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Comparing Actual De Facto Wastewater Reuse and its Public Acceptability: A Three City Case Study
... Existing studies have found that the public's response to recycled water use is complex, and the acceptance of recycled water is affected by different dimensions and driving factors [13][14][15][16][17][18]. Among them, sociodemographic factors, such as age, gender, and education level are the most basic variables when scholars studied the factors influencing the public's willingness to accept recycled water. ...
... All studies were conducted by means of random sampling, most of which collected data through questionnaires, and these data were used for subsequent analysis (n = 12). While Lazaridou (2019) and Rice (2016) chose a deeper method of face-to-face interviews to collect data to obtain the thinking process of the participants when filling out the questionnaire [17,38]. Savchenko (2018) used a field experiment with significant preference to recycled water from the public [24]. ...
... The effect values of age were mostly distributed below the 0 axis, indicating that most scholars believed that young people were more willing to accept the use of recycled water (75%). Among them, Rice (2016) commented on this conclusion [17]. The results of the study were the most significant, while Suri (2019) and Dean and Fielding (2016) held the opposite view, believing that the elderly were more inclined to accept the use of recycled water [40,56], and their contradictory results further confirmed the applicability of the meta-analysis method. ...
Recycled water is considered as a viable alternative water source, and its use is of great significance in dealing with the shortage of water resources. However, it is often rejected by the public during its promotion. To identity the common social attributes of proponents of recycled water, it is essential to study the profiled customers’ willingness to accept recycled water during the most difficult initial stage of promoting recycled water use projects. A meta-analysis was conducted in this study to deal with data concerning the influence of different social demographic factors on the public’s acceptance of recycled water use. Three steps of meta-analysis were mainly used in this paper. First, a random-effect model was used to measure the effect size of influencing factors, such as age, gender, and education. It was found that younger women were more likely to accept recycled water use than older men, and individuals with higher education were more willing to accept recycled water. Then, a cumulative meta-analysis showed that it was feasible to select young women with higher education as target profile customers in the initial stage of recycled water promotion. Finally, according to a meta-regression analysis, it was revealed that different research areas and selected model methods have important regulatory effects on the intention of the target population to use recycled water.
... The methods for increasing public knowledge and experience (e.g., social marketing campaigns, public education) have generated mixed results and are generally deemed ineffective on a macro scale. However, a recent study suggests that consumers who perceive that treated wastewater or unplanned reuse (de facto reuse) is already in their tap water are ten times more likely to accept potable wastewater reuse (Rice et al. 2016). De facto reuse is the incidental reuse of wastewater discharged from upstream wastewater treatment plants (Rice and Westerhoff 2015). ...
... De facto reuse is the incidental reuse of wastewater discharged from upstream wastewater treatment plants (Rice and Westerhoff 2015). Although de facto reuse is pervasive throughout the US, only a fraction of the population is aware that it occurs (Rice et al. 2016). In line with this, consumers should be made aware that treated wastewater has likely already affected their tap water to increase their acceptance of potable reuse (Furlong et al. 2019;Smith et al. 2018). ...
... Specifically, less educated consumers in low violation counties would be less likely to accept water reuse than those in high violation counties (in terms of both frequency and attitude), regardless of their level of actual knowledge. The indirect messaging appears to be effective for less-educated consumers, matching previous results (Rice et al. 2016). However, for more educated consumers, their level of actual knowledge would moderate the effect of indirect messaging. ...
Public awareness of water quality concerns has increased since the Flint, MI crisis, but knowledge about water resources management remains low. Consequently, acceptance of potable reuse also remains low. A mixed methods approach is utilized in three phases to determine if direct messaging (information about de facto water reuse aimed at increasing knowledge about wastewater reuse) increases acceptance of planned potable reuse, and if indirect messaging (local public notifications about health-based drinking water violations) affects the effectiveness of the direct messaging. In Phase 1, a spatial analysis was conducted to validate the use of local water quality violations as an indirect message. In Phase 2, a within-subjects comparison was employed to test whether consumers change their potable reuse perceptions, intentions, and attitudes after reading a knowledge-based message regarding water reuse. In Phase 3, the effect of indirect messaging, as well as the interaction of direct and indirect messaging were further analyzed. Phase 1 results match previous findings that suggest that drinking water violations tend to occur and reoccur in spatially specific patterns. Phase 2 confirms the utility of direct messaging to improve potable reuse acceptance. Phase 3 shows that indirect messaging interacts with consumers’ education level and actual knowledge to impact potable reuse acceptance.
... Moreover, since understanding CWs and the concept of treated wastewater reuse might not be very common among the general population, certain resistance to their application is usually encountered. In fact, public perception was reported to be one of the main problems preventing successful application of water reuse projects [18]. On the other hand, it was found that university students in Germany generally have positive attitudes towards water reuse, but at the same time they had many doubts about its quality [19]. ...
... Although the School of Engineering and Architecture offers different engineering studies that are not all connected to the environmental area, the high support might, due to similar interests, be a result of the big number of participants being from the environmental field. Also, the high educational level of people that filled the questionnaire could explain this behaviour, since it was reported to be connected with higher approval of wastewater reuse [18]. The additional factor might be the fact that the participants had somewhat direct contact with the CW systems. ...
... Moreover, it was recorded that some farmers that in the beginning had a negative opinion of CWs, accepted the idea and installed their own systems after seeing successful application at neighbouring farms [59]. That is in accordance with Rice et al. (2016) [18] who stated that people can have the initial negative opinion of the technologies they are not familiar with. Therefore, a negative or medium attitude towards the pilot plant in this questionnaire could be changed with time and different actions that would show the importance of the concept (e.g., information panels, guided visits). ...
