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Error Correction in ESL: Learner's Preferences
Abstract
This paper reports the findings of two studies which attempt to identify the preferences and expectations of intermediate and advanced ESL learners regarding error correction. These are compared with some popular opinions of linguists and ESL teachers which have influenced error correction in the language classroom in recent time. Certain important differences are observed between learners' preferences 1. IN1RODUCTION and expectations on the one hand, and the opinions and practice of linguists/ teachers on the other. The paper concludes that, if the error correction is to be effective, classroom practice cannot afford to be based rigidly on any standardized practice derived from the opinions of linguists and teachers alone, but it must be flexible enough to incorporate the preferences and needs of the language learner.
... Nevertheless, there is still some orientation toward error correction as students' primary source of feedback (Oladejo, 1993). Corder (1973) suggested that the instructor should correct learners' errors. ...
... Corder (1973) suggested that the instructor should correct learners' errors. However, research evidence has indicated that a teacher's error correction may not effectively get the learner to perform correctly in the target language (Oladejo, 1993). ...
... It is now generally agreed that students also have significant roles to play if error correction is to be effective. It is also suggested that self-correction and peer correction should be encouraged to complement the teacher's role in error correction (Oladejo, 1993). Engaging learners in error analysis can help them learn languages more effectively. ...
Abstract Writing proper English sentences poses a significant challenge for Arabic-speaking postsecondary students studying English as a Foreign Language (EFL) due to substantial differences between Arabic and English syntactic structures. This basic qualitative study explored the perceptions of Arabic-speaking EFL learners at an Arabian university regarding the challenges they faced in mastering English sentence structure, especially after analyzing errors in their written assignments. The conceptual framework for the study used Corder’s error analysis model and Selinker’s interlingual theory to guide students in revising their errors. The research questions focused on students’ perceptions of learning English sentence structure and identifying syntactic errors in their writing. Data were collected through interviews with 10 Arabic-speaking English majors at an Arabian university and analyzed using thematic analysis, including NVivo coding of students’ responses and second-level category coding. The findings were verified for trustworthiness through member checking and detailed descriptions. Results indicated that Arabic-speaking EFL learners struggle with English sentence structure due to grammatical differences between Arabic and English, causing anxiety and reduced confidence. Common errors included incorrect verb tenses, punctuation, and word order, often due to direct translation. Learners employed digital tools, self-reviews, and instructor feedback to overcome these issues, underscoring the need for educational methods tailored to these linguistic challenges. These findings could foster positive social change by enhancing English mastery for academic and professional success.
... With respect to the "which" question, extant studies revealed that learners generally preferred to have all their errors corrected (Katayama 2007;Lee 2013;Sakui and Gaies 1999;Zhu and Wang 2019) so as to improve their linguistic accuracy (Oladejo 1993), communicative effectiveness and exam performance (Ha and Nguyen 2021). Teachers, on the other hand, were in favor of selective error correction (Agudo 2014;Ha 2022;Jean and Simard 2011) due to a variety of practical considerations, including time constraints, class sizes, test preparation, and detrimental effects of frequent corrections on learners' affective engagement (Ha and Nguyen 2021;Ha et al. 2021a). ...
... As for specific error targets, previous studies yielded mixed findings. For example, students in Singapore preferred to receive OCF on grammatical errors (Oladejo 1993); Japanese students favored OCF on grammatical and lexical errors (Katayama 2007); Chinese students valued OCF on pragmatic errors (Zhu and Wang 2019); Iranian students liked feedback on pronunciation and grammatical errors (Zare et al. 2022). Teachers' prioritization of error targets, according to Ha (2022), was also contingent on lesson types (e.g., grammar lessons). ...
... Lee (2013) reported learners' overwhelming preference for explicit corrections but low preference for metalinguistic feedback. By contrast, metalinguistic feedback was most preferred in three studies (Ha et al. 2021a;Katayama 2007;Oladejo 1993). To complicate the picture, students preferred both metalinguistic feedback and explicit corrections in three other studies (Ha et al. 2021b;Roothooft and Breeze 2016;Zhang and Rahimi 2014). ...
Beliefs about oral corrective feedback, especially those held by young EFL learners, are under-researched. This paper reports on a study designed to investigate whether Chinese junior secondary students and teachers share similar beliefs about oral corrective feedback (OCF) in English instruction and how students’ English proficiency may relate to their OCF beliefs. A questionnaire was completed by 87 teachers and 597 students, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 students with varying English proficiency. Statistical analyses of the questionnaire data found significant differences between student and teacher beliefs with respect to general attitude toward OCF, uptake of OCF, preference for certain types of OCF, and provision of OCF based on the gravity of errors. Students at different proficiency levels were also found to hold different beliefs about the timing and uptake of OCF. A content analysis of the interviews revealed more detailed similarities and differences between the OCF views held by students with varying English proficiency. These findings suggest that student beliefs are shaped by various individual, situational, contextual and cultural factors. Pedagogical efforts that can be made to maximize the effects of OCF in the classroom are discussed in light of these findings.
... Holley & King, 1974;Allwright & Bailey, 1991;Yushida, 2008) recommend self-correction which might demand teachers' wait time and cue provision. Peer correction has been advocated by some researchers (e.g., Burt & Kiparsky, 1972;Raven, 1973;Wingfield, 1975;Cohen, 1975;Valdman, 1975;Witbeck, 1976;Corder, 1993;Katayama, 2007), whereas the findings of researches carried out by some researchers (e.g., Porter, 1986;Oladejo, 1993;Ramírez Acosta, 2007;Sook Park, 2010;Sorayaie Azar & Molavi, 2013) reveal different views and conclude that neither teachers nor learners are interested in peer error correction. According to Edge (1989) teacher-correction need to be implemented only when self and peer correction fail. ...
... For instance, Lee's (2013) research study revealed that advanced ESLstudents in the US favored explicit corrections while metalinguistic corrections was ranking the least favorite correction technique. This result conflicts with earlier research that indicated that most secondary and tertiary ESL learners in Singapore preferred metalinguistic feedback (Oladejo, 1993). Furthermore, the Iranian EFL learners in Zhang and Rahimi's (2014) study, preferred explicit and metalinguistic correction the most. ...
... The learners' strongly favorable attitudes toward receiving teacher error correction in the present study is consistent with the results of numerous studies among ESL and EFL learners (e.g. Cathcart & Olsen, 1976;Chenoweth et al., 1983;McCargar, 1993;Oladejo, 1993;Bang, 1999;Schulz, 2001;Katayama, 2006Katayama, , 2007aKatayama, , 2007b. The EFL students' overwhelmingly positive attitude towards teacher correction might be a consequence of their previous instruction (Katayama, 2007). ...
EFL teachers are suggested to investigate learners’ beliefs and preferences for oral error correction, an integral part of language teaching, to either adopt them or raise learners’ awareness in case their perceptions and preferences oppose the findings regarding effective learning. Although Iranian EFL learners’ attitude and preferences for different aspects of oral error treatment have been relatively addressed, some mixed results were obtained. Using a quantitative descriptive design, the current study sought to extend this line of research by investigating the attitudes and preferences of 756 Iranian EFL learners regarding the existence of
oral errors, oral error correction timing, provider, categories, and techniques. The findings revealed that EFL learners had positive attitude towards oral error correction. In details, a large number of learners had a preference for oral error correction most of the time. Moreover immediate teacher correction was favored by most subjects. Moreover, nearly half of the participants favored self-correction while most expressed dislike for peer error treatment. The findings concerning error treatment types and techniques, showed that EFL learners favored different types and techniques of oral error treatment among which a subtype of metalinguistic clues where teacher provides information or hints to correction and a subtype of clarification request in which teacher asks why the learner used the word or the structure were the most and least favorite ones respectively. The findings might help stakeholders gain a better understanding of learners' attitudes and preferences for oral error treatment.
... Consequently, finding the most appropriate means to correct errors in EFL or ESL classrooms has been the aim of several investigations conducted by second language acquisition scholars who have studied preferences for OCF Cathcart & Olsen (1976), Chenoweth, Day, Chun, & Luppescu (1983), Oladejo (1993), Schulz (1996), Musayeva (1998), Yao (2000), Schulz (2001), Lee (2004), among others. In this regard, OFC has been considered an important tool to boost the teaching-learning process of L2 education. ...
... For instance, regarding the question: Which leaners errors should be corrected? Oladejo (1993) found that: ...
... Although the effectiveness Oral Corrective Feedback has never been categorically proven, most students as well as professors believe in the efficacy of it. Therefore, both groups of people express being in favor of receiving OCF, this coincides with several studies conducted before on this matter such as Oladejo (1993), Carranza (2007), Ananda et al (2017) and Ünsal Şakiroğlu (2020). • Regarding the emotional effect of Oral Corrective Feedback on students, mixed results were obtained. ...
