of emotions (Meyer et al., 2014) and base much of their success on the management of dopamine (a hormone related to satisfaction, problem-solving reward, and positive reinforcement), oxytocin (a neurotransmitter with natural analgesic properties released after high-intensity experiences to promote a pleasant and happy sensation), adrenaline (which, along with serotonin, regulates circuits of excitement and physical and emotional rest), and endorphins (released in response to stress, imbalance, or cognitive dissonance), among many other molecules that play essential roles in cognitive processes (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016;Takahashi et al., 2023). ...
This paper addresses the role of trust and emotional connection in the learning process as a human mechanism for social construction, and its adaptation to an emerging educational ecosystem where artificial intelligence (AI) performs various teaching tasks and trend analysis. Likewise, it highlights widespread concerns about the arbitrariness and biases of algorithms in decision-making based on vast data archives (big data). Methodologically, this paper presents neither a case study nor experimental results based on events. Rather, it establishes a mindset that can open a field of future study. Descriptive analysis is used to detect terms, ideas and concepts that will provide elements for a further study of word frequencies and other linguistic analyses (usage of key words, etc.) to elaborate consciousness acquisition and social transformation processes. In sum, the paper discusses the role of trust in educational matters, from creating emotional bonds in the classroom to the institutional credibility conflict arising from the use of AI algorithms in decision-making to replace scientific evidence (acceptance of algorithmism) or the suspicion that AI arouses in terms of privacy, security, and impartiality (rejection of algoritharism).
... The authors speculated that these differences may be attributed to the lower value placed on education within families with lower SES, potentially leading to reduced engagement in school and absenteeism. Additionally, the stress these students experience due to their financial hardship and associated physical and psychosocial stressors (e.g., chaotic family environment) 115 might impair cognitive functions 116 and make it more challenging for them to participate actively in class. ...
Socioeconomic status (SES) influences school success. Students with lower SES may face challenges that this study tries to address by instructional scaffolding. To be effective, such support needs to consider students’ individual strengths and weaknesses. In this study, 321 sixth-grade students used an e-textbook about fractions. They were randomly assigned to receive either adaptive task difficulty, explanatory feedback, or dynamic visualizations as scaffolds or no scaffolding. We assessed their fraction knowledge at pre- and post-test and nine cognitive and motivational-affective variables. Latent profile analyses identified three profiles, with students with lower SES commonly associated with the two profiles with unfavorable learning prerequisites. A linear mixed model revealed that adaptive task difficulty significantly benefited students in the profile with the least favorable prerequisites. Implementing adaptive task difficulty in Math classes might mitigate challenges associated with lower SES, enhancing educational success and equity by addressing individual prerequisites and learning needs.
... Vogel and Schwabe [9] noted that children bring to school many anxieties, frustrations, reactions and patterns of behaviour that are identified, accepted and supported outside the classroom. Thus, viewing children as a "problem" diverts attention from a closer examination of the classroom ecology or context of schools and families and the wider communities in which schools exist. ...
The study explored Strategies for restraining Classroom Disruptive Behaviours’ Among Public Secondary Schools Students in Ekiti State. Specifically, It sought to examine the types of disruptive behaviours, problems encountered by the schools and strategies to be adopted to curb disruptive behaviours perpetuated by students in the classroom during teaching and learning. Three research questions guided the study. A descriptive research design was adopted for the study. A sample of 100 respondents involving principals and teachers was used through a purposive sampling technique. Strategies for Restraining Students’ Disruptive Behaviours in Public Secondary Schools (SRSDBPSS) served as an instrument. Data collected was analyzed using mean and standard deviation. The analysis revealed that (1) lateness to school, irregular class attendance, fighting with each other within and outside the school, refusal to do assignments given by teachers, non-participation in-class activities, use of abusive language against one another, and operating phones during class hours were disruptive behaviours perpetrated by students. (2) Bullying of teachers and management by the punished students are always noticed, teachers get discouraged going back to class, which causes more stress for teachers as they become detracted from academic routine, and general bad relationship among students and teachers, and causes poor realization of educational objectives in school were the problems encountered by the school. (3) The use of classroom management, allowing students to have easy access to the teachers, promptness of teachers to the discharge of their tasks of teaching profession, insurance of appropriate seating arrangement by teachers, attentiveness of the teachers to both reported and unreported cases in class, regular checking of children by parents in schools, and maintenance of small and well-controlled class size were strategies to be adopted to curb disruptive behaviours among public secondary schools students in Ekiti state.
... Studies on how stress management strategies affect learning and memory processes could lead to important applications in education and health. Research on the effects of stress on learning and memory provides an in-depth understanding of the role of stress in education and mental health (8). This chapter aims to overview current research on the neurobiological basis of stress, its effects on learning processes, and the factors influencing these processes. ...
This chapter reviews the effects of stress on learning and memory. In light of the existing literature and experimental studies, it has been observed that stress has a significant effect on both learning and memory processes. The effect of stress on learning is closely related to the intensity and timing of the stress. Stress experienced during learning negatively affects memory encoding processes and decreases both free recall and recognition performance. In this context, it has been determined that individuals under stress recall the information they learn less effectively and have difficulty recognizing it. In addition, it has been found that the effects of stress on learning may differ between genders; however, in general, women show better recall performance than men even under stress. Recent research suggests that the negative effects of stress on memory formation are closely related to the severity of stress experienced during learning and the individual’s coping strategies. In educational and professional fields, the development and implementation of methods to minimize stress in learning processes are of great importance for improving memory performance.
... In this context, workplace coaching becomes even more crucial as a helping intervention in organisations characterised by turbulence, transitions, changes, and restructuring. These changes increase the pressure on learning (Davachi et al., 2010), and learning under stress presents numerous challenges and difficulties (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016;Shors, 2004). Therefore, it can be proposed that if workplace coaching reduces work-related stress, it may, in turn, improve learning, among other benefits that coaching is known to offer. ...
Work-related stress, job insecurity and uncertain carer future are each detrimental to employee performance, productivity, behaviour, job satisfaction, and wellbeing. The literature provides evidence suggesting a relationship between organisational change and work-related stress. Whilst most existing research focus on positive aspects or negative consequences of change and restructure, this article goes further seeking to understand whether or not workplace coaching is perceived as helpful to reduce work-related stress in the face of change and uncertainty. Data were initially collected, as part of a larger study, in three sequential phases from Australian rail organisations. The results relevant to the current article are a subset of results from the larger study. Results had previously suggested that workplace coaching contributed towards positive behavioural shifts and increased employee motivation in the face of change. Results had also suggested that certain elements in a coaching relationship, including confidentiality and trust, were critical for the effectiveness of internal coaching. A subset of quantitative results reported in this paper provided further evidence suggesting that workplace coaching, possibly both internal and external forms of it, can potentially contribute to reduce work-related stress in the face of change and restructure.
... Furthermore, the principal's assistance in helping teachers overcome challenges (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016) and the creation of a supportive environment and positive engagement with students and parents are also critical factors in fostering teachers' job satisfaction (Beabout & Jakiel, 2011). In addition, research has shown that a collaborative and inclusive school culture, where teachers feel valued and supported by their colleagues and administrators, can significantly contribute to teachers' job satisfaction (Liu, 2020). ...
The chaotic situation of today’s VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity) and TUNA (Turbulent, Uncertain, Novel, Ambiguous) world is bringing more and more active and passive reforms, including positive and negative aspects, that reform business models. Educational institutions are not exceptional. Regarding the nature of educational institutions’ operation in today’s rapidly changing context, school leaders also need to raise concerns similar to those of business managers from other industries: “How do their institutions continuously renovate to adapt to tomorrow’s world?” Thus, based on organisational learning theories, this project aims to establish a framework to evaluate educational leadership’s influence on the organisational knowledge circulation effectiveness within the K-12 education context. The study combines a structured literature review, bibliometrics analysis, and high-order structural equation model analysis on the survey for teachers among Vietnamese public and private K-12 schools. First, this project proposed and validated a toolset to measure educational leadership as a combination of principalship and teacher leadership. Second, it revealed new insights about the impacts of educational leadership, knowledge circulation, and school culture on teachers’ job satisfaction. The project also offers insights into teachers’ professional development activities across various school types and grade levels in Vietnam, which contribute to further continuous renovation of Vietnamese K-12 schools, and diversify the corpus of educational leadership studies. This project’s results extended the applications of organisational learning theories in K-12 education, as well as can be adopted to establish further knowledge management frameworks in other settings such as higher education or vocational education.
... Therefore, when university students face English learning tasks, they may feel nervous and worried that they are not performing as well as others or unable to meet expected standards, and thus are reluctant to actively participate in the classroom activities. Academic procrastination also often leads to increased classroom anxiety, which can interfere with students' learning process, reduce their attention and memory, and even affect their learning motivation and strategy choices (Lavasani et al., 2011;Vogel and Schwabe, 2016). Therefore, this study proposes hypothesis H1: Academic procrastination can significantly predict the English classroom anxiety of non-English majors in the learning process. ...
Objective
Academic procrastination is negatively associated with English classroom anxiety among non-English major college students. However, current research has less explored the underlying mechanisms. The present study aims to investigate the relationship between academic procrastination and college students’ English classroom anxiety as well as the mediating role of learning engagement and the moderating role of appraisals of intrinsic values.
Methods
The academic procrastination scale, English classroom anxiety scale, learning engagement scale and appraisals of intrinsic values scale were used to measure 1,079 non-English majors in Jiangsu Province, China.
Results
(1) There was a significant positive correlation between academic procrastination and English classroom anxiety of non-English majors. (2) Learning engagement plays a part of mediating role between academic procrastination and English classroom anxiety; (3) When the appraisals of intrinsic values are high, the impact effect of learning engagement on English classroom anxiety is greater.
Conclusion
Academic procrastination can affect university students’ English classroom anxiety through learning engagement, and this relational pattern is modulated by appraisals of intrinsic values. This finding provides an important theoretical basis and practical insights for understanding and intervening in academic procrastination and classroom anxiety among college students.