University wastewater is a type of wastewater with higher pollutants load and flow rate variability than typical domestic wastewater. Constructed wetlands (CW) could be used for university wastewater treatment and consequently for wastewater reuse. A hybrid CW pilot plant, at the University of Bologna (Italy), was monitored to assess its potential to be used at the university. Its treatment performance was monitored for one year and public acceptance explored through a survey. The pilot plant had two treatment lines, (1) a vertical flow CW (VFCW) and a planted horizontal flow CW (HFCW), and (2) the same VFCW and an unplanted horizontal flow filter (HFF). The HFCW achieved higher removals than the HFF, but it was also found to be prone to higher water losses. However, both treatment lines met the Italian limits for discharge in natural water bodies and some of the limits for wastewater reuse in Italy and the EU. The VFCW alone was not able to meet the same limits, demonstrating the advantages of hybrid over single stage CWs. A positive attitude towards CWs and wastewater reuse was found among the survey participants. Therefore, hybrid CWs (planted and unplanted) are considered a feasible technology for application at universities.
... Second, public aversion to drinking IPR must be understood in the context that many are already drinking more dangerous unplanned reuse. Third, the vast majority of the public is not aware that they are likely already drinking unplanned reuse (one study found 75% are unaware) (Rice et al., 2016). Fourth, most of the existing research on public attitudes to drinking IPR either completely ignores this issue or notes it only briefly. ...
... Fourth, most of the existing research on public attitudes to drinking IPR either completely ignores this issue or notes it only briefly. Finally, one research program that included information about unplanned reuse in their surveys found that individuals that are aware they are currently drinking unplanned reuse are ten times more likely to highly support IPR (Rice et al., 2016). ...
... In the hypothetical situation that there is no option other than IPR, public support can double, in one case to 80% (Price et al., 2010). Knowing that there is already unplanned reuse in the public's water supplies can make an individual ten times more likely to be supportive of IPR (Rice et al., 2016). Respondents also may assume that they are paying less, more or the same if IPR is added to potable supplies, as it is generally not specified in research surveys (Gibson and Burton, 2014). ...
This study provides practitioners with an overview of previous research on public perceptions of drinking recycled water. Support for potable reuse varies widely across countries, but it is clear that the public is very responsive to context and information. Previous research has made limited use of the fact that (a) wastewater effluent is already present in water supplies across the world, and (b) awareness of this fact can make individuals ten times more likely to highly support potable reuse. Successful projects in Singapore and San Diego provide evidence that well-designed public relations campaigns can effectively manage community concerns.
... As a result, positive public perception of nontraditional water sources, such as recycled water, is important for widespread adoption of these technologies. A study in Ghana found that while community acceptance can move reuse projects forward, community rejection can also shut them down completely, as was the case with the use of raw wastewater in Ghana (Rice et al., 2016). In Ghana, the public receives much of their information from the media, and has been documented as very influential in shaping the countries' perceptions (Keraita et al., 2010). ...
... Research worldwide has demonstrated how acceptance of reuse schemes are affected by trust, and that trust is key in shaping perceptions of risk and acceptance of water reuse programs (Hartley, 2006;Rock et al., 2012;Lefebvre, 2018;Ravishankar et al., 2018). A "sense of shared identity" between communities and water authorities as well as community perception of fairness (policy, procedural, provisions, equal treatment) can also create and strengthen trust (Rock et al., 2012;Rice et al., 2013Rice et al., , 2016. The agricultural community has a long-standing relationship with Land Grant Universities across the country as a source of unbiased information. ...
... Respondents with at least a 4-year degree displayed greater concern over water availability while those indicating they held less than a 4-year degree were two times less likely to supplement their current sources with nontraditional water sources (Table 1). This data is supported by previous research where higher education was associated with a heightened awareness of water availability issues; and willingness to accept a variety of water recycling definitions/terms, activities, programs, and uses (Reed, 2017;Zhu et al., 2017;Rice et al., 2016;Garcia-Cuervaa et al., 2016;Rock et al., 2012;Dolnicar and Schafer, 2009). These studies show, through increased education and knowledge transfer, perceived risks can be minimized, thus leading to increased willingness to adopt water reuse programs. ...
... Yet, they are still uncertain about the quality of this water and that results in lower acceptability. In addition, the more informed part of the population is aware of the presence of contaminants of emerging concern (CEC) in the wastewater and therefore will need convincing arguments from the governmental organizations to accept water reuse (Ricart et al., 2019;Rice et al., 2016;Villarín and Merel, 2020). ...
... Upcoming wastewater technologies that support circularity will need to ensure that the resources recovered are safe for reuse, and policies, such as the end-towaste criteria of the EU waste framework directive, will need to regulate. However, public needs to be correctly informed on the risks to embrace the circular products (Rice et al., 2016). ...
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a well-established technology for the treatment and stabilization of high-strength wastes and wastewaters. Biogas production is the major driving force of the growth in AD industry. However, the industry is challenged by digestate management problems based on stricter regulations coming into force, large volumes of digestate, and potential environmental pollution concerns. Treatment opportunities developed so far are yet to be a common practice depending on the fact that land application is still a preferred option for its handling. Digestate treatment using microalgal cultures is a promising approach due to valorization potential from the biomass obtained in terms of bioproducts and biofuels. The studies conducted up to now clarify that microalgal treatment processes have certain limitations regarding operational, techno-economic, and environmental perspectives to overcome for large-scale applicability. This chapter provides information on treatment potential of digestates by microalgal cultures with a specific emphasis on challenges and potential remedies.