La Retroalimentación Correctiva Oral (ROC) se considera una herramienta clave para mejorar las habilidades de los estudiantes en las aulas de inglés como lengua extranjera en todo el mundo. Por lo tanto, es importante identificar de qué manera los estudiantes prefieren ser corregidos, así como la forma en que los profesores prefieren corregir los errores de los estudiantes. En este contexto, se pueden aplicar técnicas más precisas en el aula para mejorar el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje. Esta investigación tiene como objetivo analizar las preferencias hacia la Retroalimentación Oral Correctiva en las aulas de inglés como lengua extranjera en la ESPOCH. Los métodos cualitativos-cuantitativos se emplean en este estudio, considerando también los aspectos descriptivos, analíticos y correlativos de la investigación. Los resultados revelan que tanto los estudiantes como los profesores creen que la Retroalimentación Oral Correctiva es necesaria y efectiva. Asimismo, estudiantes y profesores coinciden en que la ROC debe darse después de que el estudiante haya terminado su participación. Además, los errores de contenido y forma deben ser corregidos de acuerdo con los puntos de vista de los estudiantes y profesores. Además, la reformulación y repetición del error fueron elegidos por los alumnos y los profesores como los tipos favoritos de ROC. En consecuencia, se recomienda seguir utilizando la ROC como herramienta para mejorar el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje del inglés. Además, los profesores deberían ofrecer la ROC con una actitud positiva y respetuosa hacia los estudiantes. Además, es aconsejable favorecer la reformulación y repetición del error sobre otros tipos de ROC.
... Another area of investigation in feedback research has been that of student preferences for various feedback types and foci on their compositions ( c.f. Cohen, 1987;Cohen & Cavalcanti, 1990;Enginarlar, 1993;Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1994Leki, 1991;Mangelsdorf, 1992;Oladejo, 1993;Saito, 1994;Sengupta, 1998). In these studies, researchers have noted a "mismatch" (Cohen, 1987;Cohen & Cavalcanti, 1990;Leki, 1991;Oladejo, 1993, Saito, 1994 between what students prefer in terms of feedback focus, and what they actually receive. ...
... Another area of investigation in feedback research has been that of student preferences for various feedback types and foci on their compositions ( c.f. Cohen, 1987;Cohen & Cavalcanti, 1990;Enginarlar, 1993;Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1994Leki, 1991;Mangelsdorf, 1992;Oladejo, 1993;Saito, 1994;Sengupta, 1998). In these studies, researchers have noted a "mismatch" (Cohen, 1987;Cohen & Cavalcanti, 1990;Leki, 1991;Oladejo, 1993, Saito, 1994 between what students prefer in terms of feedback focus, and what they actually receive. In addition to a mismatch in terms of feedback focus, a mismatch in the type of feedback given has also been noted. ...
... In addition to a mismatch in terms of feedback focus, a mismatch in the type of feedback given has also been noted. Oladejo (1993) and Cohen (1987), for example, reported that students expressed misgivings about the comprehensiveness of the feedback they received. These students felt that many teacher comments were often selective and instead preferred to have all errors identified and commented on. ...
Although peer review is a common component of the process approach to writing
instruction in L1 classrooms, the effect it has on the improvement of EFL student writing is undetermined. The purpose of this experimental study is to gain a deeper understanding of the effects of peer review on the expository writing of 52 second-year EFL students at ENS, "Teacher Training School of Constantine". Specifically, the research project is designed to determine: (1) whether trained peer review alters the type and amount of revisions students make on the multiple drafts of the expository texts they produce; and (2) whether those revisions improve the overall quality of the final products.
In order to answer these research questions, the study was carried out through three
stages over a period of 10 weeks: (1) the pilot study, (2) the training phase, and (3) the
implementing phase. Two groups of students were compared, one trained to participate in
peer review and the other not. The teacher-as-researcher taught both groups simultaneously. A combination of data collection techniques were used, including questionnaires, observations of group interactions, and a detailed examination of the participants ’ written assignments.
Using ANOVAs, correlation tests, and linear regression, two separate analyses of pre-
and post-test data were conducted: (1) a text-revision analysis, comparing first and last drafts for type and amount of changes; and (2) a text-quality analysis, using a holistic rating grid.
Results of the investigation indicate that peer review positively affected writing
outcomes; the essays written by the students who participated in peer review were judged by the teacher-researcher to have been of significantly better quality, and to have included more revisions. Thus, at least for these EFL students, peer review allowed them to improve the quality of their expository texts and their revision skills. Important implications for EFL instruction, teacher education, and teacher-research were made based on these findings.
... Even though much debate continues on these issues and further research is needed, another relevant aspect which could provide vital insight to this topic is learners' perceptions and preferences. Already stated by Olajedo (1993), learners' views are neglected but, in fact, they should be considered and compared with the opinions of teachers. Among the first studies to tackle this aspect, we can find Radecki and Swales (1988), Olajedo (1993) and Saito (1994). ...
... Already stated by Olajedo (1993), learners' views are neglected but, in fact, they should be considered and compared with the opinions of teachers. Among the first studies to tackle this aspect, we can find Radecki and Swales (1988), Olajedo (1993) and Saito (1994). A more recent study conducted by Hamouda (2011), which paid attention to learners and teachers and the comparison between these two groups, has thrown interesting findings related to similarities and differences of perception within the same classroom. ...
... Following Olajedo's (1993) statement, the present study aims at observing learners' and teachers' views and perceptions on WCF. Taking Hamouda's (2011) research as the basis of this project, this study will analyse secondary learners' and teachers' perceptions and preferences for WCF in a real classroom. ...
... The role of correction in language teaching has been an issue of great interest for researchers and language teachers for quite some time. However, despite the fact that there is plenty of research regarding the teachers' responses to students' errors, ony a few studies have been done about the students' perceptions on error correction both in ESL and EFL settings, especially among Latin-American high school students (Oladejo, 1993;Katayama, 2007;Saeb, 2017;Salikin, 2001 Salikin, 2001, Schultz,1996, Yoshida, 2008. However, very few studies have been carried out in order to find out the perceptions of high school students. ...
... These findings are consistent with the results found in similar studies. (Abarca, 2008, Katayama, 1996, Oladejo, 1993. Students seem to see correction as fundamental to improve their language skills and seem to be aware of the necessity of being corrected. ...
Given the scarce literature focusing on students' perceptions and preferences on oral error correction especially at secondary school level, this study intended to provide some insight on this important issue on English language teaching by exploring the perceptions and preferences of 149 secondary school students in Chile regarding oral error correction. An adapted version of a survey developed by Katayama (2007) was used to explore their general attitudes towards error correction and their preferences for correction of different types of errors as well as particular correction methods. Frequency distribution was calculated to analyse their Likert-scale answers. The results showed that the majority of the respondents regarded error correction as something crucial to improve their proficiency in English. They also favoured those correction techniques in which they were clearly informed about their errors or those in which they participated to correct them.
... Most investigations have explored facilitators' perspective about oral correction and the correlation between their pedagogical practices and learners' learning preferences (Ha & Nguyen, 2021;Inci-Kavak, 2019;Tsuneyasu, 2016;Lyster et al., 2013;Katayama, 2007;Oladejo, 1993) and most of them have revealed a mismatch. On the other hand, the opinion of learners and their preferences for error correction are almost always disregarded (Oladejo, 1993). ...
... Most investigations have explored facilitators' perspective about oral correction and the correlation between their pedagogical practices and learners' learning preferences (Ha & Nguyen, 2021;Inci-Kavak, 2019;Tsuneyasu, 2016;Lyster et al., 2013;Katayama, 2007;Oladejo, 1993) and most of them have revealed a mismatch. On the other hand, the opinion of learners and their preferences for error correction are almost always disregarded (Oladejo, 1993). ...
In recent years there has been extensive research focusing on oral corrective feedback (OCF), a key aspect of English as a second/foreign language (ESL/EFL) learning mostly focused on the linguists’ and teachers’ perspective. On the other hand, very little has been done to know the learners’ perspective. The aim of this investigation was to gather students’ point of view of oral corrective feedback given by teachers in EFL courses at two private universities from San Jose, Costa Rica. This research is descriptive, cross-sectional, and quantitative in nature. For the data collection, an on-line questionnaire was created which was answered voluntarily by 160 adult students from the levels 1 and 2 (corresponding to A1/A2 CEFR classification) the EFL program from these universities. Participants were interrogated on their general attitude towards corrective feedback and whether they considered it to be important for their learning process, the frequency with which they like to receive feedback, which type of errors they consider should be corrected and the preference of error correction type. The obtained results demonstrate positive perceptions regarding the feedback received from teachers on all types of errors. Learners expect to receive immediate CF as they consider this to be an important part of the learning process. The participants expressed a desire to be corrected in all grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation deviances. The preferred method of corrective feedback was explicit correction, followed by recast and clarification; metalinguistic correction and non-verbal cues were the least liked.
... On the contrary, teachers are shown to prefer to delay CF until after the speaking activity so that it will not disrupt their students' flow of speaking or flow of thoughts . Regarding targets of CF, students are found to appreciate CF for errors of all kinds Oladejo, 1993;Zhu & Wang, 2019) whereas teachers tend to be more selective in their choices of errors to correct . In terms of CF providers, there is some initial evidence to show that students are not satisfied with receiving CF only from peers in small group work, and teachers tend to think that pushing learners to self-correct or peer correct is effective to their learning . ...
... In a study of the relationship between Iranian undergraduate EFL students' anxiety levels and CF beliefs, Zhang and Rahimi (2014) found that their students (80 high anxiety and 80 low anxiety students) rated explicit correction and metalinguistic feedback as the most effective type, and elicitation, recast, repetition and clarification request as equal second most effective type, regardless of their anxiety levels. This mirrors the findings of an early study with ESL students in Singaporean high school and university contexts by Oladejo (1993), who found that metalinguistic feedback received the highest rating score. In a recent study with undergraduate EFL students in China, Zhu and Wang (2019) found that their students preferred to receive output-prompting CF (e.g., repetition, metalinguistic feedback) more than input-providing CF (explicit correction). ...