... These processes include information processing, communication processing, negotiation processing, decision-making processing, category sorting tasks, and creative problem-solving processes (Isen, 2015). Exemplifying the intricate connection between emotional experiences and cognitive functions, these findings emphasize the pivotal role that emotions play in the learning process, whether in face-to-face settings (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016) or online environments (Shen et al., 2009;Um et al., 2012). ...
Considering the need for pedagogically effective learning activities and materials to support language learning, particularly within teacher-led instruction, it is curious that at present there is no overarching, research-based framework available to educators to draw from when designing and implementing such activities and materials. To address this gap, the authors of this paper have drawn from a host of relevant research pertaining to cognitive neuroscience, educational psychology, and second language acquisition to establish a framework for designing and implementing activities and learning materials capable of facilitating enhanced language learning outcomes within an inclusive classroom. Incorporating ten key considerations – attention and focus, desirable difficulty, depth of processing, deliberate practice, novelty and surprise, wakeful rest, visible learning, meaningful feedback, affective engagement, and strategic choice and use – this versatile framework not only provides teachers with necessary knowledge for designing language learning activities and materials in an engaging and efficacious manner but may also embolden them to do so.
... Investigating the physiological responses to stressors, such as changes in cortisol levels or sleep patterns, could provide deeper insights into how these factors interact and contribute to chronic stress [68]. Additionally, cognitive neuroscience approaches could help elucidate how stress impacts learning and memory, further linking psychological stressors to academic outcomes [69]. By pursuing these research avenues, the academic community can develop more effective, evidence-based strategies to mitigate student stress, ultimately fostering healthier and more supportive educational environments. ...
The increasing levels of stress among students worldwide pose a significant challenge to educational institutions. This study aims to systematically identify and analyse the factors contributing to student stress using advanced machine learning techniques.
To explore the primary stressors affecting students and to evaluate the interrelations among psychological, physiological, environmental, academic, and social factors in influencing student stress levels.
The study utilized a comprehensive dataset, StressLevelDataset.csv, collected from a diverse group of 1100 students across various educational institutions. We employed machine learning tools, including correlation analysis and feature importance analysis using Random Forest models, to identify and rank the most significant stressors.
Key findings suggest that psychological factors like self-esteem and physiological factors like sleep quality are crucial predictors of stress levels in students. A significant negative correlation was found between students’ anxiety levels and their academic performance, highlighting the adverse impacts of psychological stress on educational outcomes.
The results underscore the importance of targeted interventions focusing on mental health and well-being within educational settings. By addressing the identified stressors, particularly in the psychological and physiological domains, educational institutions can enhance student well-being and improve academic performance.
... Several confounds could affect studies of consolidation and epilepsy. For partial correlation analyses, the epoch when neural activity involved in producing a non-stressful behavior (e.g., learning a motor or verbal task) was replaced by an epoch containing pre-ictal activity occurring within minutes of an impending seizure, which can be a stressful and anxietyproducing experience and is associated with heightened levels of cortisol and other compounds (Cano-López and González-Bono, 2019) that are known to affect learning (Vogel and Schwabe, 2016). A second confound is sleep deprivation that often accompanies seizures. ...
Epilepsy is a complex, multifaceted disease that affects patients in several ways in addition to seizures, including psychological, social, and quality of life issues, but epilepsy is also known to interact with sleep. Seizures often occur at the boundary between sleep and wake, patients with epilepsy often experience disrupted sleep, and the rate of inter-ictal epileptiform discharges increases during non-REM sleep. The Network Theory of Epilepsy did not address a role for sleep, but recent emphasis on the interaction between epilepsy and sleep suggests that post-seizure sleep may also be involved in the process by which seizures arise and become more severe with time (“epileptogenesis”) by co-opting processes related to the formation of long-term memories. While it is generally acknowledged that recurrent seizures arise from the aberrant function of neural circuits, it is possible that the progression of epilepsy is aided by normal, physiological function of neural circuits during sleep that are driven by pathological signals. Studies recording multiple, single neurons prior to spontaneous seizures have shown that neural assemblies activated prior to the start of seizures were reactivated during post-seizure sleep, similar to the reactivation of behavioral neural assemblies, which is thought to be involved in the formation of long-term memories, a process known as Memory Consolidation. The reactivation of seizure-related neural assemblies during sleep was thus described as being a component of Seizure-Related Consolidation (SRC). These results further suggest that SRC may viewed as a network-related aspect of epilepsy, even in those seizures that have anatomically restricted neuroanatomical origins. As suggested by the Network Theory of Epilepsy as a means of interfering with ictogenesis, therapies that interfered with SRC may provide some anti-epileptogenic therapeutic benefit, even if the interference targeted structures that were not involved originally in the seizure. Here, we show how the Network Theory of Epilepsy can be expanded to include neural plasticity mechanisms associated with learning by providing an overview of Memory Consolidation, the mechanisms thought to underlie MC, their relation to Seizure-Related Consolidation, and suggesting novel, anti-epileptogenic therapies targeting interference with network activation in epilepsy following seizures during post-seizure sleep.
... Depending on the environmental conditions, parts of the brain may be over or under activated for speed and the effectiveness of response. As an example, during the fight or flight response, the human brain is modulated through the limbic system and hormones such as cortisol S.Vogel (2016). Cortisol blocks hippocampus as well as other memory related regions of the brain while activating others to enable (or disable) the different regions necessary (or unnecessary) for survival. ...
Over the last decade, artificial intelligence has found many applications areas in the society. As AI solutions have become more sophistication and the use cases grew, they highlighted the need to address performance and energy efficiency challenges faced during the implementation process. To address these challenges, there has been growing interest in neuromorphic chips. Neuromorphic computing relies on non von Neumann architectures as well as novel devices, circuits and manufacturing technologies to mimic the human brain. Among such technologies, 3D integration is an important enabler for AI hardware and the continuation of the scaling laws. In this paper, we overview the unique opportunities 3D integration provides in neuromorphic chip design, discuss the emerging opportunities in next generation neuromorphic architectures and review the obstacles. Neuromorphic architectures, which relied on the brain for inspiration and emulation purposes , face grand challenges due to the limited understanding of the functionality and the architecture of the human brain. Yet, high-levels of investments are dedicated to develop neuromorphic chips. We argue that 3D integration not only provides strategic advantages to the cost-effective and flexible design of neuromorphic chips, it may provide design flexibility in incorporating advanced capabilities to further benefits the designs in the future.
... However, the effects of stressful experiences on cognitive functions, including memory, are not uniform (2). Studies have shown that moderate stress can facilitate information storage, while memory is greatly reduced following severe chronic stress (3). In addition, chronic stress accelerates the aging process and is an important risk factor in cerebral dementia (4). ...
Background and purpose
Stress, especially immobility stress, is quite common and one of the most important and influential risk factors in neurological disorders. This study aimed to investigate the effect of acute and chronic immobility stress on the level of cortical and hippocampal oxidative stress indicators and memory impairment following global cerebral ischemia.
Experimental approach
In this study, 48 male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 6 groups: 1, sham (S); 2, sham-acute stress (SSA); 3, sham-chronic stress (SSC); 4, ischemia (IS); 5, ischemia-acute stress (ISA); 6, ischemia-chronic stress (ISC). The Morris water maze (MWM) test was performed 14 days after surgery, and cortisol levels and oxidative stress factors such as malondialdehyde MDA and total thiol were measured.
Findings/Results
In the MWM test, the time to find the platform (latency time) in the ISC and IS groups significantly increased compared to the S group. The time spent in the target quarter in these two groups was significantly reduced compared to the S group on the day of the probe. The results showed a significant increase in cortisol levels and malondialdehyde concentration in the ISA, ISC, and IS groups compared to the S group, but there was no significant difference in total thiol concentration. No significant difference was observed in the level of oxidative stress factors in the cortex.
Conclusion and implication
Chronic immobility stress could reduce antioxidant factors in the hippocampus and exacerbate memory impairment caused by global ischemia.
... A study among some undergraduate students at the University of Benin, Nigeria suggested that perceived stress was the most common among all health factors that influence academic achievement (Aihie and Ohanaka, 2019). Stress may induce long-lasting frustration and a negative attitude towards school and the individual's abilities (Vogel and Schwabe, 2016). Studying the extent of perceived stress, and the factors responsible for them can give insights into how stress can be managed to improve students' performance. ...
Undergraduate students are so concerned about academic activities that they pay less attention to their nutritional status and general wellbeing. A cross-sectional study aimed at assessing the nutrition knowledge, perceived stress, physical activity and nutritional status was carried out on 142 undergraduate students of the Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria. The socio-demographic characteristics, nutrition knowledge and dietary habits, perceived stress (using Perceived Stress Scale, PSS-10), physical activity level (using Global Physical Activity Questionnaire, GPAQ) were assessed through online questionnaire form (survey kobo toolbox). Anthropometric indices were measured using stadiometer and digital weighing scale, haemoglobin and glucose levels were determined using haemoglobin test meter and glucometer, respectively. Results showed that majority of the respondents were males (66.2 %). Most respondents (60.60 %) ate two meals per day. The majority (75.35 %) of the students had very good nutrition knowledge and had mostly (75.4 %) medium perceived stress. Sedentary behaviour for males and females was found to be 325.00 ± 28.26 mins/week 418.00 ± 35.16 mins/week, respectively. Results further revealed that 3.50 % of the students were obese, 4.90 % overweight, 21.20 % underweight. The haemoglobin concentration (g/dL) were 12.93 ± 1.62 for males and 13.25 ± 1.22 for females and the glucose concentration (mmol/L) were 4.75 ± 1.16 for males and 4.66 ± 0.59 for females. Our findings suggest that majority of the students had good nutrition knowledge, normal nutritional status, medium perceived stress but poor physical activity.