... While some research shows that the yuck factor can be dampened by providing additional information about the water recycling process (Fielding and Roiko, 2014), it persists in many cases despite informational campaigns by water utilities (Rice et al., 2016). Rozin et al. (2015) explain this persistence through the concept of 'spiritual contagion', that is, contamination by "some spiritual essence which does not resemble standard physical entities … [and which] does not respond to washing, boiling or filtering, but remains as a permanent essence" (p.51). ...
... Similarly, where the necessity of recycled water is publicly perceived as crucial for survival (such as in Singapore (Lee and Tan, 2016), or the increase in perceived threat of drought in San Diego since failed water recycling projects of the 1990s (Christen, 2005)), individuals seem less affected by the yuck factor. Finally, knowledge of existing exposure to recycled wastewater, even if indirect, has a dampening effect on the yuck factor (Rice et al., 2016;Adapa, 2018), implying that acceptance of recycled wastewater can increase over time with gradual, additional use. ...
Of the 17 SDGS, the United Nations has recently revealed that countries are not on track to receive the water and sanitation goals by the deadline. As climatic events decrease the reliability of traditional drinking sources, especially in cities, recycled drinking water (RDW) is becoming an increasingly important policy option. Yet, the implementation of RDW remains mired in difficulties, with the psychological “yuck” factor as a key obstacle. Studies of successful cases of RDW implementation show that trust, information and social norms are important. However, no studies of RDW have directly compared the relative importance of information to the power of social norms. This paper explores the role of conformity, as a social norm, in increasing public acceptance of recycled water for drinking. Using a simple choice experiment, we find that conformity per se appears to provide sufficient reason for behavioural change relating to recycled water, rather than information or economic incentives. This study is one of the first to present empirical evidence from a choice experiment on RDW, and has practical implications on the use of conformity as motivation to taking difficult decisions.
... The problem here is that the public is told that drinking water is the best controlled food in Germany, which is correct, but at the same time this fact may support the feeling that a change to using recycled water is unnecessary and that the unfamiliar system may have flaws. However, only a few people know that in many European urban areas, water cycles actually include the uncontrolled reuse of wastewater [15,30]. Information made available by waterworks and sewage plants to the public in Germany said that their tap water is perfectly clean of everything. ...
... This includes known and unknown substances with potential health risks, or the occurrence of unplanned (de facto) wastewater reuse. Knowledge of unplanned reuse was found to contribute to a higher level of acceptance of planned reuse [9,17,30]. Misconceptions need to be carefully opposed. A positive vocabulary for the recycled water is expected to have a positive impact on its acceptance [17]. ...
Water reuse is a new technology, not yet implemented, but discussed for use in Germany. Public opinion plays a major role in the success of the introduction of this new technology and was not yet analyzed for Germany. When monitoring 340 university beginners’ conceptions regarding water reuse, a variety of conceptions appeared. While usage of tap water is accepted for drinking purposes, acceptance of recycled water for oral consumption was low. When asked for reasons for (not) using recycled water, three groups of respondents were extracted: (a) The acceptors (convinced of quality, or naming sustainability as a reason); (b) the undecided (doubts about quality, rejection of its use for consumption, and psychological conflicts of logic and disgust); (c) the non-acceptors (unconvinced of quality and preference for bottled water). When asked about factors that would lead to accepting the use of recycled water, insights into treatment processes were identified as the most convincing, followed by educational films and guided tours. Participants showed high conviction about currently existing tap-water qualities. Having water that is cleaned before it reaches the consumer was reported to have high priority. To increase acceptance of water reuse, recommendations for appropriate outreach programs are discussed.
... One aspect that has been explored more recently is awareness of existing de facto (or unplanned) reuse. Recent findings have illus- trated that, while awareness of the real occurrence of de facto reuse is generally low, people who are aware that de facto reuse occurs in their supply area are considerably more likely (up to 10 times more) to have a high level of acceptance for potable reuse scenarios ( Rice et al., 2016). This suggests that, rather than awareness of the 'need' for reuse as a solution to water supply issues, awareness of reuse as an existing 'normal' part of the water resource context may be a significant driver of acceptance. ...
... One study did examine reactions to a video message that charac- terised water reuse as a 'natural' or 'normal' part of the water cycle. Though the study was limited, findings indicated that the video's overall message that 'all water is recycled' seemed to boost re- spondents' support towards reuse (WRF, 2012), which is in keeping with previously mentioned findings that awareness of de facto reuse is positively linked with acceptability ( Rice et al., 2016). Additionally, similar results were achieved through a video mes- sage on de facto reuse shown in focus group meetings with citizens ( Frijns et al., 2016). ...
Over the years, much research has attempted to unpack what drives public responses to water reuse, using a variety of approaches. A large amount of this work was captured by an initial review that covered research undertaken up to the early 2000s (Hartley, 2006). This paper showcases post-millennium evidence and thinking around public responses to water reuse, and highlights the novel insights and shifts in emphasis that have occurred in the field. Our analysis is structured around four broad, and highly interrelated, strands of thinking: 1) work focused on identifying the range of factors that influence public reactions to the concept of water reuse, and broadly looking for associations between different factors; 2) more specific approaches rooted in the socio-psychological modelling techniques; 3) work with a particular focus on understanding the influences of trust, risk perceptions and affective (emotional) reactions; and 4) work utilising social constructivist perspectives and socio-technical systems theory to frame responses to water reuse. Some of the most significant advancements in thinking in this field stem from the increasingly sophisticated understanding of the 'yuck factor' and the role of such pre-cognitive affective reactions. These are deeply entrenched within individuals, but are also linked with wider societal processes and social representations. Work in this area suggests that responses to reuse are situated within an overall process of technological 'legitimation'. These emerging insights should help stimulate some novel thinking around approaches to public engagement for water reuse.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479717310964?via%3Dihub
... Its political palatability rests in large part on the sociocultural forgetting that happens when effluent mingles with the natural environment. A similar process, so-called de facto reuse, also exists and is an everpresent reality for many utilities across the country (Rice et al. 2016). In de facto reuse, downstream municipal water utilities receive effluent from upstream wastewater treatment facilities. ...