Oral corrective feedback (CF) is a topic of interest for both second language acquisition researchers and second/foreign language teachers. CF has received extensive research attention for the past few decades. This research agenda has revealed that CF is beneficial for, and an integral part of, language teaching and learning, and the effectiveness of CF is mediated by the manner of delivery, the targets, and the situations in which it is provided. Research has also shown that teachers’ CF varies across classrooms and contexts, and teachers in some contexts hold beliefs which may result in counterproductive practices. However, little is known about whether, how, and the extent to which teachers can change their beliefs and practices to enhance the effectiveness of their CF provision. This study was, therefore, designed to investigate the effects of awareness-raising activities, including opportunities to consider students’ beliefs and SLA research findings, on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding CF.
To achieve this aim, three studies were designed. Study 1 investigated Vietnamese secondary EFL students’ beliefs about CF through questionnaires with 250 students and follow-up interviews with 15 of them. The findings of this study were used as the main input for Study 2, which examined the impact of students’ beliefs on teachers’ beliefs regarding CF. A teacher professional development (PD) program, involving 12 Vietnamese EFL teachers and comprising a seminar on students’ CF beliefs and follow-up experiential learning activities, was designed for this study. Data included interviews before the seminar, written reflections during eight weeks of follow-up activities, and interviews by the end of the program. The findings showed that although the teachers did not explicitly acknowledge the influence of their students’ beliefs on their beliefs, they nevertheless tended to change their own beliefs in ways that would cater for their students’ CF preferences. The findings were interpreted in relation to the sociocultural and contextual factors.
Study 3, possibly the most significant one, investigated the impact of research findings on teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding CF. To realise this aim, a PD program, comprising a workshop on recent CF research findings combined with
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follow-up activities, was provided for another group of 12 Vietnamese EFL teachers. Data included interviews and classroom observations before and after the intervention and written responses to reflective activities. The findings showed that the teachers changed their beliefs significantly regarding various aspects of CF, especially CF types and CF timing. The changes in the teachers’ beliefs were found to lead to the changes in their actual CF practices although the relationship of change was complex and nonlinear.
This research makes several novel contributions. Firstly, it contributes to the limited body of knowledge on the relationships between teachers’ and students’ beliefs, and between teachers’ beliefs and practices, regarding CF in Vietnamese EFL classrooms, a hitherto underexplored context. Secondly, it is the first attempt that has been made to shed some light on the extent to which teachers modify their beliefs to cater for their students’ preferences for CF. Thirdly, it makes the first attempt to date, to explore whether, how, and the extent to which teachers’ changes in beliefs lead to changes in actual classroom CF provision. The findings have several important implications for pedagogy concerning CF, in-service teacher training, and research methods regarding the impact of teacher PD. Based on these findings, a conceptual framework of teacher knowledge base regarding CF and the role of PD in effecting change has been developed. This framework is hoped to assist PD designers, educators, and researchers in enhancing the effectiveness of PD concerning CF and beyond.
Keywords: oral corrective feedback; teacher beliefs; student beliefs; teachers' practices; awareness-raising activities; teacher professional development; teacher experiential learning; reflective practice
... This is while comparing studies on learners' attitudes to research exploring students' actual performance under these two CF conditions reveals that the results do not always coincide. For example, while some studies have shown that learners do not have positive attitudes towards PCF (e.g., Oladejo, 1993), a number of studies have provided evidence that learners benefit from this method (e.g., Sato & Lyster, 2012;Sippel, 2019). Hence, learners' actual performance as well as their attitudes should be investigated when assessing the effectiveness of a pedagogical technique. ...
... Furthermore, the results indicated that the PCF group had negative attitudes towards the employed treatment and believed that it was almost totally ineffective in binging about significant changes in their oral proficiency. Such a negative view about the role of peer correction in developing L2 knowledge was also reported in Oladejo's (1993) survey, in which the majority of the Singaporean university students believed that none of their errors of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and organization of ideas should be corrected by their classmates. They perceived teachers as the best and most effective source of feedback for these aspects of the language. ...
This study aimed to examine the effects of teacher corrective feedback (TCF) versus peer corrective feedback (PCF) on Iranian EFL learners' speaking abilities, and to explore their perceptions of the two CF conditions due to the scarcity and inconsistency of findings in the pertinent literature. To fulfill these objectives, the students' speaking performance was assessed before and after the treatments, and a questionnaire and follow-up interviews were employed to probe their attitudes. The findings showed greater improvements in the speaking performance of the PCF group although the students had a very low opinion of PCF and favored TCF owing to their concern over issues like trust, grade and face. Although these concerns adversely affected the students' attitudes, they created facilitating anxiety which drove the PCF learners to engage in the process of learning more actively than their TCF counterparts. Hence, even in teacher-centered cultures, there is a role for PCF.
... The role of correction in language teaching has been an issue of great interest for researchers and language teachers for quite some time. Although there is plenty of research regarding the teachers' responses to students' errors (Lee, 2007;Lyster & Mori, 2006;Yang, 2009;Simard & Jean, 2011;Sheen, 2004;Tsang, 2004) few studies have been done about the students' perceptions on error correction both in ESL and EFL settings, especially among high school students (Katayama, 2007;Oladejo, 1993;Salikin, 2001). In this respect, Kartchava (2016) has noted that "to date, there is a paucity of research into learners' beliefs about specific CF techniques" (p.22). ...
This study examines the oral corrective feedback perceptions of a group of 150 Malaysian secondary students from various ethnic groups and proficiency levels and who belong to a language centre in Penang. A survey method including an adapted version of a questionnaire developed by Katayama (2007) was used to explore the participants' CF perceptions on the necessity of correction, constant vs. selective CF and peer correction. The results revealed significant differences between the students of different proficiency levels and ethnic groups regarding their perceptions on oral CF. The findings carry important implications for classroom teaching practice.
... In Zhang and Rahimi's (2014) and Kartchava's (2016) studies, for example, students stated that the focus of CF should be on the errors that impede communication flow. Oladejo (1993), on the other hand, found that most Singaporean learners believed that teachers should not ignore grammatical errors in favor of focusing only on communication errors. ...
This study aspires to unravel language learners’ beliefs about grammar instruction and oral corrective feedback (CF).Despite the existing general tendency, conflicting
expectations of learners on several related issues underscored the need for more versatile teaching instruction, surgical treatment of learners’ errors and regular classroom discussion between learners and teachers to exchange information on their expectations.
... Most investigations have explored facilitators' perspectives on oral correction and the correlation between their pedagogical practices and learners' learning preferences (Ha & Nguyen, 2021;Inci-Kavak, V., 2019;Tsuneyasu, 2016;Kahir, 2015;Tomczyk, 2013;Cathcart & Olsen, 1976;Hawkey, 2006;McCargar, 1993;Oladejo, 1993;Peacock, 2001;Schulz, 1996Schulz, , 2001 all cited by Katayama 2007;). Most of them have revealed a mismatch. ...
En los últimos años, ha habido una amplia investigación centrada en la realimentación correctiva oral (CF), un aspecto esencial en el aprendizaje del inglés como segunda lengua/lengua extranjera (ESL/EFL) desde el punto de vista de los profesores y los lingüistas, pero muy poco desde la perspectiva de los estudiantes. La mayoría de los programas de educación superior en América Latina hacen grandes esfuerzos para reforzar sus programas de EFL debido a la relevancia del idioma para la mayoría del desarrollo profesional. Con el objetivo de contribuir a mejorar las estrategias de realimentación correctiva que promueven una mejor comunicación oral, esta investigación recoge la percepción de los estudiantes sobre la realimentación correctiva oral dada por los profesores en los cursos de EFL en dos universidades privadas de San José, Costa Rica. Esta investigación es de carácter descriptivo, transversal y cuantitativo. La recolección de datos requirió la aplicación de un cuestionario en línea, el cual fue respondido voluntariamente por 160 estudiantes A1/A2 del programa EFL de estas universidades. Se interrogó sobre su actitud general hacia la CF y la importancia que le conceden, la frecuencia con la que les gusta recibir realimentación, qué tipo de errores consideran que deberían corregirse y la preferencia por la corrección de errores de entre una selección de siete tipos estándar. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran percepciones positivas respecto a la realimentación recibida de los profesores sobre todo tipo de errores. Los participantes expresaron su deseo de ser corregidos permanentemente cuando se produce una desviación en la gramática, el vocabulario o la pronunciación. El método preferido de realimentación correctiva fue la corrección explícita, seguida de recast y la clarificación; la corrección metalingüística y las señales no verbales fueron las que menos gustaron. Los resultados corroboran la necesidad de incluir comentarios correctivos orales sobre gramática, vocabulario y pronunciación, tal y como esperan los estudiantes.
... There a bulk of renowned studies in the field which has reported the impact of these factors on second learning (Lee, 2013;Schmidt, 1996;Dörnyei & Csizer, 2005;Dewaele & Furnham, 2000;MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994). revealed the influence that learners 'language proficiency level had on their perceptions of effective CF (Oladejo, 1993;Kaivanpanah et al., 2012). However, the contemporary research studies lack in providing an explicit and wide-ranging understanding of the multifaceted process of how learners' perceptions of CF is influenced by individual differences. ...