... In this way, novel (unlearned) less-regular music might promote attention and learning during a cross-modal cognition task via arousal mechanisms, whereas when the music becomes familiar and people gain veridical expectations of it when listening, this discordant structure would begin to instead occupy attention and generate more disruptive effects. While future research is need to elucidate the mechanism, one compelling insight from our beneficial effects from unlearned-irregular music is that there may be potential clinical uses of such types of music as arousal and stress modulators to improve memory [69,76,77]. ...
Music is omnipresent in daily life and may interact with critical cognitive processes including memory. Despite music’s presence during diverse daily activities including studying, commuting, or working, existing literature has yielded mixed results as to whether music improves or impairs memory for information experienced in parallel. To elucidate how music memory and its predictive structure modulate the encoding of novel information, we developed a cross-modal sequence learning task during which participants acquired sequences of abstract shapes accompanied with paired music. Our goal was to investigate whether familiar and structurally regular music could provide a “temporal schema” (rooted in the organized and hierarchical structure of music) to enhance the acquisition of parallel temporally-ordered visual information. Results revealed a complex interplay between music familiarity and music structural regularity in learning paired visual sequences. Notably, compared to a control condition, listening to well-learned, regularly-structured music (music with high predictability) significantly facilitated visual sequence encoding, yielding quicker learning and retrieval speed. Conversely, learned but irregular music (where music memory violated musical syntax) significantly impaired sequence encoding. While those findings supported our mechanistic framework, intriguingly, unlearned irregular music–characterized by the lowest predictability–also demonstrated memory enhancement. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that concurrent music can modulate visual sequence learning, and the effect varies depending on the interaction between both music familiarity and regularity, offering insights into potential applications for enhancing human memory.
... Teachers should also pay attention to the classroom atmosphere since human memory and stress are interrelated with each other during the learning process. The effects of stress are complex; stress may enhance or degrade human memory, depending on the specific memory process or stage affected by the stress and a person's personality (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016;Kosherbayeva et al., 2024). Good memory is important for storing new knowledge in the classroom for students. ...
This article provides valuable insights into the professional identity of modern teachers. The actual problem of a modern teacher is his professional image, which ensures the status of a teacher in society. The article reveals the meaning of the concept of “image”, the history of the origin of the term, and its introduction as a phenomenon of social expression. The role and importance of developing the professional image and its components in the modern education system are considered. This study answers three research questions about the role of the image in the teacher’s professional activity, what is the teaching nature of the other half of the image, and how self-esteem in the educational process affects the development of a professional personality. It aims to integrate and synthesize the research findings presented for a comprehensive understanding of the topic. Research findings suggest that teacher professional identity can provide valuable insights into the long-term development and adaptation of professional identity in response to changing educational landscapes and societal expectations. H. RETNAWATI1, A.O. BEKALAEVA2, SH.S. DUISENBAYEVA2,G.K. KASSYMOVA3*, W. XU31Yogyakarta State University (Yogyakarta, Indonesia) 2al-Farabi Kazakh National University (Almaty, Kazakhstan)3Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University (Almaty, Kazakhstan)
... A study by Vogel & Schwabe (2016) indicates that stress may hamper updating memories in the light of new information and induce a shift from a flexible, 'cognitive' form of learning towards a relatively rigid one. It may lead to difficulties with learning and remembering. ...
This paper looked into the factors of social learning practices and the parameters of student engagement. The primary purpose of the research is to identify the connections between social learning practices and student engagement, as well as the independent and dependent variables. The study utilized the quantitative descriptive correlational design. The researchers gathered data from one hundred ten students (110) of a local private higher education institution. The data were collected using an approved questionnaire and were analyzed using the Descriptive Analysis and Pearson's Correlational Coefficient (r) statistical tool. The study's findings showed that the institution manifested its learning practices in terms of social learning practices. The result implied powerfully demonstrated learning practices, meaning it has an outstanding strategy and structure contributing to student involvement and internal practices. The study also revealed that the drivers of student engagement highly engaged the respondents. The result suggested that higher student engagement may boost students' dedication and involvement, which fosters a collaborative learning environment for students' success and institutional sustainability. The correlational analysis showed a strong positive relationship between social learning practices and student engagement. The study further suggested that a positive learning environment and practices will increase student engagement. Researchers recommend further research in the academic area for future researchers.
... Based on different studies, stress either adversely or positively affected learning, or did not affect it at all depending on various high and low ranges of stress curve (distress and eustress, respectively) (Joëls et al., 2006;Rudland et al., 2020;Salehi et al., 2010). Moreover, stress altered the equilibrium between multiple underlying systems involved in learning and memory (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). ...
Introduction
Psychological stress impairs cognitive performance and affects mood states. This study compares the effect of four types of psychological stress (crowding, relocation, isolation, and restraint) on locomotor activity, learning, and memory, as well as anxiety-like behaviors performed by the open field, elevated plus maze, and passive avoidance tests.
Methods
Wistar rats were randomly assigned to different groups of crowding, relocation, isolation, and restraint stress, and control. The stress induction was administered for 21 consecutive days (6 h/day). To evaluate various types of behaviors, the open field, elevated plus maze, and passive avoidance tests were employed.
Results
According to the PA test results, the latency to enter the darkroom decreased significantly in all stress groups, especially in the crowding and isolation stress groups. However, it had an inverse relationship with serum corticosterone (CORT) levels. The total dark stay time increased significantly in the restraint and crowding stress groups, and also particularly, in the isolation stress group. In the isolation stress group, the number of darkroom entries decreased significantly. All stress groups spent a significantly shorter time in the open arms of the EPM apparatus. Finally, the total distance traveled, in the open field test was significantly lower in all stress groups, particularly in the isolation stress group.
Conclusion
Crowding and social isolation were the two stress types that had the most adverse effect on cognitive performance, as they induced stress-driven anxiety-like behaviors, probably due to increased CORT secretion. A high or low population of social density may create a condition, in which the nervous system could not efficiently manage stress, particularly at chronic levels.
... Juniar et al. (2019) found lower GPAs and more academic probation cases among students who had high stress levels. Persistent stress impairs memory, critical thinking, and creativity (Vogel and Schwabe 2016;Ludvik 2023). Effective coping strategies, like time management and social support, are crucial (Laird et al. 2019;Huberty et al. 2019). ...
This study investigated the impact of social and familial stressors on the academic performance of Nigerian university students. Using a cross-sectional survey design, a sample of 1,200 third-and fourth-year students from twenty-four universities across Nigeria was selected through a multistage sampling procedure. Contrary to peer pressure, family expectations, financial constraints, and cultural norms significantly influenced students' academics and overall well-being. The study highlighted social interactions and societal pressures contributing to overall stress levels. Coping mechanisms included relaxation techniques and seeking support from friends, while exercise, professional advice, or counseling were less utilized. Binary logistic regression showed no significant associations between coping mechanisms, gender, age groups, and academic achievement. Gender did not significantly influence stressor prevalence. The study identified significant variations in familial and social stressors across different age groups among Nigerian university students. These findings provide insights into student challenges, informing strategies for enhanced well-being and academic success. Recommendations include raising awareness about family expectations, providing financial literacy education, promoting cultural sensitivity, and offering mental health support. The study emphasizes gender-neutral services, longitudinal research, peer mentoring programs, and institutional collaboration to address the multifaceted challenges faced by Nigerian students.
... Stress at school has been a widely discussed topic, not only since the pandemic-related school closures (e.g., Bujard et al. 2021), as it can lead to mental health issues and learning difficulties (e.g., Achtenhagen 1978;Auerbach et al. 2018;Vogel and Schwabe 2016). In general, stress is considered as a specific relationship between the individual and the environment, particularly as an interaction between situational demands and personality characteristics. ...
Purpose: Our study focuses on stress contagion in vocational school classes, examining how students’ stress experiences affect their spatial classmates. For this purpose, we apply a novel formal network model that allows us to differentiate between endogenousand exogenous peer effects in the stress contagion process. Using the network model, we investigate effects on students’ stress levels, considering the stress and Coping experiences of spatial peers as well as didactic-methodological context factors.
Methods: We test our statistical model using secondary data collected in a study involving 53 students from two classes at a public German vocational training school. The students’ experiences of stress (time pressure, pressure to succeed) and Coping strategies (understanding of the subject matter, self-confidence) were captured using the experience sampling method, while classroom characteristics (e.g., teacher instruction, cooperative work) were recorded through video-based analysis of lessons. Utilizing the panel data, we employ maximum likelihood estimation to assess the spatial peer effects model for both classrooms.
Results: Among other findings, all model specifications revealed significant peer effects for both stress measures, indicating that the higher the stress experience of immediate peers in the classroom, the higher the individual stress experienced by the students. Concerning the considered context factors, we found, for example, that increased cooperative work leads to higher levels of stress experience.
Conclusion: From a substantive perspective, our results underscore the role of peer-to-peer contagion in the vocational classroom and thus suggest a nuanced examination of cooperative practices. From a research methodology perspective, our Approach illustrates how various methods (such as experience sampling, video-based Classroom observation, and spatial network information) complement and enrich each other, highlighting the added value of our network analytical approach
Keywords: Stress contagion, Paradox of cooperation, Spatial network, Experience sampling, Video-based classroom observation, Network econometric approach
... The emotions expressed and their regulation are important for enhanced learning. [27] As mentioned earlier, the prefrontal cortex region is observed to have a role in problem-solving, cognitive control, reasoning, and emotional responses. The prefrontal cortex region is interlinked with different regions of the amygdala and medial temporal lobe which have a major part in working memory, long-term memory retrieval, memory encoding, and emotional processing. ...