Consumer hesitancy around using wastewater as a drinking water source has proved a stumbling block for water reuse projects. When water professionals technologically clean up wastewater, they begin the process of making it “forget” its previous interactions with humans. Current educational and communication approaches used by water utilities, however, “forget” to engage the sociality of tasting. To activate consumers’ sensory experiences—the thing most often seen as getting in the way adoption of water reuse projects—and to investigate how tasting can help bring to remembrance the other things communities value about water, we developed a multi-modal art–science public engagement exhibit, Tasting Water. First exhibited at Scottsdale’s 2021 Canal Convergence festival and again at the 2022 AZ Water Conference, Tasting Water engaged the public and water professionals in an open-ended invitation to rethink the way they use taste within a larger series of remembering practices in evaluating their water.
... Familiarity with de facto water recycling in one's surrounding environment can further increase acceptance of wastewater reuse. With a sample population taken from three cities in the USA, Rice et al. (2016) analysed the impact of their participants' knowledge of de facto water reuse on their willingness to exchange their normal tap water supply for recycled wastewater. The authors demonstrated that those 'who are aware of de facto water reuse are ten times more likely to support wastewater recycling than other groups' (Rice et al., 2016, p.471). ...
The looming threat posed by climate change-fueled droughts has triggered a slew of projects concernedwith the reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural purposes. Across the globe, there is also a growing interest in the direct consumption of treated wastewater. Whilst the requisite technology is well established and safety can be guaranteed, the instigators of these projects still anticipate consumer resistance. However, there are currently few studies that provide insight into the public acceptance of treated wastewater. Moreover, the results of these studies are often inconsistent or inconclusive, particularly in regard to the relationship between the acceptance of wastewater reuse and environmental concern. Using representative survey data gathered from 300 respondents living in Flanders, Belgium,we show that water conservation behaviour and a sense of environmental group-efficacy positively affect public acceptance. Our study also demonstrates that feelings of disgust and fear of contamination are key drivers of consumer resistance towastewater reuse and potentially override environmental concern. In the discussion,we propose an alternative approach to better understand consumer's environmental attitudes and their resistance to the use of treated wastewater. In the conclusion, we briefly highlight the relevance of our findings for public communication and policy.
... However, to meet the needs of water reuse in the whole world covering the developed and developing regions for various purposes, we may need to seriously consider another factor that should have been realized for long but seldom purposely practiced in planning water reuse. In a number of studies, researchers pointed out that water reuse is not a new technique or concept, and 'unplanned reuse' or 'de facto reuse' has long been practiced in almost all river basins over the world (Rice et al. 2016;Švecová et al. 2021). As a matter of fact, people living downstream of a long river seldom worry about whether they are drinking part of the 'urine' discharged from upstream because though various pollutants may enter the river from somewhere, the water is believed to be as 'clean' as it looks. ...
Safe water reuse usually means the provision of reclaimed water with its quality meeting the criteria for safeguarding human health and aquatic ecology. Regarding this, people often overstress the technological magic in terms of hazardous substances removal by engineered processes while ignoring the utilization of nature's power to provide an additional barrier for safety control. Based on an understanding of the function of the hydrological cycle to secure water quality and the fact that water reuse is through a water loop, the author presented his viewpoint on creating a quasi-natural water cycle for water reuse. Existing data showed the remarkable effects of emerging pollutants removal and associated reduction of biotoxicities from the reclaimed water during open-storage under a quasi-natural condition. Adsorption by soil particles, sunlight-induced photolysis and purification by aquatic life were thought to be the major actions contributing to effective water quality improvement in a quasi-natural manner. Safe water reuse through a quasi-natural water cycle can thus be a recommendable strategy for system design in accordance with the purposes of water use.
HIGHLIGHTS
A quasi-natural water cycle is proposed for securing reclaimed water quality.;
Natural actions contribute much to emerging pollutants removal and biotoxicity reduction.;
System design with integration of engineered and natural elements is recommendable.;
... Obstacles to reuse include energy requirements, cost effectiveness, 47−50 lack of consistent regulatory frameworks, 51 and legal restrictions. 52 Municipal reuse in the United States is still largely nonpotable, occurring primarily in California, Florida, and Texas. In all three states, experience with drought and groundwater depletion have led to guideline development Reuse supply will decrease during droughts but may be less impacted than surface water sources Local control ...
... Goodwin et al. (2018b) established that public communications framed in terms of compliance with water quality requirements had positive impacts on public attitudes as opposed to messages framed around the ability of water treatment technologies to remove contaminants. The research literature also indicates that people who are familiar with unplanned potable reuse (unintentional reuse/de facto reuse in their water supply) are more accepting of planned potable reuse (Rice et al. 2016). This supports the proposition that reframing water reuse in terms of the urban water cycle in which all water is essentially recycled has great potential to help make water reuse schemes more acceptable (see Rozin et al. 2015, Ong 2016, van Rensburg 2016. ...