The number of the English Language users is expanding quickly around the globe due to the irrefutable importance of the English language. This is because of a number of educational and economic benefits associated with it contributing a great deal to World Englishes. Despite English has been taught, till degree level, as a compulsory subject, learners face difficulties in the basic four-fold language skills such as listening, reading, writing and speaking. The present study focuses speaking anxiety of English learners. Investigating the impact of speaking practice and corrective feedback on listening anxiety, it measures levels of speaking anxiety of Pakistani undergraduate students before and after the speaking practice and corrective feedback. One hundred and fifty undergraduate students of a public college participated in this study. Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety Scale (FLSAS)) developed from (Horwitz et al., 1986) by Zulfiqar (2022) was adopted to answer the research questions. Mean scores and effect size were also calculated. Pearson correlation was run to check the correlation of pre and post-speaking data. There was a statistically significant decrease in scores of speaking anxiety (before speaking practice and corrective feedback (M= 3.0762, SD=0.45947) and after practice (M= 2.1885, SD=.41059; t (149) = 19.276. p=.000 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in speaking anxiety score was 0.88.77% with a 90% confidence interval ranging from 0.78 to 0.95. The eta squared statistic 0.69 indicated a large effect size
... There a bulk of renowned studies in the field which has reported the impact of these factors on second learning (Lee, 2013;Schmidt, 1996;Dörnyei & Csizer, 2005;Dewaele & Furnham, 2000;MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994). revealed the influence that learners 'language proficiency level had on their perceptions of effective CF (Oladejo, 1993;Kaivanpanah et al., 2012). However, the contemporary research studies lack in providing an explicit and wide-ranging understanding of the multifaceted process of how learners' perceptions of CF is influenced by individual differences. ...
The number of the English Language users is expanding quickly around the globe due
to the irrefutable importance of the English language. This is because of a number of
educational and economic benefits associated with it contributing a great deal to
World Englishes. Despite English has been taught, till degree level, as a compulsory
subject, learners face difficulties in the basic four-fold language skills such as
listening, reading, writing and speaking. The present study focuses speaking anxiety
of English learners. Investigating the impact of speaking practice and corrective
feedback on listening anxiety, it measures levels of speaking anxiety of Pakistani
undergraduate students before and after the speaking practice and corrective
feedback. One hundred and fifty undergraduate students of a public college
participated in this study. Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety Scale (FLSAS))
developed from (Horwitz et al., 1986) by Zulfiqar (2022) was adopted to answer the
research questions. Mean scores and effect size were also calculated. Pearson correlation was run to check the correlation of pre and post-speaking data. There was
a statistically significant decrease in scores of speaking anxiety (before speaking
practice and corrective feedback (M= 3.0762, SD=0.45947) and after practice (M=
2.1885, SD=.41059; t (149) = 19.276. p=.000 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in
speaking anxiety score was 0.88.77% with a 90% confidence interval ranging from
0.78 to 0.95. The eta squared statistic 0.69 indicated a large effect size.
... Thus, these results of item 8 to 12 give an answer to the fifth question of the research understudy, which asks, "What types of errors should be corrected?". In correspondence to the previous related studies, Oladejo (1993) discovered that ESL learners at both the high school and university levels in Singapore favoured "comprehensive, not selective" corrections to improve their language accuracy. According to Katayama's (2007) research, the majority of 249 Japanese undergraduate EFL students desired all the erroneous utterances to be treated. ...
تهدف هذه المقالة إلى التحقیق فی آراء متعلمی اللغة الإنكلیزیة کلغة أجنبیة، وتصوراتهم، وتفضیلاتهم لتصحیح الخطأ بما فی تلک ضرورة وقبول تصحیح الخطأ، ومساهمة تصحیح الخطأ فی کفاءتهم اللغویة، وتکرار تصحیح الخطأ، و وقت تصحیح الخطأ، وأنواع تصحیح الخطأ، واستراتیجیات تصحیح الخطأ، ووکلاء توصیل تصحیح الخطأ. من أجل تحقیق هذه الأهداف، تم تقدیم استبیان بمقیاس 5-Likert المعتمد من Fukuda (2004) یتکون من 23 بندًا إلى مئة وثمانین طالبًا من المراحل الثانیة والثالثة والرابعة فی قسم اللغة الإنکلیزیة، کُلْیَة التربیة الأساس، الجامعة دهوک. توصلت الدراسة إلى النتائج التالیة: یتفق المشارکون بشدة على وجوب معالجة أقوالهم الخاطئة، وتساهم تصحیح الخطأ فی تطویر مهاراتهم اللغویة، وعادة ما یریدون من معلمیهم إعطائهم تعلیقات على أخطائهم المنطوقة ووافق 63.9٪ من الطلاب أنه یجب معالجة أخطائهم المنطوقة بعد انتهائهم من التحدث. فیما یتعلق بأنواع الأخطاء، أراد 46.7٪ من الطلاب تلقی ملاحظات تصحیحیة على أخطائهم اللفظیة الجسیمة، التی قد تولد فهمًا سیئًا. بالنسبة لاستراتیجیات تصحیح الخطأ، کان طلب التوضیح هو الإستراتیجیة الأکثر شیوعًا التی یفضلها المشارکون، تلیها إعادة الصیاغة باعتبارها استراتیجیة المرتبة الثانیة؛ الإستراتیجیة الثالثة هی التکرار بینما إستراتیجیة "التغذیة الراجعة الصریحة" هی أقل الملاحظات وغیر المرغوب فیها. أخیرًا، فیما یتعلق بفئة وکلاء توصیل تصحیح الخطأ، فإن تصحیح المعلم هو العامل الأکثر شیوعًا الذی یفضله المشارکون.
... Previous literature on teacher feedback has consistently shown that students value teacher feedback more significantly than any other form of feedback such as audio feedback and peer evaluation (Yang et al., 2006). Other studies have also discovered that students are especially positive about receiving feedback related to language issues, but they also would like teachers to give comments on their writing ideas and its content (Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1994;Leki, 1991;Oladejo, 1993;Saito, 1994). Furthermore, students of foreign language are also eager to have all their mistakes pointed out by the teachers (Komura, 1999;Lee, 2005;Leki, 1991;Rennie, 2000). ...
Teaching the IELTS writing task effectively has always been a challenge for English teachers. Though the teacher’s feedback does carry some weight, its contribution is vague at best in terms of immediate effect on revision and long-term development of the general writing skills. This action research is aimed at exploring the effectiveness of the endeavor in teaching writing. To this end, data was collected from ten non-native, intermediate-leveled student participants between the age of 16 and 32 through teaching and learning experience and three semi-structured interviews. To gain insight on the students’ perspectives regarding the teacher’s feedback on their IELTS writing task 2, they were asked to attend an IELTS Writing Course within ten weeks, which were further divided into two reflective cycles for the sake of the action research. There were three lessons per week with an allotted time of 2.5 hours for each session, whose data was obtained and decrypted via thematic analysis. The action research managed to prove that feedback given by the teachers on the students’ IELTS writing task 2 is effective to some extent. The action research framework was deemed ideal for teaching progressing academic writing; via a series of actions, feedback, and handling out instructional tasks based on the former, a standardized, well-laid writing format without trivial errors can be reached by the student participants.
Keywords: Corrective feedback, IELTS writing task 2, progressive academic writing, students’ perspectives, teacher’s feedback.
... As Brooks (1960) assumed "like sin, error is to be avoided and its influence overcome, but its presence is to be expected." However, at the time of declination of audio-lingual approach in foreign/ second language, this method of error correction diminished (Oladejo, 1993). The direct method concentrated on self-correction tools via of diverse techniques (Larsen-Freeman, 2000). ...
This study aimed at investigating teachers’ opinions about error correction. 100 experienced and novice Iraqi EFL teachers (50 of each group) participated in the survey and to this aim Fukuda’s (2004) questionnaire was administered to them. Participants were also interviewed about the frequency of giving and receiving verbal error correction, and time and types of spoken error correction. Then, the error-correction perceptions were analyzed. This was done by taking some issues into consideration, such as; the differences in using error-correction strategies based on experience level, their perception of error-correction, and the preferred strategies they would like to employ for correcting students in speaking classes. The results manifested that there was a difference between novice and experienced teachers in terms of their perception towards error correction. Furthermore, teachers preferred to correct implicit errors committed by students as the end of learners’ utterances. This study brought about some implications and suggestions for further researches.
... The study's analysis of the data revealed that the vast majority of students (78.5%) chose teacher correction because they believed their instructor would be better equipped to provide adequate feedback. Besides the mentioned researchers, Oladejo (1993) also indicated comparable findings in his research "Error Correction in FSL: Learners' Preferences". The major purpose of this study was to introduce the often-neglected opinions and attitudes of error correction in English writing learning. ...
The purpose of this study was to (1) find out the attitudes of non-English speaking students at Tra Vinh University towards error correction in writing skills, including teacher and peer correction, and (2) discover their perspectives on the benefits and drawbacks of both types of corrective feedback. A questionnaire with 25 items and an interview with two questions about the chosen research topic was used to gather the data for this study. 13 non-English-speaking students with majors in Vietnamese literature and Accounting were the primary participants in this study at Tra Vinh University. The findings indicated that the majority of participants highly appreciated teacher correction. Nevertheless, peer correction was also preferred by some participants. This meant that the participants’ attitudes towards teacher and peer correction varied significantly, which gave a wide range of thorough insights for further studies in this area.