Emotions, in general, have no scientific definition. Emotions can be denoted as the mental state because of the neurophysiological changes. Emotions are related to mood, personality, temperament, and consciousness. People exhibit different emotions in different situations causing changes in cognitive functions. One of the major cognitive functions is the ability to learn, to store the acquired information in the parts of the brain such as the hippocampus, amygdala, cortex, and cerebellum. Learning and memory are affected by different types of emotions. Emotional responses such as fear, depression, and stress have impaired effects on cognitive functions such as learning and memory, whereas optimistic and happy emotions have positive effects on long-term memory. Certain disorders have greater effects on the regions of the brain which are also associated with synaptic plasticity and Learning and Memory(LM). Neuroimaging techniques are involved in studying the changing regions of the brain due to varied emotions and treatment strategies based on the changes observed. There are many drugs, and in advancements, nanotechnology is also utilized in the treatment of such psychiatric disorders. To improve mental health and physical health, emotional balance is most important, and effective care should be provided for people with less emotional quotient and different types of disorders to inhibit cognitive dysfunctions. In this review, emotions and their varied effects on a cognitive function named learning and memory, disorders associated with the defects of learning due to emotional instability, the areas of the brain that are in control of emotions, diagnosis, and treatment strategies for psychiatric disorders dependent on emotions are discussed.
... Moderate levels of stress can enhance attention and memory formation, potentially leading to improved performance on tasks that require these cognitive functions (Sandi, 2013). However, excessive stress can impair cognitive functions by disrupting the brain's ability to process and recall information effectively (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). This dual nature of stress underscores the importance of understanding its impact on students' performance in high-stakes academic situations, such as class tests. ...
This study investigates the effects of stress on the academic performance and memory recall of K12 students at UIS Academy, Arizona. Utilizing a laboratory experimental design, 60 students were randomly assigned to either a stress-free or high-stress environment. The stress-free environment aimed to create a relaxed setting, while the high-stress environment emphasized high expectations and fear of failure. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) measured anxiety levels, and standardized academic tests assessed performance and memory recall. Results indicated that students in the stress-free environment performed significantly better, with a mean test score of 86.23 compared to 70.87 in the high-stress condition (p < 0.001). Memory recall was also higher in the stress-free group (M = 12.23) than the high-stress group (M = 6.33, p <0.001). Anxiety levels decreased in the stress-free condition but increased in the high-stress condition. These findings suggest that stress management interventions could enhance academic outcomes for K12 students.
... La investigación se ha centrado en cómo el estrés y las emociones afectan la MT y, por lo tanto, la producción escrita bilingüe. Se ha observado que situaciones de estrés pueden impactar negativamente la capacidad de la MT, lo que tiene implicaciones significativas para escritores bilingües en situaciones de alta presión, como exámenes o situaciones profesionales (Vogel & Schwabe, 2016). ...
El presente artículo de revisión realizado a través de la metodología Prisma tuvo como objetivo principal revisar las tendencias investigativas en el campo de la memoria de trabajo y su relación con la competencia escrita bilingüe. Teniendo en cuenta las bases de datos EBSCOhost, ScienceDirect, y algunos criterios de inclusión para la revisión sistemática tales como el contexto universitario, el periodo de publicación de los estudios (2008-2021), y la lengua estudiada (Español e inglés), entre otros, fue posible la identificación, evaluación y análisis de estudios que centraron su atención en la memoria de trabajo y su relación con la competencia escrita bilingüe. De modo general, se puede observar que el 100% de los estudios se encuentran en síntesis cuantitativa, y que la tendencia investigativa en este campo en Latinoamérica es menor que en países europeos, asiáticos y africanos. De igual manera, la mayoría de los estudios concluyen que la memoria de trabajo afecta positivamente la escritura bilingüe y que los docentes deberían incluir propuestas pedagógicas que ayuden a fomentar este tipo de memoria en las aulas de clases para un mayor desarrollo en los procesos bilingües.
... Today's college and university students experience a range of academic stress that typically involves a lack of time management, financial limitations, contradictions with personal goals and educational standards, social dimensions, and problems assimilating into the academic community [29]. Internships, as imitations of the real professional working space, not only serve as irreplaceable special activities that mirror today's societal expectations but also introduce additional stressors to the learning process, adversely impacting learning and information assimilation [30]. Significant research has documented the adaptability of interns across various scientific spheres, including health, engineering, and helping professions [5, 28,31]. ...
This study aims to investigate the factors that contribute to internship stress among Vietnamese students by analyzing the associations between personality traits, internship stress, stress mindset, and demographics. A cross-sectional study design was utilized, comprising 149 Vietnamese students who were engaged in internship programs. The data gathering process encompassed the assessment of personality traits, internship stress levels, stress mindset, and participant demographics, which encompassed gender, age, GPA, and internship hours. We conducted path analyses to examine the relationships between these variables, and conducted moderation analyses to explore the interaction between age and the impact of extraversion on internship stress. Increased degrees of neuroticism were associated with a negative stress mindset, and this association was largely mediated by the stress experienced during an internship. Age moderated the negative association between the trait of extraversion and internship stress. More precisely, the association between extraversion and stress was significantly greater among younger students than it was among older students. Female students reported a lower stress mindset compared to male students, and higher GPAs were associated with both reduced internship stress and a more optimistic stress mindset. The results indicate that specific personality traits, such as neuroticism and extraversion, as well as internship stress, have a notable impact on the stress mindset of Vietnamese students. Gaining insight into these aspects can guide the development of internship programs that provide greater support and equip students with specific coping methods to enhance their well-being and manage internship difficulties more efficiently.
... Juniar et al. (2019) found lower GPAs and more academic probation cases among students who had high stress levels. Persistent stress impairs memory, critical thinking, and creativity (Vogel and Schwabe 2016;Ludvik 2023). Effective coping strategies, like time management and social support, are crucial (Laird et al. 2019;Huberty et al. 2019). ...
This study investigated the impact of social and familial stressors on the academic performance of
Nigerian university students. Using a cross-sectional survey design, a sample of 1,200 third- and fourth-year
students from twenty-four universities across Nigeria was selected through a multistage sampling procedure.
Contrary to peer pressure, family expectations, financial constraints, and cultural norms significantly influenced
students’ academics and overall well-being. The study highlighted social interactions and societal pressures
contributing to overall stress levels. Coping mechanisms included relaxation techniques and seeking support
from friends, while exercise, professional advice, or counseling were less utilized. Binary logistic regression
showed no significant associations between coping mechanisms, gender, age groups, and academic
achievement. Gender did not significantly influence stressor prevalence. The study identified significant
variations in familial and social stressors across different age groups among Nigerian university students. These
findings provide insights into student challenges, informing strategies for enhanced well-being and academic
success. Recommendations include raising awareness about family expectations, providing financial literacy
education, promoting cultural sensitivity, and offering mental health support. The study emphasizes gender�neutral services, longitudinal research, peer mentoring programs, and institutional collaboration to address
the multifaceted challenges faced by Nigerian students.
Introduction
Deficiencies in non-technical skills can severely impede the functioning of teams in high-intensity scenarios, such as in damage control surgery for the critically injured trauma patient. Truncated preoperative checklists, modified from the standard World Health Organization preoperative checklist, and situational reporting at intervals during surgery are long-established practices in the military, and are recommended in the National Health Service guidelines on major incidents. These tools allow the multiprofessional team to create a shared mental model of the anaesthetic and operative plan, thereby improving team efficiency. Our aim was to establish whether adult major trauma centres in England are using truncated preoperative checklists and situational reporting for damage control surgery.
Methods
An online survey was devised and distributed via the national programme of care for trauma in November 2020.
Results
Responses were received from all 23 adult major trauma centres in England. Nine centres (39.1%) reported using a truncated preoperative checklist for damage control surgery albeit in a variety of formats. Common components were blood products received and/or available, presence of allergies, tranexamic acid and antibiotic administration, availability of viscoelastic tests, equipment required, availability of cell saver, role allocation and reference to other personnel needed, and discussion of the plan. Twelve centres (52.2%) have formal policies in place for situational reporting. Again, these were in multiple formats but all focused on patient physiology to direct surgical planning.
Conclusions
We have identified key components to advanced communication aids for damage control surgery, providing a foundation on which other major trauma centres can build their own versions of these potentially lifesaving tools.
Background:
Simulation educators are self-selected to be enthusiastic about simulation as a training modality, nevertheless we often encounter participants who are more reticent in their approach. The voice of the highly engaged participant is well publicised, however the experience of those who do not readily engage in simulation has not been extensively studied. This qualitative study will explore factors which influence learner engagement in paediatric simulation training, informing the practice and approach of simulation educators to optimise learning experiences.
Methods:
We conducted a thematic analysis of 12 semi-structured interviews with healthcare professionals from a large paediatric teaching hospital in New Zealand who self-identified as reluctant participants in simulation-based education. Interviews explored factors which have influenced their engagement in simulation-based education over the course of their careers.
Results:
Three overarching themes were developed from thematic analysis which describe the factors influencing adult-learner engagement in simulation-based education. The first, “It comes down to that fear…”, explores participants narratives related to anxiety before, during and even following simulation which can impact on their ability to engage in current and subsequent simulation-based education. The second, “…armour up…”, relates to the protective mechanisms employed by participants in response to vulnerability experienced during simulation activities. The third theme, “…it sets the culture”, examines the impact of simulation facilitator characteristics and behaviours on learner engagement.
Conclusions:
These narrativeshighlighted a number of factors which facilitators should be aware when designing and implementing simulation-based education programmes. These include: (i) the benefits of regular simulation activities with transparent learning objectives to reduce participant anxiety, (ii) emergent defensive behaviours, particularly “group shielding” behaviours, which might interfere with engagement; (iii) potential discrepancies in the perceptions of facilitators and learners regarding what constitutes psychologically safe education environments.
The chapter is based on the qualitative research conducted in a Canadian post-secondary institution. The researcher applied an exploratory case study methodology and a semi-structured interview approach. The participants were students who studied in fully online classes, instructors who delivered online courses, and instructional designers of the online courses. They answered sets of questions about the relevance of interpersonal relationships among online classmates to learning. The respondents also discussed how those relationships could be initiated, developed, and cultivated in an online course by means of instructional design and the implementation of facilitation strategies and techniques. This chapter examines how instructional designers and instructors can design and foster a collaborative learning environment. The research topic is beneficial to adult education instructors, instructional designers, faculty, higher education administrators, educational technologists, students, and scholars who are interested in researching course design for collaborative online learning.