Globally, water resources are under immense and increasing pressure. This, coupled with the threat of climate change, has increased global interest in water reuse. However, global water reuse remains limited because of public opposition. This paper thus examines public perceptions and attitudes to water reuse across the world. It finds that results from studies of water reuse acceptance have tended to be context-specific, although claims can be made about the universal relevance of some predictors, underscoring the need for individual water reuse schemes to carefully consider their local context. Disgust remains a constant in the public psyche, while public trust in delivery agents as well as how water reuse is communicated vis-à-vis perceptions about the quality and safety of recycled water are also critical. The latter particularly highlight public concerns about the indeterminate health risks associated with water reuse.
... Despite the importance of treatment and reuse of sewage in agriculture, public attitudes, willingness to accept, and willingness to pay for agricultural commodities from farms irrigated with reclaimed waters are also crucial for full development and utilization of this resource (Gu et al. 2015;MacDonald et al. 2016). Although wastewater treatment and reuse technologies have developed in recent years as an important engineering solution to water shortage, socioeconomic and attitudinal barriers to public acceptance still exist (Wester et al. 2015;Rice et al. 2016). According to the available related literature, there is a continuum from general public reluctance to acceptance of agricultural products produced using TS (Dupont 2013). ...
Public acceptance of treated sewage (TS) reuse in agriculture is a key element in successful implementation of TS reuse projects, but relevant research on the topic is limited. This study examined public willingness to accept (WTA) and willingness to pay (WTP) for agricultural products derived by irrigation with TS in Lorestan province, Iran, applying the contingent valuation (CV) method. The agricultural products determined for the study included corn, peaches, apricots, and plums, while TS was introduced in three qualities [Q1, complete TS treatment (i.e., physical treatment, aeration, and chemical treatment); Q2, partial TS treatment (i.e., physical treatment and aeration); and Q3, no TS treatment]. With reference to WTA, products irrigated with Q1 TS received 62.7% positive responses, while products irrigated with Q2 TS and Q3 TS received 21.3% and 17.0% positive responses, respectively. With reference to WTP, data showed that if the price of products derived by irrigation with TS was less than that of products irrigated with fresh water, some people would be willing to pay for these products (52.0% positive responses versus 48.0% negative responses). Awareness had a significantly positive impact on WTA1 and WTA2 (products irrigated with Q1 TS and Q2 TS, respectively) as well as on WTP1, WTP2, and WTP3 (products irrigated with Q1 TS, Q2 TS, and Q3 TS, respectively). Similarly, information sources had a significantly positive effect on WTP1, WTP2, and WTP3. Overall, individuals with high levels of health risk perception and high awareness showed high WTA, while non-processed corn and men were associated with low WTA. Concerning WTP, individuals with high awareness and those who had access to information sources showed high WTP, while men were associated with low WTP. Information about the importance of TS reuse, reduction of prices of products derived by irrigation with TS, and promotion of public confidence in TS are essential to increase public WTA and WTP.
... A comparison of the de facto WWR in three cities (Phoenix, AZ, Atlanta, GA, Philadelphia, PA) in the United States revealed that 25% of respondents perceive de facto reuse to occur in their home tap water. These set of people who perceived de facto reuse to happen at their taps were ten times more likely to have a high level of acceptance (Rice et al., 2016). In the case of Australia, Dolnicar & Sch€ afer (2009) revealed that a five year drought period accompanied by strict water restrictions and subsequent media attention to water scarcity solutions now make Australians more receptive to reusing treated wastewater for garden watering and cleaning uses. ...
Wastewater reuse has become an integral part of Integrated Water Resources Management and thus plays a role in securing the water needs for future generations. This study aimed at determining the perceptions of Canaanland, an emerging urban community in Ogun State, Nigeria, on treated wastewater reuse for several purposes. Data were collected through questionnaires administered to the city residents (n ¼ 244). Findings revealed that the city was aware of the economic and environmental benefits of wastewater reuse but would prefer reuse schemes that involved less human contact such as flushing toilets, electricity generation, building construction, and car wash. The least preferred option was for potable purposes. The community also revealed that they would be willing to accept wastewater reuse as long as it is endorsed by medical doctors, university professors, and experts. However, 45.5% of the respondents were from the Covenant University academic environment. Also, an assessment was carried out to ascertain the implications and opportunities for wastewater reuse in the city. Findings indicated that wastewater reuse involves several complexities and interlinkages, which revolve around political and deci-sional factors, economic and social factors, environmental factors, and technological factors. From the study, policy and decisional suggestions and a wastewater process flow were developed for more efficient wastewater management within developing cities. A study was carried out on eight cities from developing nations that have created a framework for wastewater management using several approaches. Also, a summary of findings reveals that if adequately researched, cheap and alternative means of wastewater treatment and reuse could be developed for electricity generation, carwash, and firefighting for developing nations. The result of this research can be used to address public anxieties regarding wastewater-reuse practices. Additionally, this study hopes to aid successful wastewater management schemes in the foreseeable future.
... From a societal perspective, a sustainable water reuse measure can secure social needs by providing ready-to-use, contaminant-free water resources and hence support social well-being. Challenging social aspects such as perception and acceptance can be addressed through capacity development, empowerment and active participation of the community to allocate the reuse measures where they are most needed and socially accepted (Baggett et al., 2006;Rice et al., 2016;Khanpae et al., 2020). Another challenge relies on the coordination of the water supply and sanitation sectors and the participation of the involved stakeholders (FAO, 2017;Ricart and Rico, 2019). ...