... Lee (2013) reveals that learners find explicit correction more preferably while teachers are more likely to provide implicit CF. Lee (2013) also indicates that explicit correction is considered to be the most favorite type of OCF and metalinguistic feedback belongs the least preferred type among ESL learners at the high level in the US. This finding is not in line with Oladejo's (1993) research in which metalinguistic feedback ranks the first position in terms of preferred CF types among ESL students in Singapore. Brown (2009) conveys a great distinction in the teachers' and learners' belief of OCF in a large-scale study. ...
p style="text-align: justify;">The paramount objective of English language teaching and learning is to achieve language competence in communicative purposes with the minimal learners’ errors. To attain that goal, corrective feedback plays an important role due to its efficiency in developing learners’ English capacity. However, the correlation between language students’ and teachers’ views on the issues of corrective feedback including its types, methods and timing has received inadequate attention from educational scholars. This study, therefore, aimed to examine teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of corrective feedback at a higher education institution. The research employed the mixed method with the participation of 425 law-majored sophomores. Specifically, the statistics involved the survey questionnaires, follow-up interviews with students as well as the interview with thirteen teachers of English. The results indicated overall matches between learners’ and teachers’ high remarks on the necessity of oral corrective feedback in the students’ English acquisition. Notably, they both highly valued the use of metalinguistic feedback, prompt feedback for grammatical and lexical errors while explicit correction and recast were preferred for phonological errors. In terms of feedback timing, students were perceived not to be negatively affected by immediate correction, yet expressed their preferences for the delayed corrective feedback, which was compatible with teachers’ views. Such findings set practical pedagogical implications for language educators in the language teaching and learning process.</p
... Studies of CF attitudes among L2 learners have reported positive attitudes across different educational backgrounds. For example, Oladejo's (1993) survey of attitudes at secondary and tertiary levels in Singapore showed that 90.4% of participants thought CF to be desirable, while large scale studies by Schulz (1996Schulz ( , 2001 at American and Columbian universities found similar levels of positive attitudes among students. Another large-scale survey at Michigan State University conducted by Loewen et al. (2009) revealed highly positive beliefs towards CF. ...
This study examines the oral corrective feedback (CF) beliefs of Chinese students and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) tutors in an English Medium Instruction (EMI) setting in China. Despite considerable variation in spoken English around the world many EAP tutors tend to correct students' spoken language in relation to native speaker norms, while for students the native model is constructed as the ideal model. This exploratory study looks at listening and speaking classes on an EMI undergraduate preparatory course at a Sino-British University in China. This paper focuses on classes delivered by three different EAP teachers and draws on the beliefs of these teachers and their students, as expressed through interviews. The study revealed variation in students' opinions about CF, with some asserting the limited importance of CF and an acceptance of language variability, with others stressing the importance of accurate language. For their part, the EAP teachers feel it is important to correct students because of language policy, assessment, and student expectations, while also being open to language variation. This paper proposes that CF needs to be reorientated to reflect the changing social environments in which English is spoken, from the current ‘form focused correction’ to ‘meaning focused correction’.
... Previous studies about EFL/ESL students' preference for the CF strategies also showed a mixed picture. Some studies found a preference for explicit correction (e.g., Katayama, 2007;Lee, 2013;Zhang and Rahimi, 2014) while some showed that learners favor implicit correction (e.g., Oladejo, 1993;Zhu and Wang, 2019). Zhu and Wang (2019) suggest that learners' preference for CF strategies might reflect "their beliefs as to whether comprehensible input or learner output is more important for language acquisition." ...
This paper explores the differences in high-accuracy and low-accuracy learners’ beliefs about corrective feedback when learning Chinese as a second language (henceforth, CSL). In this study, we collected data through a questionnaire survey and an oral test with 76 CSL learners in a Chinese university. The analysis revealed that both high- and low-accuracy CSL learners shared the same beliefs in whether and how the learner errors should be corrected but differed in their beliefs about when is the best time to correct, which error should be corrected, and who the corrector should be. Specifically, the discrepancy between high- and low-accuracy groups’ beliefs about corrective feedback was found to be related to the participants’ oral accuracy. Our results confirm that learners’ CF beliefs can modulate their language accuracy. The corrective feedback beliefs held by high-accuracy groups have implications for improving low-accuracy groups’ oral accuracy. Through comparison with findings on corrective feedback beliefs of English as a foreign/second language (henceforth, EFL/ESL) learners, this study suggested that language pedagogies developed from the research of EFL/ESL learners’ CF beliefs should be able to shed light on this area and have significance for CSL learners. Implications for correcting learner errors in teaching CSL are also provided in the paper.
... interlanguage system (Oladejo, 1993). This is the perspective of behaviorists who claim that errors should not be tolerated because if they are allowed to exist within the learning process, they can be habit-forming and will unavoidably interfere with the learning of new target-like habits. ...
This study aims at investigating the effect of teachers’ asynchronous versus instantaneous electronic corrective feedback through the use of iAnnotate PDF program on Saudi EFL students' writing performance at Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University and revealing the students' attitudes towards asynchronous versus instantaneous e-feedback. The quasi-experimental pretest-posttest control group design was employed. The study’s participants are beginners studying writing course for level one and they are divided into two main groups: a control group of 30 students and experimental group of 60 students. The experimental group was divided into two main groups out of 30 students in relation to the teacher’s WECF (i.e., asynchronous vs. instantaneous e-feedback). Each group was further sub divided into three groups. The first sub-group (i.e., the recast group) of10 students, the second sub-group (i.e., the metalinguistic comment group) of 10 students, and the third sub- group (i.e., both the recast group and metalinguistic comment) of 10 students. Results of the study showed that there is a statistically significant difference between the performance of the experimental and control group students on the writing post-test in favor of the experimental group. Results also showed that there is no statistically difference between the performance of the asynchronous and instantaneous group students on the writing post-test. Moreover, the results showed that the recast and metalinguistic comment sub-group significantly outperformed the other two sub-groups (the recast sub-group and the sub- metalinguistic group) in improving the students' performance in writing. Meanwhile the recast sub-group significantly outperformed the metalinguistic comment group. It is also revealed that the students showed positive attitudes asynchronous and instantaneous e- feedback in writing classrooms. The study proposed some recommendations and suggestions for further research.
... The studies discussed so far set out to highlight the negative emotional responses caused by corrective feedback; however, there is even a larger body of research that shows that learners expect to receive WCF due to its perceived usefulness (e.g., Ferris, 1995;Montgomery & Baker, 2007) and specifically CWCF (Ferris & Roberts, 2001;McMartin-Miller, 2014), and that it not only does not demotivate them (Oladejo, 1993) but on the contrary, without it they feel anxious and lose confidence in their teachers (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2014;Leki, 1991). Providing FWCF in such instructional settings where the majority of students prefer to receive CWCF can be demotivating for students. ...
An underexplored question, and one with potentially far-reaching implications for the practice of written corrective feedback (WCF), is whether to mark a wide range of errors (comprehensive feedback) or to focus on a few error types (focused feedback) in learners’ L2 writing. Despite limited evidence, it is argued that comprehensive WCF is unsystematic, inconsistent, confusing, and intimidating; can cognitively and affectively overwhelm L2 learners and may dilute attention to WCF. This paper aims to first respond to and call into question these and other arguments against comprehensive WCF, and then it puts forward some arguments against focused WCF. In doing so, it draws on dominant SLA theories and empirical research findings to lend support to the rebuttals and arguments. Some concrete suggestions are made to help teachers fully exploit the potentials of a comprehensive feedback approach.
... Perhaps the most difficult factors to consider when evaluating the success of feedback are individual learner traits such as linguistic and educational backgrounds, cultural differences, proficiency with the target language and even motivations for taking a class (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2005;Lee, 2008). Oladejo (1993) even points to the amount of exposure to the target language (unrelated to L2 proficiency) as effecting students' attitudes and utilization of teacher commentary. As Ferris and Hedgcock (2005) state, "We cannot simply look at teachers' written comments or transcripts of their oral feedback as well as students' revisions and conclude that we know everything we need to know about a particular teacher, student, or class" (p. ...
IAFOR Journal of Language Learning: Volume 3 – Issue 2
Editor: Dr Bernard Montoneri
Published: January 19, 2018
ISSN: 2188-9554
https://doi.org/10.22492/ijll.3.2
https://iafor.org/journal/iafor-journal-of-language-learning/volume-3-issue-2/
... Research by Lee (2013), for instance, showed that advanced ESL learners in the US ranked explicit corrections as their favourite type of feedback and metalinguistic feedback as their least preferred type. This finding is inconsistent with previous research which showed that metalinguistic feedback was preferred by most secondary and tertiary ESL students in Singapore (Oladejo, 1993). In a study involving 395 learners (both adults and teenagers) and 46 teachers in the Spanish EFL context, Roothooft and Breeze (2016) showed that the learners were more willing to receive explicit kinds of OCF such as explicit corrections and metalinguistic feedback while the teachers were reserved to use these feedback types but preferred a more implicit type such as elicitation. ...
Oral corrective feedback, a key topic in second language pedagogy and research in applied linguistics and second language acquisition, has widely been investigated for the past two decades. However, the relationship between teachers’ and students’ beliefs about oral corrective feedback has been relatively underexplored. The current study extends this line of research by examining the extent to which Vietnamese English as a foreign language teachers’ and students’ beliefs concerning the importance, types and timing of feedback are aligned. The data consisted of questionnaires with 250 students, interviews with 15 of those who completed the questionnaires, and interviews with 24 teachers in four public secondary schools in Vietnam. The findings showed some matches and mismatches between the teachers’ and students’ beliefs. Both the teachers and students highly valued the efficacy of feedback and were positive about explicit feedback types such as explicit corrections and metalinguistic feedback. Regarding feedback timing, the students preferred immediate feedback while the teachers expressed their concerns about the students’ emotional state and the possibility of disruption of immediate feedback on the flow of students’ speech. The findings are interpreted in relation to sociocultural factors, contextual factors, and teachers’ and students’ experiences. Implications for language teachers, teacher educators, and professional development program designers are discussed.