University learning and teaching involves contrasting and interacting emotional experiences. Even in disciplines considered as objective as Science and Engineering, emotion plays a significant role in catalysing and sustaining learning. Although emotions are individually felt, they are socially constructed between people. This is especially relevant in group-based learning evident in much contemporary higher education. This paper applies the concept of emotion socialization to illustrate how groups of students and teachers cope and succeed in cognitively and emotionally challenging learning settings. The study is based on qualitative data collected across six STEMM university departments, from 280 students via in-situ questionnaires and from 20 teachers via group and follow-up interviews. Two key findings offer insight into processes of reciprocal influence on cognition and emotion. The first relates to ways in which students’ and teachers’ differing knowledge-related goals and relationships with knowledge influenced cognition and emotion, uncovering previously unacknowledged connections. The second relates to how students’ comparisons of progress towards academic goals with peers contributed considerably to their emotional experiences in cognitively and emotionally helpful and unhelpful ways. Practical implications are presented, including possibilities for capitalising on existing emotion socialization processes and enhancing how they influence cognition and emotional well-being.
Increasing confidence and performance in gross anatomy is crucial in medical education. This study identified challenging anatomical topics in a gastrointestinal (GAS) course and applied a peer-to-peer intervention to improve student confidence and performance in these areas in the following endocrine/reproductive (END) course.
Thirty gross anatomical structures from a GAS mock practical were classified into six categories. As part of the mock practical, medical students rated their confidence in each answer using a scale of 1–5. Performance and confidence were compared across the six categories, revealing two areas with significantly lower scores. In the following END course, these areas were targeted through a 1-h peer-to-peer intervention.
Forty-two students participated in the GAS mock practical. Significantly lower performance was found in nerves and viscera categories. Students who attended the peer-to-peer intervention during the END course showed marked improvements in both areas on the END mock practical. Average performance for viscera increased from 31 to 68% (p < .001) and for nerves from 35 to 52% (p < .001). Average confidence for viscera increased from 2.22 to 3.32 (p < .001) and for nerves from 2.07 to 2.61 (p < .001).
These findings align with the expected benefits of peer-to-peer interventions. However, the difficulty students faced with viscera, more so than with vasculature, was unanticipated. This unexpected outcome underscores the nuanced nature of student learning in anatomy and the importance of targeted educational interventions. Future research should explore whether students consistently struggle with nerves and visceral structures across different organ systems.
Introduction: The memory processes sustain the activity of learning, which requires attention and directed focus. Classroom aversive experiences such as anxiety disorders, chronic stress and fear can modulate the learning processes. The mechanism consists in a reorientation, mediated by neurohumoral mechanisms, involving the hippocampus and the amygdala, prejudicing the acquisition of knowledge. Method: This study is a scoping review in which the online databases PubMed and LILACS were used to identify papers using an unified search strategy. 18 papers published between 2017 and 2022 composed the scoping review. Result: The selected studies met the eligibility criteria of online availability, traumatic experiences and learning association and correlation between frightening and stressful experiences with memory consolidation. As an acute consequence of stress, high amounts of norepinephrine and cortisol, a glucocorticoid, are released in the body. The interaction between these two agents, especially in the central nervous system, impairs working memory functioning and interrupts the attention functions of the prefrontal cortex, while directing attention only to threatening stimuli, making it hard to non-threatening information consolidation. Chronically, the adverse component is mediated mostly by cortisol, impairing learning through basically two mechanisms. One of them is by disturbing hippocampal functioning and amygdala signaling, leading to long-term memory deficits and facilitating the persistence of fear memories. The other is through avoidance behavior, which works as a defense against unfavorable stimuli, leading the individual to create an obstacle to new learning. Conclusion: In situations of stress, anxiety and fear, there are mechanisms in the hippocampus and amygdala mediated by neurotransmitters and hormones that can impair memory consolidation and prejudice learning.
The imperative to (re)center diversity, equity, inclusion, and justice (DEIJ) touches nearly every aspect of higher education today. The multidisciplinary fields of environmental studies and sciences (ESS) are no exception; mired in questions of land colonization, resource extraction, and the frequently white-washed, sexist, and ableist historic and contemporary narratives of environmentalism, it is imperative that we tackle DEIJ within ESS pedagogies of practice. In this article, we present the framework of compassionate pedagogies, the broad umbrella of pedagogical theories and intentional teaching practices that center self- and community care, connection and relationship, and empathy as an important axis for understanding and dismantling systems of oppression. We propose compassionate pedagogies as one route to promote DEIJ in ESS, drawing on the rich literature connecting this pedagogical position(s) to supportive learning environments for historically marginalized and underserved identities, a critical piece for student success and retention. We provide an overview of compassionate pedagogies and their connections to student support and success from an inclusivity standpoint. We then offer specific frameworks and examples of how we have used these theories and frameworks to guide our course structures, content, and assignments, ranging from first year experiences to upper-level seminars and from courses of small enrollment to large. We conclude by identifying lessons learned at the intersections of the examples provided as well as critical challenges related to the integration of compassionate pedagogies and opportunities for future practice and scholarship.
Purpose: Previous studies have indicated an association between education and myopia, suggesting that numerous stress events during the educational process may influence eye health. This study aimed to investigate the impact of mental stress induced by mental arithmetic (MA) on choroidal thickness (CT). Methods: This study included 33 participants aged between 19 and 29 years. Swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) was used to capture images of the posterior segment of the left eye during baseline and MA to assess changes in the CT. After denoising and compensation, the baseline images and MA images that had been rigidly registered and resampled to the baseline images were segmented using a deep learning-based method. Based on the segmentation results, the CT within the regions of 1 mm and 3 mm diameter centered at the lowest point of the fovea was calculated. Results: Significant increases were observed in both CT1mm and CT3mm during MA, with mean changes of 2.742 ± 7.098 μm (p = 0.034) and 3.326 ± 6.143 μm (p < 0.001), respectively. Conclusions: Thickening of the choroid has been observed during acute mental stress. We speculate that long-term or chronic mental stress could have a potential adverse impact on myopia progression.
In the Massive Online Open Course (MOOC) forum, learning engagement encompasses three fundamental dimensions—cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement—that intricately interact to jointly influence students’ learning achievements. However, the interplay between multiple engagement dimensions and their correlations with learning achievement remain understudied, particularly across different academic disciplines. This study adopts an automated configurational approach that integrates bidirectional encoder representation from transformers (BERT) and fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to explore the configurations of learning engagement, their connections with learning achievement, and variations across disciplines. Our analysis reveals a nuanced profile of learners' learning engagement, indicating the high-achieving individuals demonstrated more frequent posting and commenting behaviors and the high-level cognitive engagement than low-achieving individuals. Second, our analysis revealed multiple configurations where the coexistence or absence of factors at different levels of the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional dimensions significantly impacted learning achievement. Learners who conducted posting and replying behaviors, expressed positive emotions, and engaged in deep cognitive engagement tended to achieve superior learning outcomes. Third, there were significant differences in behavioral and emotional engagement among learners across different academic disciplines. Specifically, pure discipline learners were more inclined to engage in posting behaviors than the applied discipline learners. Across academic disciplines, positive emotions correlated strongly with higher achievement. These findings deepen our understanding of the multifaceted characteristics of learning engagement in MOOCs and highlight the importance of disciplinary distinctions, providing a foundation for educators and designers to optimize learners’ MOOC effects and tailor learning experiences in diverse disciplinary contexts.
This study aimed to develop lessons in Physics using Brain-Based Learning, determine the learners’
learning styles along brain dominance and determine the effects of the developed lessons using brain�based learning on students’ conceptual understanding, critical thinking skills, creative thinking skills,
interest to-wards Physics and learners’ learning styles along brain dominance. The study utilized the pre�experimental one-group-pretest-posttest design to the 20 Grade-7 students of Masbate School of
Fisheries for SY 2020-2021. The data were collected using the researcher-made conceptual
understanding test, critical thinking skills test, and creative thinking skills test along with the adopted
Brain Dominance Assessment by Davis (1994), VAK Learning Style Inventory by Chislett MSc and A
Chapman (2005) and the Interest checklist of Samaupan (2018). Significant findings were revealed:
(1)The learning styles of the learners before the conduct of the study are the following: left brain�auditory, left brain-visual, right brain-kinesthetic, and whole brain-kinesthetic. Furthermore, the
identified learning styles of the learners after the conduct of the study are the following: left brain-visual,
left brain- auditory, right brain-auditory, right brain-kinesthetic, and whole brain- visual; (2)Six lessons
in Grade-7 Physics under the topics on motion, waves and sound were developed using brain-based
learning with the following features: inquiry-learning, integration of creative activities, ap-plication of
brain-based learning, and design for flexible learning; (3)Significant improvements were revealed on
students' conceptual understanding, critical thinking skills, creative thinking skills, and interest to-wards
Physics after implementing the brain-based learning lessons. However, there were no significant changes
in the students' learning styles along left and right brain dominance. Nevertheless, improvements were
observed in the utilization of both the left and right hemispheres of the brain. Hence, the results of this
study give educators and curriculum developers bases to incorporate Brain-Based Learning into their
teaching practices to improve student learning outcomes in Physics education.
This paper delves into the intricate interplay between artificial intelligence (AI), human memory, and spiritual development, aiming to uncover their interconnectedness and potential synergies in enhancing cognitive understanding and personal growth. Firstly, it comprehensively explores the concept of human memory, including its definition, function, processes, and stages, while outlining a comprehensive design to elucidate its workings. Secondly, it examines the complex relationship between memory and intelligence, highlighting various cognitive processes and factors involved. Thirdly, it conducts a detailed analysis of the physiological mechanisms underlying human memory, with a focus on glucose metabolism, oxygen supply, and nutritional factors, supported by scientific evidence and examples. Furthermore, it explores the spiritual dimensions of human memory, investigating the source of the power that establishes spiritual connections within memory processes. Finally, it examines the interconnectedness between AI, human memory, and spiritual development, elucidating their interactions and potential synergies in fostering cognitive understanding and personal growth. The qualitative study used interviews and group discussions to explore human memory’s complexity and its links with intelligence, physiology, spirituality, and AI. Fifty participants shared diverse insights, guiding discussions on memory and spirituality. The comprehensive exploration of human memory uncovers intricate processes and mechanisms. Spiritual power, often overlooked, shapes memory function, influencing cognitive development and emotional resilience. Integrating spiritual aspects enriches understanding, fostering self-discovery and alignment with higher selves.