Decision-makers face major challenges when trying to reduce risks of water scarcity sustainably through measures of water reuse. One of these challenges is the lack of interconnectedness between risk assessment for water scarcity and sustainability assessments for water reuse. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the conceptual integration of risk and sustainability assessments (RSA) in a framework for decision support in ‘water scarcity – water reuse’ situations. This article follows a three steps approach: (i) defining and interpreting the ‘water scarcity – water reuse’ situation as a coupled human and natural system; (ii) identifying and defining key concepts relevant for risk and sustainability assessment, and (iii) constructing the integrated RSA Framework for decision support. As a result, the latter provides a conceptualisation of a simultaneous assessment of water scarcity as a risk and the sustainability of water reuse measures from the social, economic, and environmental perspectives. It contemplates an analysis phase and an evaluation phase to provide unified information on the level of water scarcity risk and water reuse sustainability. The resulting indicates that the integration of risk and sustainability in one joint assessment for decision support is conceptually feasible. It hence paves the way towards a comprehensive and consistent methodological operationalisation and empirical application.
... Currently, this type of technology has become increasingly developed, and recycled water enjoys considerably superior quality (Wan & Xia, 2017), allowing it to theoretically be used in various fields of production and living. However, it remains difficult to promote recycled water use in practical terms (Rice, et al, 2016). Studies found that the public's low intention of using recycled water constitutes the biggest obstacle to its use and popularization (Gao and Liu, 2019). ...
Recycled water, the secondary water source of a city, is vital to alleviate regional water resource shortage and promote environmental conservation. The attitude and acceptance toward recycled water of the public, its direct user, hold the key to the implementation of a recycled water project. Currently, the public’s low intention of using recycled water constitutes the biggest obstacle to its popularization. To identify the factors of public acceptance of recycled water and their influence path, this study analyzes the effect mechanism of information disclosure of recycled water on the public’s acceptance of it based on the consciousness-context-behavior theory and by adopting a structural equation model. The results are as follows: (1) The public’s consciousness of water saving, risk perception of recycled water, and consciousness of environmental responsibility can effectively promote public acceptance of recycled water; (2) The consciousness of water saving and that of environmental responsibility have a significant effect on public acceptance of recycled water, and so do the consciousness of water saving and the risk perception of recycled water; and (3) Recycled water information disclosure has the most significant regulatory effect on consciousness and public acceptance.
... Bypass wastewaters can lead to unplanned water reuse in that water withdrawn by downstream users will contain a significant fraction of untreated or undertreated wastewater (National Research Council 2012; Rice et al. 2016;Wiener et al. 2016). Nevertheless, such bypass wastewaters are supposed to be released in compliance with local regulations that usually include providing some sort of treatment. ...
Bypass wastewaters in excess of plant capacity require in-plant wastewater treatment strategies capable of lessening the contamination magnitude prior to their discharge into water bodies. This study introduces a novel hybrid potassium ferrate(VI)-iron electro-coagulation system for the treatment of bypass wastewater. To understand the synergistic effect of the hybrid system, the response surface methodology and the Box Behnken design were utilized based on four preselected variables (current density, potassium ferrate(VI) dosage, interelectrode distance, and time). The current density and potassium ferrate(VI) dosage and their interaction were found significant in achieving a higher soluble chemical oxygen demand (sCOD) removal and faster ferrous (Fe 2þ) oxidation. The addition of 0.10 mM potassium ferrate(VI) to the electrocoagulation cell operated for 45 min at a 22 mA=cm 2 current density and 15 mm interelectrode distance increased the sCOD removal efficiency from 39.71% to 63.57%. Moreover, the addition of 0.1 mM potassium ferrate(VI) to the previously stated electro-coagulation cell conditions decreased the percentage of Fe 2þ to the electrochemically supplied total iron (Fe t) from 34.02% to 4.63%. The oxidation effect provided by the addition of potassium ferrate(VI) to the iron electrocoagulation cell increased the sCOD removal by about 10%. In addition, the pH increase that resulted from the dissociation of potassium ferrate(VI) promoted favorable conditions to quickly oxidize the Fe 2þ ions generated at the iron anode to form the favorable FeðOHÞ 3 precipitates. The experimental results clearly demonstrated the synergetic effect of the coupled processes for the removal of sCOD from bypass wastewater.
... A study in three US cities, concerning residents' perception of untreated wastewater presence in drinking water supply sources, found that roughly 96% of respondents ignored its presence. Those few who were aware of this situation were ten times more favorable to support advanced wastewater recycling schemes, consistently with the assumption that greater knowledge and information increases consensus on such projects (Rice et al., 2016). Public acceptance must be supported by a clear, consistent regulatory framework (Harris-Lovett et al., 2015). ...
A selective approach for multiple wastewater recovery is nowadays desirable and technologically feasible, to provide water at specific quality standards for each reuse objective. This “fit-for-purpose” approach to water reuse could both save water and would reduce production cost and energy demand by eliminating unnecessary treatment and long-range conveyance, as it typically aims at local reuses. The appropriate choice of technologies for such approaches is perhaps the most critical planning and design decision when evaluating systems for implementation or refurbishing. This article examines wastewater reuse goals (direct potable use, indirect potable use, non-potable uses and industrial uses) and related requirements as relevant case studies, and issues that may arise during implementation. It then proposes an overview of current conventional and advanced technologies and their possible combination to meet foreseen uses under a multiple barrier treatment (MBT) approach, which implies a sequence of complementary processes at an increasing level of protection for both conventional and emerging pollutants according to reuse goals.