... From a learning perspective, several studies have investigated the targets of CF, revealing mixed findings. An early study by Oladejo (1993) found that English as a second language (ESL) students at both high school and university levels in Singapore preferred "comprehensive, not selective" errors to be corrected to enhance their language accuracy. This finding was mirrored in Katayama's (2007) study where most of the 249 Japanese undergraduate EFL students wanted all errors to be corrected. ...
Recent decades have witnessed extensive research focusing on oral corrective feedback (CF), a key aspect of English as a second/foreign language (ESL/EFL) learning and teaching, but relatively little research has examined the relationship between learner and teacher beliefs about CF. The study reported in this article investigated the relationship between teacher and learner beliefs regarding the optimal targets and sources of CF in Vietnamese secondary EFL contexts. Data which were collected at four Vietnamese public high schools included questionnaires completed by 250 students, interviews with 15 of them, and interviews with 24 teachers. The findings showed that the students were happy to receive CF to all types of errors, including less important errors such as those not influencing their communicative success. The teachers were generally more selective in their choices of error types, but they sometimes faced some tensions between their overall teaching objective and the students' practical needs to learn the material that would be tested in subsequent exams. Regarding CF sources, the students preferred teacher correction to self-correction or peer correction although they believed that self-correction was effective for their learning and wished their teachers would provide them with training on how to conduct peer correction and self-correction. The teachers also thought that it was part of their role to be the main CF providers to ensure the accuracy of classroom feedback. Some teachers were skeptical about their students' ability to provide peer CF. Pedagogical implications are discussed.
... In a study of the relationship between Iranian undergraduate EFL students' anxiety levels and CF beliefs, Zhang and Rahimi (2014) found that their students (80 high anxiety and 80 low anxiety students) rated explicit correction and metalinguistic feedback as the most effective type, and elicitation, recast, repetition and clarification request as equal second most effective type, regardless of their anxiety levels. This mirrors the findings of an early study with ESL students in Singaporean high school and university contexts by Oladejo (1993), who found that metalinguistic feedback received the highest rating score. In a recent study with undergraduate EFL students in China, Zhu and Wang (2019) found that their students preferred to receive output-prompting CF (e.g., repetition, metalinguistic feedback) more than input-providing CF (explicit correction). ...
This study employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods research design to examine the beliefs of Vietnamese EFL students concerning oral corrective feedback (CF) and the role of some individual differences in these beliefs. The data consisted of questionnaires completed by 250 Vietnamese high school students and follow-up interviews with 15 of them. Exploratory factor analysis revealed six latent factors underlying students’ beliefs about CF, namely, (1) output-prompting CF and eliciting recasts, (2) desire for CF, (3) non-verbal cues, (4) important errors, (5) input-providing CF, and (6) less important errors. Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis of the interviews showed that students were positive about CF. They liked both input-providing CF and output-prompting CF for all error types. Metalinguistic feedback was the most strongly preferred, while clarification request was the least preferred. Further statistical analyses revealed some interesting relationships between students’ beliefs about CF and their gender, English learning motivation, and self-rated introversion/extraversion. Females were more positive about CF than males, and extraverted females were more positive about input-providing CF than introverted females. Also, students learning English for exams were more positive about CF than those learning English for communication. Pedagogical implications for effective feedback provision in EFL contexts are discussed.
... Nevertheless, the provided CF on grammatical errors was unfocused/ comprehensive because of several reasons: (1) It was not expected which errors will be seen in the learners' texts and when the learners commit a range of grammatical errors, "a limited CF focus does not address the need to individualize feedback according to students' different strengths and weaknesses" (Ferris, 2010, p. 192); (2) Unfocused/comprehensive CF is the most widely used type of teacher correction (Ferris, 2006;Guénette, 2012;Lee, 2004Lee, , 2008Van Beuningen, 2010) and popular among the students (Lee, 2005;Leki, 1991;Oladejo, 1993). As a result, the comprehensive feedback is more ecologically valid than the focused one. ...
This quantitative experimental study, which followed a pretest-treatment-posttest-delayed posttest design, investigated the effects of revision versus attention mediation on the efficacy of the written indirect coded feedback to improve the EFL learners' syntactic accuracy of their essays of opinion-led type. Eighty-six Turkish university learners were assigned to three groups: comprehensive indirect coded corrective feedback plus a revision requirement (ICF/+R), comprehensive indirect coded corrective feedback plus a time to pay careful attention to the received feedback (ICF/+A) and the control group that received only the comprehensive indirect coded feedback without any extra assignment (ICF). Each group received three sessions of treatment. The existence of any statistically significant differences among the three groups with regard to each received treatment was investigated in the short and long term. The indirect coded CF proved to be effective in improving the grammatical accuracy. Moreover, it was found that both revision requirement (ICF/+R) and careful attention requirement (ICF/+A) significantly outperformed the group that only received the ICF. Nevertheless, it was also proved that the group that was required to pay careful attention to and study the feedback (ICF/+A)
... Recognizing learners' attitudes and preferences can assist in offering them the right type of education in the form of learner-centered language teaching policies. If learners feel that their needs are being surveyed and catered to, they might develop a positive attitude toward what they are learning (Oladejo, 1993). Schulz (2001) noted that students' beliefs and attitudes can influence the degree of their acceptance of the teacher's instruction. ...
... Some scholars (Ferris, 2002;Lee, 2019, Ur, 1996 are in favor of focused feedback as unfocused feedback might be demotivating for students (Ur, 1996) and time-consuming, exhausting, and emotionally draining for the teachers (Lee, 2019). However, in many studies (Amrhein & Nassaji, 2010;Diab, 2005;Ghazal, Gul, Hanzala, Jessop, & Tharani, 2014;Hamouda, 2011;Jodaie, Farrokhi & Zoghi, 2011;Kahraman & Yalvaç, 2015;Lee, 2004;Lee, 2005;Oladejo, 1993;Zhu, 2010) students and teachers were in favor of correction of all errors. Rummel and Bitchener (2015) found that students' beliefs and preferences of corrective feedback greatly impacted the efficacy of the feedback in terms of reducing the errors in the following writing tasks. ...
Gedik Bal, N. (2022). EFL students' perceptions of the effectiveness of corrective feedback on their written tasks.
Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 37(3), 1116-1129. doi: 10.16986/HUJE.2021068382
... Research by Lee (2013), for instance, showed that advanced ESL learners in the US ranked explicit corrections as their favourite type of feedback and metalinguistic feedback as their least preferred type. This finding is inconsistent with previous research which showed that metalinguistic feedback was preferred by most secondary and tertiary ESL students in Singapore (Oladejo, 1993). In a study involving 395 learners (both adults and teenagers) and 46 teachers in the Spanish EFL context, Roothooft and Breeze (2016) showed that the learners were more willing to receive explicit kinds of OCF such as explicit corrections and metalinguistic feedback while the teachers were reserved to use these feedback types but preferred a more implicit type such as elicitation. ...
... Finally, the participants in this study also exhibited different preferences and reactions to the WCF methods with respect to gender. In terms of the preferred feedback method, the finding that the female students asked for more implicit feedback in the form of coded feedback was also reported in the literature (Ferdouse, 2012;Lee, 2005;Oladejo, 1993). In this sense, the instructor could aid the students to become aware of the errors that could be self-corrected. ...
This paper explores whether gender differences can account for reactions and preferences of tertiary level students to written corrective feedback (WCF) given to their multiple draft essays in an EFL setting in Turkey. The specific areas under investigation are (a) how much of the feedback given to the preliminary and final drafts are read and paid attention to, (b) the preferred (i) main feedback providing agent(s) (ii) method(s) of correction, (iii) language of feedback, (c) the beliefs on (i) the content of feedback (ii) what needs to be corrected in multiple draft essays and finally (d) students’ self-evaluations of their writing skills in L2 English. By adopting a structured survey approach, the data were collected from 160 students (half females) who responded to a 5-point Likert scale questionnaire (α=.85) adapted from Ferris (1995) and Lee (2008). Independent sample T-test results revealed that both groups read most of the WCF given to their preliminary drafts but only some of the WCF given to their final drafts, preferred English as the language of WCF and had no trouble comprehending the feedback given in English. The writing instructor was the preferred main feedback providing agent for both groups. The female students differed significantly from their male peers in that the females asked for more content related feedback to their first drafts, grammar and lexical feedback to their final drafts, preferred coded feedback and valued a combination of comments, corrections and teacher grades more than the males did.
Keywords: Gender differences, EFL, student beliefs, written corrective feedback, multiple draft essays.
... Similarly, teachers, strongly disagreed that they should correct all the errors and mistakes of the learners, although they acknowledged the advantages of corrective feedback from the teachers and the effectiveness of immediate correction of the errors to improve students' oral skills (Lee, 2013). Nevertheless, about 80% of EFL students in Singapore indicated that constant CF does not inhibit their readiness to interact in the target language (Oladejo, 1993). A small portion of students (11.7%) in this study expressed that the frequency of correction should be determined by teacher. ...