Objectives
The aims of the study are to develop an insulin pump simulation curriculum using patients as simulators, to evaluate its effectiveness on knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary for families to manage diabetic emergencies, and to identify ongoing gaps in care.
Methods
Our simulation curriculum developed using Kerns, consisted of 4 stations. A prospective simulation study was conducted at a pediatric tertiary care hospital with a convenience sample of children with type 1 diabetes on the insulin pump program and their families using patients as simulators and their parents as participants. The curriculum's success with developing competent skills was assessed using Kirkpatrick's 4-level evaluation model. Data from satisfaction questionnaires, performance gaps in emergency management, and postsimulation knowledge questionnaires were analyzed to identify ongoing gaps in care using a mixed methods approach.
Results
Among 70 families (169 participants), satisfaction was high (3.7–4.0/4.0) and confidence was increased (mean score 12 ± 0.03/12). Recurrent performance gaps across scenarios were found: misunderstandings about residual insulin during hypoglycemia (35%) and severe hypoglycemia with altered level of consciousness (22%), and failure to identify causes in 13% of simple and 11% of severe hypoglycemia scenarios and overtreating hypoglycemia with glucagon in a conscious patient in 14% of simple hypoglycemia scenarios. Postsimulation knowledge questionnaires revealed improvements in knowledge/management of simple hypoglycemia (mean score 87%), poor knowledge of pump parameters (mean score 56%), excellent knowledge of manipulating pump parameters to prevent emergencies (mean score 100%), and poor knowledge of basal rate concepts (mean score 19%).
Conclusions
Simulation using patient simulators improved management skills and confidence of families facing diabetic emergencies. Ongoing gaps in care were identified and used to enhance the current curriculum. Integrating simulation into insulin pump curricula can enhance patient self-care, safety, and be generalizable to other chronic-care patient-education programs. Future work should evaluate the impact of this curriculum on real-life events and patient outcomes.
Significance
Infancy is regarded as a period of increased vulnerability to stress, but it is currently unknown how stress influences cognitive functioning in infants. Studies with adults have revealed that stress promotes rigid habitual behavior at the cost of flexible behavior. Here we show that stress similarly affects 15-mo-old infants. Half of the infants underwent a stress induction, the other half did not. Then, all infants learned to habitually perform an action that produced an interesting effect. Once the action had become ineffective, only stressed infants continued performing this action, showing rigid habitual behavior. Nonstressed infants explored an alternative action, showing flexible behavior. If stress occurs frequently, infants’ failure to explore alternative behaviors could hamper knowledge acquisition in the long term.
Stress often affects our social lives. When undergoing high-level or persistent stress, individuals frequently retract from social interactions and become irritable and hostile. Predisposition to antisocial behaviours - including social detachment and violence - is also modulated by early life adversity; however, the effects of early life stress depend on the timing of exposure and genetic factors. Research in animals and humans has revealed some of the structural, functional and molecular changes in the brain that underlie the effects of stress on social behaviour. Findings in this emerging field will have implications both for the clinic and for society.
Two research lines argue for rapid stress-induced reallocations of neural network activity involving the amygdala. One focuses on the role of norepinephrine in mediating the shift towards the salience network and improving vigilance processing, while the other focuses on the role of cortisol in enhancing automatic, habitual responses. It has been suggested that the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) is critical in shifting towards habitual responses, which are supported by the dorsal striatum. However, until now it remained unclear whether these two reallocations of neural recourses might be part of the same phenomenon and develop immediately after stress onset. We combined methods used in both approaches and hypothesized specifically that stress would lead to rapidly enhanced involvement of the striatum as assessed by amygala-striatal connectivity. Furthermore, we tested the hypothesis that this shift depends on cortisol interacting with the MR, by employing a randomized, placebo-controlled, full-factorial, between-subjects design with the factors stress and MR-blockade (spironolactone). We investigated 101 young, healthy men using functional MRI after stress induction, which led to increased negative mood, heart rate, and cortisol levels. We confirmed our hypothesis by revealing a stress-by-MR-blockade interaction on the functional connectivity between the centro-medial amygdala (CMA) and the dorsal striatum. Stress rapidly enhanced CMA-striatal connectivity and this effect was correlated with the stress-induced cortisol response, but required MR-availability. This finding might suggest that the stress-induced shift described by distinct research lines might capture different aspects of the same phenomenon, i.e. a reallocation of neural resources coordinated by both norepinephrine and cortisol.Neuropsychopharmacology accepted article preview online, 30 October 2014. doi:10.1038/npp.2014.271.
Recent evidence suggests that altered expression and epigenetic modification of the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) are related to the risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The underlying mechanisms, however, remain unknown. Because glucocorticoid receptor signaling is known to regulate emotional memory processes, particularly in men, epigenetic modifications of NR3C1 might affect the strength of traumatic memories. Here, we found that increased DNA methylation at the NGFI-A (nerve growth factor-induced protein A) binding site of the NR3C1 promoter was associated with less intrusive memory of the traumatic event and reduced PTSD risk in male, but not female survivors of the Rwandan genocide. NR3C1 methylation was not significantly related to hyperarousal or avoidance symptoms. We further investigated the relationship between NR3C1 methylation and memory functions in a neuroimaging study in healthy subjects. Increased NR3C1 methylation-which was associated with lower NR3C1 expression-was related to reduced picture recognition in male, but not female subjects. Furthermore, we found methylation-dependent differences in recognition memory-related brain activity in men. Together, these findings indicate that an epigenetic modification of the glucocorticoid receptor gene promoter is linked to interindividual and gender-specific differences in memory functions and PTSD risk.
Memory can be distorted by misleading post-event information. These memory distortions may have serious consequences, for example in eyewitness testimony. Many situations in which memory reports are solicited, and suggestive or misleading information is presented, are highly stressful for the respondent, yet little is known about how stress affects people's susceptibility to misinformation. Here, we exposed participants to a stressor or a control manipulation before they were presented misinformation about a previous event. We report that stressed participants endorsed misinformation in a subsequent memory test less often than control participants, suggesting that stress reduces distortions of memory by misleading information.
Here we examined effects of acute stressors that involve either systemic coadministration of corticosterone/yohimbine (3 mg/kg each) to increase glucocorticoid/noradrenaline activity (denoted as "pharmacological" stressor) or one or several distinct restraint stressors (denoted as "single" vs. "multiple" stressor) on performance of goal-directed actions. Rats were trained over 11 d to perform two instrumental actions, one for food pellets the other for sucrose solution, followed by two consecutive tests days. On each test day, rats were first sated in a counterbalanced manner on one of the two outcomes by prefeeding (selective outcome devaluation), then subjected to an acute stressor, and tested afterward in a two-lever choice task in extinction to assess whether instrumental performance is goal-directed, i.e., sensitive to changes in outcome value. Like in control rats, in rats subjected to the pharmacological or single restraint stressor prior to the choice test, performance of instrumental action was goal-directed, i.e., sensitive to outcome devaluation. By contrast, in rats exposed to the multiple stressor prior to the choice test, performance of instrumental action was habitual, i.e., insensitive to outcome devaluation. Pretreatment with diazepam (1 and 2 mg/kg) did not alleviate (or only marginally) this multiple stressor-induced effect. Thus, an intense acute stressor can render performance of previously acquired instrumental action habitual, possibly due to a compromised retrieval of encoded relationships between actions and their outcome value. Our observation in rats that an acute stressor can shift instrumental responding from goal-directed to habitual control is consistent with similar findings in humans.
Stress at encoding affects memory processes, typically enhancing, or preserving, memory for emotional information. These effects have interesting implications for eyewitness accounts, which in real-world contexts typically involve encoding an aversive event under stressful conditions followed by potential exposure to misinformation. The present study investigated memory for a negative event encoded under stress and subsequent misinformation endorsement. Healthy young adults participated in a between-groups design with three experimental sessions conducted 48 hours apart. Session one consisted of a psychosocial stress induction (or control task) followed by incidental encoding of a negative slideshow. During session two, participants were asked questions about the slideshow, during which a random subgroup was exposed to misinformation. Memory for the slideshow was tested during the third session. Assessment of memory accuracy across stress and no-stress groups revealed that stress induced just prior to encoding led to significantly better memory for the slideshow overall. The classic misinformation effect was also observed -- participants exposed to misinformation were significantly more likely to endorse false information during memory testing. In the stress group, however, memory accuracy and misinformation effects were moderated by arousal experienced during encoding of the negative event. Misinformed-stress group participants who reported that the negative slideshow elicited high arousal during encoding were less likely to endorse misinformation for the most aversive phase of the story. Furthermore, these individuals showed better memory for components of the aversive slideshow phase that had been directly misinformed. Results from the current study provide evidence that stress and high subjective arousal elicited by a negative event act concomitantly during encoding to enhance emotional memory such that the most aversive aspects of the event are well remembered and subsequently more resistant to misinformation effects.
A recent decision in the United States by the New Jersey Supreme Court has led to improved jury instructions that incorporate psychological research showing that memory does not operate like a video recording. Here we consider how cognitive neuroscience could contribute to addressing memory in the courtroom. We discuss conditions in which neuroimaging can distinguish true and false memories in the laboratory and note reasons to be skeptical about its use in courtroom cases. We also discuss neuroscience research concerning false and imagined memories, misinformation effects and reconsolidation phenomena that may enhance understanding of why memory does not operate like a video recording.