... They include the use of the water source, perceived health risks, disgust, environmental concern, trust in science and technology, prior experience with water reuse, knowledge of the source, experience of water scarcity, perceived benefits, and institutional trust (see Fielding et al., 2018, Mankad and Tapsuwan, 2011and Po et al., 2005 for reviews). Socio-demographic variables, i.e. age, gender, education levels, and income have also been shown to influence acceptance in some cases (Dolnicar et al., 2011;Fielding et al., 2015;Fielding and Roiko, 2014;Hurlimann and Dolnicar, 2016;Lee and Tan, 2016;Marks et al., 2008;Marks, 2006;Nancarrow et al., 2009Nancarrow et al., , 2008Po et al., 2005;Price et al., 2012;Rice et al., 2016;Ross et al., 2014;Rozin et al., 2015;Russell and Lux, 2009). ...
Traditional water sources are increasingly coming under pressure from urbanization, population and industrial growth as well as climate variability and alternatives such as desalinated and recycled water will need to be considered in the future. However, available data indicate that consumers are apprehensive about these alternative water sources, with many reactions centered on disgust. It is not clear though, whether trait or state disgust is responsible for these disgust reactions. Secondly, the associations the public has with desalinated and recycled water are not well described, even though knowledge of these associations would provide the holistic understanding required for addressing perceptions. Using respondents from Australia and South Africa, therefore, this study investigated the associations people have with recycled and desalinated water, as well as the influence of affect, institutional trust, cultural/religious beliefs, water scarcity, and demographic variables, on willingness to use (WTU) these waters. The results show that whereas recycled water is associated with negative affect from notions of disgust, desalinated water is often thought of in terms of minerals, or as “simply water”. We also found that affect was the most significant predictor, and that state disgust as well as trait disgust influenced WTU. Together these data suggest that disgust-related rejection of is likely due to the disgust elicited by the waters rather than disgust-proneness of individuals. It is plausible, therefore, that efforts to induce positive affect through making salient positive associations e.g. NEWater in Singapore, may increase WTU.
... [7][8][9] Furthermore, the public perception of CECs is unfavorable, despite evidence of their minimal human health risk because of the low exposure potentials in drinking water. [10][11][12][13] De facto reuse (DFR) occurs when a municipality withdraws water from a river or reservoir that includes treated wastewater discharged from upstream WWTPs. 14,15 The previously developed De Facto Reuse Incidence Nations Consumable Supply (DRINCS) model 16 analyzed treated municipal wastewater discharges from WWTPs and included combined sewer systems, although it does not consider combined sewer overflows or wet weather by-passes. ...
De facto potable reuse occurs when treated wastewater is discharged upstream of drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and can lead to contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) occurring in potable water. Our prior research, focusing on larger communities that each serve >10,000 people across the USA, indicates that elevated de facto reuse (DFR) occurs in Texas, and thus we added to our model DWTPs serving smaller communities to understand their vulnerability to CECs. Here, we show that two-thirds of all surface water intakes in Texas were impacted by DFR at levels exceeding 90% during even mild droughts, and under average streamflow DFR levels range between 1 and 20%. DWTPs serving lower population communities (<10,000 people) have higher DFR levels, and fewer than 2% of these communities have advanced technologies (e.g., ozone, activated carbon) at DWTPs to remove CECs. Efforts to improve water quality in these less populated communities are an important priority. The model approach and results can be used to identify prioritization for monitoring and treatment of CECs, including in underserved communities, which normally lack knowledge of their impacts from DFR occurring within their watersheds.
... Nevertheless, Kemp et al. (2012) find that effective communication does not necessarily inoculate the public against the support-dampening effects of anti-reuse "scare" campaigns, with a strong recency effect observed for the process of influencing perceptions. Lack of knowledge about sources of water, implying a weak communication effort, has been shown to negatively affect levels of acceptance of de facto water reuse (Rice et al. 2016). Examples of knowledge-sharing from the government-to-public perspective are numerous, but those in the reverse (public-to-government) are scarcer. ...
... Unless plant upgrades are instituted to accommodate these inflow spikes, a portion of these unplanned wastewater flows must be diverted from the treatment plant and discharged into the environment untreated in order to protect treatment processes. This bypass wastewater can lead to unplanned reuse, in that water withdrawn by downstream users will contain a significant fraction of untreated or undertreated wastewater [1][2][3]. Therefore, auxiliary treatment processes should be implemented at wastewater treatment plants to control or provide adequate treatment to the inflows in excess of the existing treatment plant capacity and reduce or eliminate bypass flows [4][5][6]. ...
In-plant wastewater treatment strategies to deal with bypass wastewater in excess of plant capacity are critical in securing sustainable wastewater management. To address this issue, potassium ferrate(VI), which is a dual disinfectant and coagulant, is assessed in this study as the sole chemical applied to enhance the primary treatment of bypass wastewater. The effect of rapid mixing speed is investigated for the first time along with potassium ferrate(VI) dosage by means of central composite design and response surface methodology. Escherichia coli (E. Coli), Faecal Coliform (FC), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), and Orthophosphates (
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) were considered as the process responses. All responses other than
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showed good agreement between the observed and modelled values. While there was no point of maximum or minimum response for both E. Coli and FC, whose removals were found to increase with the increase of both the mixing intensity and potassium ferrate(VI) dosages, TSS removal exhibited optimal responses. The effluent quality achieved by potassium ferrate(VI), as an independent treatment, can be sufficient for certain types of unrestricted and restricted irrigation reuse purposes suggested by World Health Organisation (WHO) reuse guidelines.