The ultimate goal of teaching foreign language is to achieve an elevated level of language competence via providing maximum language exposure and minimum learner mistakes. To fulfill the goal, many strategies have been developed. One of the strategies is the provision of feedback during the formal speaking courses. Nevertheless, format of the oral corrective feedback in English as a foreign language (EFL) classes has been controversial regarding methods of correction, timing of correction and target errors. Moreover, learner attitudes toward correction are deemed to be an important component. In this study, the aim was to investigate how and when the error correction should take place in EFL communicative classes based on students’ perspectives. A total of 65 students at Kafkas University who were pre-intermediate and intermediate levels were interviewed using a self-report questionnaire, 14 of which were discarded due to irrelevant and redundant replies. The results revealed that 90% of the learners would like to be corrected when they had errors during the process of speaking English. Majority of the students indicated the preference to be corrected after finishing turn with nice and friendly manners. The results indicated that teachers should be aware of student attitudes toward oral corrective feedback.
... There is, nonetheless, some variation in the degree to which L2 learners want to be corrected. For instance, the L2 learners in Lasagabaster and Sierra's (2005) study claimed that constant correction may debilitate communication and expressed a preference for focused CF on selected errors, whereas 80% of the learners in Oladejo's (1993) study of the L2 learners in Singapore reported that CF did not inhibit their willingness to communicate in the L2. ...
As far as making errors is an indispensable part of L2 learning process, appropriate and pertinent corrective feedback (CF) is a significant medium for L2 teachers to prevent their learners' errors from getting fossilized and assist them progress along with their L2 learning process. There are various factors contributing to the efficacy of CF, but proficiency level is of paramount importance. In this study, various oral CF types preferred by L2 learners at intermediate, upper-intermediate, and advanced levels of proficiency were considered. For this purpose, 20 participants were selected for each level. Different types of oral CF were identified, and their distribution in relation to the proficiency levels of the learners was determined. After conducting chi-square tests and comparing the significance values with respect to their preferred CF types, it is observed that the most significant CF types among the intermediate participants were paralinguistic signals and clarification requests. Moreover, for the upper-intermediate participants, recasts and repetition were the most frequent and significant types of CF that assisted them to reformulate their utterances. Finally, with regard to the advanced participants, the results pointed out that as they became more proficient in terms of their linguistic threshold, they would show no significant positive or negative attitudes towards any certain type of CF for treating their errors. The findings suggest that L2 teachers should adjust CF types and correction techniques to their learners' proficiency levels and provide proper types of CF that can foster a more productive learning milieu to enhance learning quality and speaking ability.
... One reason cited for this difference in student preference was that L2 students would traditionally ALLS 10(1):91-101 consider the teacher as the sole authority in evaluating writing (Rothschild & Klingenberg, 1990). Oladejo (1993), for example, found that students viewed the teacher as the person best capable of helping students improve their writing. Although students had a strong desire to participate in the correction and revision process (through a preference for use of symbols), they apparently did not see the value of having their drafts evaluated and checked by other students. ...
Despite the fact that there has been a growing body of research investigating the effectiveness of written corrective feedback (WCF) for improving L2 learners' writing accuracy, fewer studies have investigated learners' preferences and perceptions of WCF. This paper, which is based on a doctoral research project, reports on an exploratory study that investigated the preferences and perceptions related to the aspects of WCF in an EFL context. Qualitative data was collected from focus groups administered to a sample of intermediate and pre-intermediate General Foundation Programme (GFP) students. The results showed that the students valued feedback and preferred the comprehensive feedback approach. They wanted it to be indirect and unfocused as well as teacher initiated. The findings also showed that they perceived their teacher feedback as timely, involving a variety of techniques, sufficient, efficient, clear, explicit, familiar to them, comprehensive. Despite all that, they sometimes faced some challenges in understanding their teachers' comments. The paper concludes with some implications for teaching and learning.
... Previous studies on ocf have found divergent attitudes towards ocf in instructors and learners, mainly towards the type of strategies and their effectiveness (learners show a preference for explicit strategies whereas teachers favor implicit ones). Some factors influencing these teachers' attitudes are their concern about learners' self-confidence, self-esteem, motivation, and feelings, as teachers seem to assume that ocf might negatively affect their students (Firwana, 2010;Hernández Méndez & Reyes Cruz, 2012;Jean & Simard, 2011;Kaivanpanah, Alavi, & Sepehrinia, 2012;Kavaliauskienė & Anusienė, 2012; E. J. Lee, 2013;Miranda-Calderón, 2013;Oladejo, 1993;Schulz, 1996Schulz, , 2001Yoshida, 2008Yoshida, , 2010. Other factors affecting teachers' attitudes towards students' oral errors are the instructors' formal training, teaching experience, and place of employment (Byrnes, Kiger, & Manning, 1997). ...
This paper reports a qualitative case study of college-level English as a foreign language teachers’ attitudes towards oral corrective feedback. Our goal is to characterize such attitudes considering a model which integrates cognitive, affective and conative components as well as different aspects of oral corrective feedback. Six English instructors working in English language teaching at a university in southern Mexico were interviewed. Directed qualitative content analysis shows that (1) participants prefer implicit corrective feedback strategies, and (2) considerations of students’ feelings guide their overall attitudes toward corrective feedback. The participants seem unaware of most corrective feedback strategies and consideration of students’ cognition is absent in the composition of their corrective feedback attitudes. This finding suggests a need for more theory-based corrective feedback training and practice.
... In contrast, students who value communicative effectiveness over accuracy are likely to have negative reactions to teachers who constantly correct their utterance. Numerous studies revealed mismatches between teachers" pedagogical practices and learners" learning preferences (e.g., Oladejo, 1993;and Schulz, 2001). Thus, lead to a mismatch between teacher and student perceptions about the effectiveness of instructional practices and that can result in unsatisfactory learning outcomes. ...
Many language educators and researchers maintain that matching the expectations of teachers and students is important for successful language learning. Accordingly, it is beneficial for teachers to discover their students" attitudes toward instructional practices (i.e error correction). This research investigated the findings of a questionnaire administered to 200 Iraqi students at College of Physical Education for Women-Baghdad University at the academic year 2009-2010. The closed questionnaire has investigated (1) students' attitude s toward classroom error correction; (2) their preferences for correction of different types of errors; and (3) the students" attitudes for particular correction methods. The results of the questionnaire have shown that the students have positive attitudes toward students" correction of errors and indicated a preference for correction of pronunciation and dictation. The most favored correction method was for the teacher to give the student a hint which might enable the student to notice the error and self-correct. Finally, it is recommended that instructors of teaching English for special purpose to use students" errors correction instead of using teacher"s errors correction in classes.
Este estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar el componente cognitivo en las actitudes de los docentes hacia la retroalimentación correctiva en las clases de inglés. Concretamente, se plantearon las preguntas: ¿Qué conocimientos y creencias tienen los docentes sobre la retroalimentación correctiva? ¿Qué fuentes nutren estos conocimientos y creencias? Para ello se realizó un estudio de caso cuya unidad de análisis fue la licenciatura en lengua inglesa de una universidad en el
sureste en México. El modelo de actitudes pro- puesto por Schiffman y Kanuk (2004) y el modelo de Lyster y Ranta (1997) del proceso de retroalimentación correctiva en clases de lengua fueron las perspectivas teóricas que sustentaron el estudio. Los resultados muestran que los docentes desconocen la diversidad de estrategias y formas de retroalimentación correctiva y tampoco consideran el desarrollo cognitivo o la naturaleza específica de los rasgos lingüísticos en cuestión y su interrelación con los procesos de adquisición para su uso en el aula. Las fuentes de sus creencias y pensamientos sobre la retroalimentación correctiva son su aprendizaje vicario y experiencias personales de ensayo y error, generalmente. Si bien, de manera general, los docentes tienden a mostrar actitudes positivas, hay algunos objetos que generan determinadas actitudes en los estudiantes o profesores, las actitudes parecen negativas: quién corrige o cómo corregir, por
ejemplo, influidas más, al parecer, por el componente afectivo.
This study examines the errors in tenses made by 34 secondary students in Brunei who were asked to write a short story based on a picture composition, with the focus on testing Krashen's Natural Order Hypothesis (NOH) in L2 acquisition. The objective of the study is to test the theory in NOH that irregular past tense is acquired before regular past tense through the analysis of the errors made in the verbs. The collected data were analyzed based on the four steps of error analysis: identification, description, explanation, and evaluation. The findings suggest that irregular past tense for verbs such as "go," "is," "eat," and "buy" were the most commonly found errors, mainly due to inappropriate or incorrect tense markings. Contrary to the hypothesis, the study suggests that irregular verbs are not necessarily acquired before regular past tense, possibly due to the large number of irregular verbs that learners need to know. Thus, the article concludes that the study provides useful information for language pedagogy and emphasizes the importance of considering the learners' L1 and individual differences in language acquisition.
This study aims to investigate which types of errors lead to which types of corrective feedback and their distribution in university preparatory school speaking classes. Discourse analytic principles were used to analyze the learners' errors and types of oral corrective feedback in communicatively oriented speaking classes. The frequency and distribution of error types and corrective feedback are examined. Three instructors teaching English speaking courses at B1 level of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages in different classes participated in the study. The data, consisting of six videotaped lessons, were transcribed for coding and analysis according to the system proposed by Lyster and Ranta (1997). First, four error types and seven types of corrective feedback were coded and then, the relationship between the feedback type and error type was examined. The results showed that the most commonly used feedback type is recast. This is followed by a translation and explicit correction. Metalinguistic feedback, elicitation, clarification requests, and repetitions are not common feedback types. Looking at the relationship between the type of corrective feedback and the type of error, grammatical errors were the most common type, but were corrected the least. On the other hand, lexical errors were the least frequent but were the most frequently corrected error type.