Introduction:
Experience of chronic stress in children plays an important role in enhancing future physical, mental and social problems. It is very essential and vital that families, teachers and professional groups possess necessary abilities to diagnose stress symptoms in children. According to the statistics of Education Ministry, there were almost 5.5 million primary school students in Iran in 2008-2009. However, there are very limited studies about stress in 7 to 12-year-old children. The present study aimed to review stress symptoms in school-aged children.
Methods:
In a descriptive study, 839 third to fifth grade students were selected from five randomly chosen districts of Tabriz using random sampling method in the schools. The data were collected by means of children’s stress symptom scale (CSSS) through interviewing by children. Accuracy of translation was checked and content validity and reliability were confirmed using test retest method.
Results:
The entire twenty-six items of the questionnaire were reported as stress symptoms. More than half of the study subjects reported worry, fast heart beating, being afraid, chills and feeling sad as their signs of stress. Headache (46.6%) and tiredness (41.8%) were also reported. In examining every stress symptoms, there was a statistically significant correlation between some symptoms with age, grade and type of school.
Conclusion:
Children showed a wide range of symptoms in facing with stressful events. Accurate identification of symptoms can inform parents, teachers and professional health staff about physical and mental status of school-aged children and result in interventions to reduce their stress.
Background
Children are not always recognized as being susceptible to stress, although childhood stressors may originate from multiple events in their everyday surroundings with negative effects on children’s health.
Methods
As there is a lack of large-scale, European prevalence data on childhood adversities, this study presents the prevalence of (1) negative life events and (2) familial and social adversities in 4637 European pre- and primary-school children (4–11 years old), using a parentally-reported questionnaire embedded in the IDEFICS project (‘Identification and prevention of Dietary- and lifestyle-induced health EFfects In Children and infantS’).
Results
The following findings were observed: (1) Certain adversities occur only rarely, while others are very regular (i.e. parental divorce); (2) A large percentage of children is shielded from stressors, while a small group of children is exposed to multiple, accumulating adversities; (3) The prevalence of childhood adversity is influenced by geographical location (e.g. north versus south), age group and sex; (4) Childhood adversities are associated and co-occur, resulting in potential cumulative childhood stress.
Conclusions
This study demonstrated the importance of not only studying traumatic events but also of focusing on the early familial and social environment in childhood stress research and indicated the importance of recording or monitoring childhood adversities.
Investigated the functional relations among cognitive appraisal and coping processes and their short-term outcomes within stressful encounters. The authors used an intraindividual analysis of the interrelations among primary appraisal (what was at stake in the encounter), secondary appraisal (coping options), 8 forms of problem- and emotion-focused coping, and encounter outcomes in a sample of 85 married couples (females aged 35–45 yrs and males aged 26–54 yrs). Findings show that coping was strongly related to cognitive appraisal; the forms of coping that were used varied depending on what was at stake and the options for coping. Coping was also differentially related to satisfactory and unsatisfactory encounter outcomes. Findings clarify the functional relations among appraisal and coping variables and the outcomes of stressful encounters. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Retrieval practice is a powerful memory enhancer. However, in educational settings, test taking is often experienced as a stressful event. While it is known that stress can impair retrieval processes, little is known about the delayed consequences of testing memory for educationally relevant material under stressful conditions, which is the focus of the present study. Participants (38 women, 37 men) memorized a scientific text passage on Day 1. On Day 2, they were either exposed to a stressor (cold pressor test; CPS) or a warm water control, and immediately afterward, they were asked to recall the text passage (i.e., retrieval under stress vs. control). Salivary cortisol was measured as an index of the stress response before, and 20 min after the CPS versus control treatment. The delayed effects of testing under stress were assessed with a final recall test on Day 3. In comparison to the control condition, CPS caused significant increases in salivary cortisol, and, surprisingly resulted in enhanced memory in men. Importantly, this enhancement was not only observed in the test that immediately followed the stressor, but also in the delayed test. In women, CPS caused only marginal increases in cortisol concentrations, and retrieval remained unaffected. Our study suggests that moderate stress can improve memory performance for educationally relevant material in a long-lasting manner in healthy young men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Learning and memory are supported by anatomically and functionally distinct systems. Recent research suggests that stress may alter the contributions of multiple memory systems to learning, yet the underlying mechanism in the human brain remains completely unknown. Using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging, we asked in the present experiment whether stress may modulate the engagement of hippocampus-based "declarative" and striatum-based "procedural" memory systems during classification learning in humans and what brain mechanisms are involved in this effect. We found that stress reduced declarative knowledge about the learning task and changed the used learning strategy from a single-cue-based declarative strategy to a multicue-based procedural strategy, whereas learning performance per se remained unaffected by stress. Neuroimaging revealed that hippocampal activity correlated positively with task performance in the control condition, whereas striatal activity correlated with performance in the stress condition. After stress, hippocampal activity was reduced and even negatively correlated with learning performance. These findings show for the first time that stress alters the engagement of multiple memory systems in the human brain. Stress impaired the hippocampus-dependent system and allowed the striatum to control behavior. The shift toward "procedural" learning after stress appears to rescue task performance, whereas attempts to engage the "declarative" system disrupt performance.
Hungry rats were trained to perform two instrumental actions, one for salt- and the other for lemonflavored polycose solution.
When they were sated on one of these two outcomes by prefeeding immediately prior to a choice extinction test, the action
trained with the prefed solution was performed less than the other action. The subsequent experiments examined the role of
incentive learning in this specific satiety-induced outcome revaluation effect. The second experiment demonstrated that the
experience of consuming a flavored polycose solution to satiety enabled the state induced by polycose consumption to control
the devaluation of the flavored outcome. By contrast, the third study found that, although devaluing the prefed outcome, specific-satiety
treatments could induce a relative inflation in the incentive value of other food outcomes. The final two studies demonstrated
an increased outcome-devaluation effect in instrumental performance when these devaluation and revaluation effects were combined.
Taken together, these studies demonstrate that specific satiety treatments produce changes in outcome value that depend upon
incentive learning.
The stress hormone cortisol acts on the brain, supporting adaptation and time-adjusted coping processes. Whereas previous research has focused on slow emerging, genomic effects of cortisol, we addressed the rapid, nongenomic cortisol effects on in vivo neuronal activity in humans. Three independent placebo-controlled studies in healthy men were conducted. We observed changes in CNS activity within 15 min after intravenous administration of a physiological dose of 4 mg of cortisol (hydrocortisone). Two of the studies demonstrated a rapid bilateral thalamic perfusion decrement using continuous arterial spin labeling. The third study revealed rapid, cortisol-induced changes in global signal strength and map dissimilarity of the electroencephalogram. Our data demonstrate that a physiological concentration of cortisol profoundly affects the functioning and perfusion of the human brain in vivo via a rapid, nongenomic mechanism. The changes in neuronal functioning suggest that cortisol acts on the thalamic relay of background as well as on task-specific sensory information, allowing focus and facilitation of adaptation to challenges.
A key component of acute stress is a surge in vigilance that enables a prioritized processing of highly salient information to promote the organism's survival. In this study, we investigated the neural effects of acute stress on emotional picture processing. ERPs were measured during a deep encoding task, in which 40 male participants categorized 50 unpleasant and 50 neutral pictures according to arousal and valence. Before picture encoding, participants were subjected either to the Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test (SECPT) or to a warm water control procedure. The exposure to the SECPT resulted in increased subjective and autonomic (heart rate and blood pressure) stress responses relative to the control condition. Viewing of unpleasant relative to neutral pictures evoked enhanced late positive potentials (LPPs) over centro-parietal scalp sites around 400 msec after picture onset. Prior exposure to acute stress selectively increased the LPPs for unpleasant pictures. Moreover, the LPP magnitude for unpleasant pictures following the SECPT was positively associated with incidental free recall performance 24 hr later. The present results suggest that acute stress sensitizes the brain for increased processing of cues in the environment, particularly priming the processing of unpleasant cues. This increased processing is related to later long-term memory performance.
Acute stress shifts the brain into a state that fosters rapid defense mechanisms. Stress-related neuromodulators are thought to trigger this change by altering properties of large-scale neural populations throughout the brain. We investigated this brain-state shift in humans. During exposure to a fear-related acute stressor, responsiveness and interconnectivity within a network including cortical (frontoinsular, dorsal anterior cingulate, inferotemporal, and temporoparietal) and subcortical (amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, and midbrain) regions increased as a function of stress response magnitudes. β-adrenergic receptor blockade, but not cortisol synthesis inhibition, diminished this increase. Thus, our findings reveal that noradrenergic activation during acute stress results in prolonged coupling within a distributed network that integrates information exchange between regions involved in autonomic-neuroendocrine control and vigilant attentional reorienting.
Stress modulates instrumental action in favor of habit processes that encode the association between a response and preceding stimuli and at the expense of goal-directed processes that learn the association between an action and the motivational value of the outcome. Here, we asked whether this stress-induced shift from goal-directed to habit action is dependent on noradrenergic activation and may therefore be blocked by a β-adrenoceptor antagonist. To this end, healthy men and women were administered a placebo or the β-adrenoceptor antagonist propranolol before they underwent a stress or a control procedure. Shortly after the stress or control procedure, participants were trained in two instrumental actions that led to two distinct food outcomes. After training, one of the food outcomes was selectively devalued by feeding participants to satiety with that food. A subsequent extinction test indicated whether instrumental behavior was goal-directed or habitual. As expected, stress after placebo rendered participants' behavior insensitive to the change in the value of the outcome and thus habitual. After propranolol intake, however, stressed participants behaved, same as controls, goal-directed, suggesting that propranolol blocked the stress-induced bias toward habit behavior. Our findings show that the shift from goal-directed to habitual control of instrumental action under stress necessitates noradrenergic activation and could have important clinical implications, particularly for addictive disorders.
Corticosteroid hormones, released during stressful encounters, have profound and far-reaching effects on cognition. They are often thought to accomplish these effects primarily via glucocorticoid receptors (GR), but recent findings from rodent and human studies argue for an additional, critical role of the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) in cognitive changes in response to stress. We propose that the MR initiates rapid changes in the recruitment of specific neural systems, inducing a shift towards cognitively less-demanding processing and allowing a quick and adequate response to the situation. In combination with slower and longer-lasting actions mediated by GR, this shift leads to optimal coping with the ongoing stressful event.