Since there is a dearth of research in oral corrective feedback in the Philippines together with the implementation of the K-12 curriculum, the researcher deemed it necessary to shed light to the significance of corrective feedback in oral communication classes. The study aimed to determine the different types of oral corrective feedback used by oral communication teachers and preferred by students, level of effectiveness of oral corrective feedback as perceived by teachers and students, and the difference in the level of effectiveness of oral corrective feedback as perceived by teachers and students. Specifically, the results showed the following: first, ignoring was the type of oral corrective feedback mostly used by oral communication teachers in improving oral communication skills; second, recast, explicit correction, and questioning (self-correction) were the types of oral corrective feedback most preferred by students in improving oral communication skills. However, ignoring was the type of oral corrective feedback that was never preferred by the students in improving oral communications skills; third, teachers and students perceived recast, questioning (peer correction), and questioning (self-correction) as highly effective. On the other hand, ignoring was perceived as never effective in improving oral communication skills; finally, there was a significant difference in the level of effectiveness in clarification request as perceived by teachers and students. More importantly, there was a high significant difference in the level of effectiveness in explicit correction, denial, and ignoring as perceived by teachers and students.
The existence of inconsistencies between teachers’ practices and learners’ preferences for feedback in pronunciation arise in a not greatly effective teaching and learning environment. The current study attempts to address this gap by examining the students’ perceptions of corrective feedback (CF) and the alignments between students’ preferences and teachers’ practices on CF for pronunciation in an EFL context, namely Vietnamese high school education. To this end, a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview were used as the research tools to gather data. The study highlighted the students’ positive perceptions about the values of teachers’ CF for their pronunciation development. In addition, both teachers and students share similarities in the values of students’ responsibility for error correction and segmental features as a choice of corrected errors and teachers as a source of CF. However, the mismatches between students’ preferences and teachers’ practices far outweighed the matches indicated a big challenge for teachers to develop problem-solving strategies. The implications for practical applications of teachers’ CF strategies are also presented.
This research study compared the student teachers’ beliefs about corrective feedback in the EFL learning context in the 2018-2019 academic year, spring semester. The participants (n=180, male=67, female=113) in the EFL learning context completed a 20-item questionnaire dealing with various aspects of feedback. Descriptive statistics were used to identify the frequency of participants’ responses with different degrees to different aspects indicated by each item and responses were surprisingly interesting. To determine the effects of gender and grade level factors on choosing items independent sample t-test and one-way ANOVA conducted. The results suggest that student teachers’ beliefs about corrective feedback are not mainly influenced by their genders and grade levels. The results demonstrated student teachers perceived explicit and implicit correction, form-focused correction, and clarification requests positively. It was also indicated that self-correction was preferable to teacher correction and peer-correction. Also, oral was preferred to written corrective feedback. As for the timing, it was found that student teachers preferred delayed corrective feedback to immediate corrective feedback. Recasts were perceived as the second commonly used corrective feedback technique by student teachers. The major conclusion that emerged from this study was that EFL student teachers’ beliefs about corrective feedback and error treatment, in particular, maybe influence their initial teaching practices
The present study examines how learners’ language mindsets (beliefs about the malleability of language intelligence) and achievement goals predict learners’ preferences for different types of corrective feedback (CF). Questionnaire data were collected from 537 learners of Spanish as a foreign language at two North-American universities. Factor analytic and multiple regression results showed two clear patterns. A growth language mindset (the belief that language learning ability is malleable) predicted preferences for all types of CF whereas a fixed language mindset predicted a preference for conversational recast and absence of CF. A development-approach goal (concerned with improving one’s language competence) positively predicted learners’ preference for the explicit types of CF whereas a development-avoidance goal (concerned with maintaining one’s second language competence) positively predicted the more implicit types of CF. Demonstration-approach (concerned with displaying superior competence) did not predict any CF type and demonstration-avoidance (concerned with avoiding the display of incompetence) predicted a preference for absence of CF. Using an overarching cost–value model, we discuss how learners’ analysis of the self-presentation and ego costs as well as the value of different CF types have led to their preference for one versus another. Future directions and pedagogical implications are discussed.
This study aims to find out the beliefs about language teaching of 3rd and 4th grade Turkish ELT students and 10 ELT instructors at Turkish University, TURKEY. The primary purpose of the study is to investigate the differences between the beliefs of ELT students and instructors considering different aspects of language teaching such as culture, computer-based technology, grammar teaching, error correction, target language use, communicative language teaching strategies and assessment. Data will be collected using a 23-item questionnaire originally developed by Brown (2009). To compare the ELT students’ and instructors’ beliefs, frequency analysis of items will be analysed. At the end of this research, it is aimed to find out whether there are differences between the ELT students’ and instructors’ beliefs and determine the most effective procedures in language teaching. Discussion and implications for further research will also be mentioned regarding the findings of the study.
Keywords: effective language teaching, Instructors’ beliefs, ELT students’ beliefs
In different parts of the world second language (L2) teachers devote a massive amount of time to giving feedback on grammatical errors in student writing. Such written corrective feedback, which is unfocused and comprehensive, is fraught with problems for both teachers and students. Nonetheless, it remains a prevalent practice in many L2 contexts. In this position paper, I argue that more written corrective feedback is not better, but instead less is more. After presenting the problems emanating from comprehensive written corrective feedback, I argue for a focused approach to written corrective feedback and examine its benefits for teachers and students. Through discussing five impediments to the implementation of focused written corrective feedback, I scrutinize and refute the counter-claims, and bolster my overall argument in support of focused written corrective feedback. I conclude the position paper with recommendations for action for teachers, teacher educators and researchers.
This article reports on a large-scale survey study investigating EFL learners’ beliefs about oral corrective feedback (CF). A 44-item questionnaire tapping into learners’ beliefs about corrective feedback was administered to 2670 Chinese EFL learners. These learners were from 15 Chinese universities in 14 provinces and municipalities across the country, which were stratified in accordance with per capita GDP values. An exploratory factor analysis generated seven factors: general attitude toward CF, CF timing, output-prompting CF, uptake, input-providing CF, peer CF, and gravity of errors. The results indicate that participants had an overall positive attitude toward CF, and they showed more preferences for immediate CF over delayed CF, and output-prompting CF over input-providing CF. Additionally, learners were slightly positive about the efficacy of uptake and peer correction. Findings also suggest some consistency between the Chinese learners’ CF beliefs and empirical SLA research about the effectiveness of error correction, as well as the variance of CF-related beliefs across educational contexts.
The focus is on language learners-their capacities, attitudes, learning strategies, and, of course, what it is that they learn. All of these considerations are of paramount importance to language teaching. We have aimed for maximum coherence among the papers included, in spite of the fact that they come from a wide variety of sources and deal with a great diversity of topics. We believe that an important thread of commonality can be characterized under the rubric of pragmatics. Throughout the book- from content-level linguistic coding operations, and the debate about the applicability of various linguistic theories that have been proposed to explain them, to relationship-level attitudinal factors which have recently come into the spotlight---the pragmatic theme appears and reappears. (Oller & Richards)
This important new book provides a critical overview of recent classroom-centered research and its implications for the teaching and learning of languages. Chaudron synthesizes and evaluates crucial research about the way student and teacher behaviours affect language learning and discusses research methods. Second Language Classrooms will be of vital interest to researchers, language teachers, and curriculum specialists, as well as readers with a general interest in education, linguistics, sociology, or psychology.
In recent years, there has been a growing research interest in the analysis of errors adults make while learning a second language. The underlying objective of most of these analyses has been to reveal the systematicity of adult errors in an effort to understand the process of adult second language learning. This paper deals with errors from a different point of view, namely, from the listener's or reader's point of view. The question asked is, which types of errors cause the listener or reader to misunderstand the message intended by the EFL learner? Based on the judgments of native English speakers about the comprehensibility of hundreds of sentences containing errors of EFL learners all over the world, linguistic criteria for determining the communicative importance of learners' errors are suggested. Areas of English syntax that cause important communicative errors usually neglected in most EFL training materials are discussed. The paper concludes with the application of this particular error analysis approach to the EFL classroom.
This supplementary offering for English-as-a-second-language courses was prepared to help isolate and treat most of the "goofs" that students regularly make in speaking and writing English. Each error is presented in its grammatical context, and chapters are arranged on the basis of groups of errors that fall together structurally. Included are "The Skeleton of English Clauses,""The Auxiliary System,""Passive Sentences,""Temporal Conjunctions,""Sentential Complements," and "Psychological Predicates." Each chapter contains an "Analysis of Goof Types" and "Pedagogical Notes." There is a lengthy introduction with teaching suggestions and an explanation of the "gooficon" rationale. Particular emphasis is placed on the question of "hierarchy:" correction of the most important error--the one that interferes with comprehension and communication--rather than, or at least before, any others. (HW)
ABSTRACT Frequently, discussions about language teaching include the questions: Which types of errors should be treated and which ignored? How should errors be treated? To see the extent to which the behaviors of teachers could help answer these questions, eleven teachers were videotaped teaching the same lesson to their classes. Transcripts were made, containing both verbal and nonverbal behaviors. The analysis of the tapes showed that both the types of errors treated and the treatments used were quite similar. The teachers seemed less concerned with errors of grammar than with incorrect meaning. Giving the right answer was the most popular treatment. The similarity of behavior among the teachers did not provide as much insight into the treatment of errors as was hoped for. The process of analysis did lead to a number of ideas about possible alternative treatments. The treatments suggested are based on the importance in learning of contrasts, redundancy, explicit feedback, and the difference between long- and short-term memory.
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