Investigated the functional relations among cognitive appraisal and coping processes and their short-term outcomes within stressful encounters. The authors used an intraindividual analysis of the interrelations among primary appraisal (what was at stake in the encounter), secondary appraisal (coping options), 8 forms of problem- and emotion-focused coping, and encounter outcomes in a sample of 85 married couples (females aged 35–45 yrs and males aged 26–54 yrs). Findings show that coping was strongly related to cognitive appraisal; the forms of coping that were used varied depending on what was at stake and the options for coping. Coping was also differentially related to satisfactory and unsatisfactory encounter outcomes. Findings clarify the functional relations among appraisal and coping variables and the outcomes of stressful encounters. (47 ref)
Stress initiates an intricate response that affects diverse cognitive and affective domains, with the goal of improving survival chances in the light of changing environmental challenges. Here, we bridge animal data at cellular and systems levels with human work on brain-wide networks to propose a framework describing how stress-related neuromodulators trigger dynamic shifts in network balance, enabling an organism to comprehensively reallocate its neural resources according to cognitive demands. We argue that exposure to acute stress prompts a reallocation of resources to a salience network, promoting fear and vigilance, at the cost of an executive control network. After stress subsides, resource allocation to these two networks reverses, which normalizes emotional reactivity and enhances higher-order cognitive processes important for long-term survival.
The processes of memory formation and storage are complex and highly dynamic. Once memories are consolidated, they are not necessarily fixed, but can be changed long after storage. In particular, seemingly stable memories may re-enter an unstable state when they are retrieved, from which they must be restabilized during a process known as reconsolidation. During reconsolidation, memories are susceptible to modifications again, thus providing an opportunity to update seemingly stable memories. While initial demonstrations of memory reconsolidation came mainly from animal studies, evidence for reconsolidation in humans is now accumulating as well. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of human memory reconsolidation. After a summary of findings on the reconsolidation of human fear and episodic memory, we focus particularly on recent neuroimaging data that provide first insights into how reconsolidation processes are implemented in the human brain. Finally, we discuss the implications of memory modifications during reconsolidation for the treatment of mental disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and drug addiction.
Stress may impair memory retrieval. This retrieval impairment has been attributed to the action of the stress hormone cortisol, which is released with a delay of several minutes after a stressful encounter. Hence, most studies tested memory retrieval 20-30 min after stress, when the stress-induced cortisol increase peaks. In the present experiment, we investigated whether retrieval impairments can also be found at later intervals after stress. To this end, participants learned a list of words on day 1. Twenty-four hours later, they were first exposed to a stressor or a nonstressful control manipulation and completed a recognition test for the words either immediately thereafter, 25 min later, or 90 min later. Our findings showed that stress did not impair memory retrieval when memory was tested immediately after the stressor, before cortisol levels were elevated. However, retrieval performance was impaired 25 min after stress, when cortisol levels peaked, as well as 90 min after the stressor, when cortisol levels had already returned to baseline. The retrieval impairment 90 min after stress appeared to be even stronger than the one after 25 min. These findings suggest that the detrimental effects of stress on retrieval performance may last longer than is usually assumed.
Memory consolidation is a dynamic process. Reactivation of consolidated memories triggers reconsolidation, a time-limited period during which memories can be modified [1-4]. Episodic memory refers to our ability to recall specific past events about what happened, including where and when [5]. However, it is unknown whether noninvasive stimulation of the neocortex during reconsolidation might strengthen existing episodic memories in humans. To modify these memories, we applied repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) [6] over right lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC), a region involved in the reactivation of episodic memories [7, 8]. We report that rTMS of PFC after memory reactivation strengthened verbal episodic memories, an effect documented by improved recall 24 hr postreactivation compared to stimulation of PFC without reactivation and vertex (control site) after reactivation. In contrast, there was no effect of stimulation 1 hr postreactivation (control experiment), showing that memory strengthening is time dependent, consistent with the reconsolidation theory. Thus, we demonstrated that right lateral PFC plays a causal role in strengthening of episodic memories through reconsolidation in humans. Reconsolidation may serve as an opportunity to modify existing memories with noninvasive stimulation of a critical brain region, an issue of fundamental importance for memory research and clinical applications.
The current study tests a model that depicts the relationships among coping strategies (active, distraction, avoidance, and support seeking) and anxiety symptoms. SEM is used to test if the relationship between these variables is mediated by coping efficacy. A large sample of Canadian children (N = 506) aged 8 to 11 years (boys = 249, girls = 245, unknown gender = 12) participated in the study. Results showed that coping
efficacy is a partial mediator of the relations between active coping strategies and anxiety
symptoms, however support was not found for it to be an effective mediator for other coping strategies. This study contributes to the understanding of childhood anxiety by highlighting the importance of the relationship between anxiety and the methods children use to cope with stress and how perceptions of their coping abilities influence this relationship.
Stress can exert profound effects on memory encoding. Here, we investigated whether (sub)cortical information processing during encoding and memory retrieval at a 24h delayed test are affected by the temporal proximity between stress and memory encoding. Sixty-four participants engaged in the Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST) or a no-stress control condition either immediately before (i.e., proximate condition) or 30min before (i.e., distant condition) a picture encoding task. In general, stress decreased the number of freely recalled and recognized pictures and increased the number of false alarms. However, timing of stress exposure did not differentially affect picture recall, recognition or selective attention processes (i.e., LPP). Nevertheless, stress-induced cortisol responses and correctly recognized neutral pictures were positively associated within the proximate stress condition but negatively associated within the distant stress condition. These findings suggest that the time at which a stressor is applied might differentially impact the association between stress-induced cortisol elevations and memory formation and indicate the need for a finer delineation of the time window during which glucocorticoids affect memory formation processes.
Accumulating evidence suggests that stress may orchestrate the engagement of multiple memory systems in the brain. In particular, stress is thought to favor dorsal striatum-dependent procedural over hippocampus-dependent declarative memory. However, the neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying these modulatory effects of stress remain elusive, especially in humans. Here, we targeted the role of the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) in the stress-induced modulation of dorsal striatal and hippocampal memory systems in the human brain using a combination of event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging and pharmacologic blockade of the MR.
Eighty healthy participants received the MR antagonist spironolactone (300 mg) or a placebo and underwent a stressor or control manipulation before they performed, in the scanner, a classification task that can be supported by the hippocampus and the dorsal striatum.
Stress after placebo did not affect learning performance but reduced explicit task knowledge and led to a relative increase in the use of more procedural learning strategies. At the neural level, stress promoted striatum-based learning at the expense of hippocampus-based learning. Functional connectivity analyses showed that this shift was associated with altered coupling of the amygdala with the hippocampus and dorsal striatum. Mineralocorticoid receptor blockade before stress prevented the stress-induced shift toward dorsal striatal procedural learning, same as the stress-induced alterations of amygdala connectivity with hippocampus and dorsal striatum, but resulted in significantly impaired performance.
Our findings indicate that the stress-induced shift from hippocampal to dorsal striatal memory systems is mediated by the amygdala, required to preserve performance after stress, and dependent on the MR.
Substantial evidence from animal studies suggests that enhanced memory associated with emotional arousal results from an activation of beta-adrenergic stress hormone systems during and after an emotional experience. To examine this implication in human subjects, we investigated the effect of the beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist propranolol hydrochloride on long-term memory for an emotionally arousing short story, or a closely matched but more emotionally neutral story. We report here that propranolol significantly impaired memory of the emotionally arousing story but did not affect memory of the emotionally neutral story. The impairing effect of propranolol on memory of the emotional story was not due either to reduced emotional responsiveness or to nonspecific sedative or attentional effects. The results support the hypothesis that enhanced memory associated with emotional experiences involves activation of the beta-adrenergic system.
Although forgetting is the common fate of most of our experiences, much evidence indicates that emotional arousal enhances the storage of memories, thus serving to create, selectively, lasting memories of our more important experiences. The neurobiological systems mediating emotional arousal and memory are very closely linked. The adrenal stress hormones epinephrine and corticosterone released by emotional arousal regulate the consolidation of long-term memory. The amygdala plays a critical role in mediating these stress hormone influences. The release of norepinephrine in the amygdala and the activation of noradrenergic receptors are essential for stress hormone-induced memory enhancement. The findings of both animal and human studies provide compelling evidence that stress-induced activation of the amygdala and its interactions with other brain regions involved in processing memory play a critical role in ensuring that emotionally significant experiences are well-remembered. Recent research has determined that some human subjects have highly superior autobiographic memory of their daily experiences and that there are structural differences in the brains of these subjects compared with the brains of subjects who do not have such memory. Understanding of neurobiological bases of such exceptional memory may provide additional insights into the processes underlying the selectivity of memory.
Although it has been known for decades that stress influences memory performance, it was only recently shown that stress may alter the contribution of multiple, anatomically and functionally distinct memory systems to behavior. Here, we review recent animal and human studies demonstrating that stress promotes a shift from flexible 'cognitive' to rather rigid 'habit' memory systems and discuss, based on recent neuroimaging data in humans, the underlying brain mechanisms. We argue that, despite being generally adaptive, this stress-induced shift towards 'habit' memory may, in vulnerable individuals, be a risk factor for psychopathology.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the only major mental disorder for which a cause is considered to be known: that is, an event that involves threat to the physical integrity of oneself or others and induces a response of intense fear, helplessness or horror. Although PTSD is still largely regarded as a psychological phenomenon, over the past three decades the growth of the biological PTSD literature has been explosive, and thousands of references now exist. Ultimately, the impact of an environmental event, such as a psychological trauma, must be understood at organic, cellular and molecular levels. This Review attempts to present the current state of this understanding on the basis of psychophysiological, structural and functional neuroimaging, and endocrinological, genetic and molecular biological studies in humans and in animal models.