... In line with our findings, a recent study conducted by Saliba et al. [138] reinforces the idea that acceptance of wastewater cannot be achieved simply by technological innovation able to reduce environmental and health risks (as assessed by some experts). Furthermore, recent studies have illustrated that the inclusion of reclaimed wastewater as part of the water cycle is a more significant driver of public and farmers' acceptance than insisting in justifying the need for wastewater reuse as a solution to water scarcity scenarios or food security issues [139]. ...
The successes and failures of water reuse schemes are shaped by complex interrelationships between technological, economic, and socio-political factors. However, it has long been recognized that the main challenges to more effective water management are largely social rather than technical. This article reviews the recent literature (2007–2017) to analyze driving factors associated with farmers’ concerns and public perception of reclaimed wastewater for irrigation. The aim of the paper is to synthetize how both environmental and health risks and the yuck factor could be addressed in order to promote mutual understanding between farmers and the public. Results show: (1) how farmers and the public perceive environmental and health risks in a similar way, (2) how the yuck factor is more noticeable for the public than farmers, and (3) how constructed wetlands, reclaimed water exchange consortiums, product certification, and direct site visits to water reuse infrastructure could be promoted in order to foster understanding between farmers and the public. The article concludes by providing key research questions for managers and public authorities relating to how to focus on the study of technical and social issues related to water reuse.
... Among these sources is water reuse that can provide alternative water supply and reduce the environmental impacts of discharging untreated wastewater into surface water bodies. Previous studies have shown that planned and unplanned water reuse are on the increase worldwide as a result of water scarcity (Vigneswaran and Sundaravadivel 2004;Lautze et al. 2014;Rice et al. 2016). While there are many, economic, agricultural, and environmental benefits for water reuse, failing to address the potential negative health and environmental risks (Lam et al. 2015) associated with reuse may jeopardize the environment and public health. ...
The reuse of treated wastewater, whether direct or indirect, can raise public concerns as a result of the overall risk perception. As such, community acceptance plays a significant role in the implementation of alternative water systems. Public attitudes towards water reuse are highly influenced by perceived health risk, religious prohibition, political issues, and the degree of human contact with recycled water. In most of the Mediterranean countries, wastewater is reused to different extents either within planned or unplanned schemes. Unfortunately, there are few in-depth studies of the socio-cultural aspects of reuse projects in developing countries, and Lebanon is no exception. Accordingly, this research will comprehensively tackle the issue of public knowledge, perceptions, and acceptance from different perspectives in an effort to provide national baseline information on wastewater reuse that is needed for future regulatory and developmental projects. As such, a survey was developed, tested, and administered. Results showed an inverse relation between the degree of human contact with the treated wastewater and public acceptance. People were found to be more inclined towards reuse for purposes with minimal human contact such as landscaping and agriculture with opposition when it came to use for personal use. Moreover, the results showed a general lack of trust in governing institutions and authorities, which could explain perceived health risks and perceptions of risk resulting from system failure. Overall, the willingness to use treated wastewater was found to vary as a function of the “disgust factor,” religious beliefs, and perceptions of a high risk towards contracting waterborne diseases. The disgust towards reuse of treated wastewater was found to be a strong predictor affecting willingness to reuse whereby those who believed it is disgusting to reuse treated wastewater were found to be on average, three times less likely to reuse treated wastewater as compared to those who did not declare disgust. Similarly, a significant association was found between religious beliefs and respondents’ willingness to use treated wastewater. Interviewees who thought treated wastewater reuse is not religiously accepted were, on average, twice less likely to use treated wastewater as compared to those who did not believe that reuse contradicts with their religious beliefs. Additionally, people’s perceptions on associating the spread of water-borne diseases with reuse were found to be significant. Those who perceived that reusing treated wastewater would lead to diseases and affect the human health, were on average, twice less likely to accept reuse. Developing a comprehensive strategy that integrates increasing awareness and knowledge, setting policies related to water reuse, building public trust and communication channels, increasing public participation/engagement in decision making, and developing a sustainable management framework is thus crucial before any investments are made in reclaimed water-reuse projects.
... For example, in Italy, at the Milano Nosedo WWTP -the largest plant in the region, treating approximately 150 million m 3 /year of wastewater-, managers promote open days to show the general public and farmers the activities of the plant to favour acceptance in a large agricultural region cultivating corn, rice, grass and grain. Recent findings have illustrated that, while awareness of the real occurrence of de facto reuse is generally low, people who are aware that de facto reuse occurs in their supply area are considerably more likely (up to 10 times more) to have a high level of acceptance for potable reuse scenarios (Rice et al., 2016). This suggests that, rather than being aware of the 'need' for reuse as a solution to water supply issues, awareness of reuse as an existing 'normal' part of the water resource context may be a significant driver of acceptance. ...
The narrative of reusing water for agricultural purposes is sometimes conceived as being one of the reasons versus emotions, which might not capture the complexity of the issue at hand, including the legitimate fear of risks, diffuse regulations and the visceral reactions from farmers and the public. By analysing recent peer-reviewed literature (2007–2017) from a holistic approach (technical and social issues), this review explores: 1) the main characteristics of the reviewed literature on this topic (geographical contexts, research areas, main topics and tools), 2) relevant driving factors to effectively reconcile farmers’ needs and public perceptions of water reuse, and 3) the current knowledge gaps and future challenges to be addressed by end users, managers and authorities. The article concludes by discussing the level of the knowledge in this area and advanced recommendations to further a better comprehension of technical and social driving factors of water reuse in agriculture.
... Although the reutilization of wastewater can give rise to certain social concern, it is important to remark that downstream river influents are in certain cases upper-stream wastewater (Rice et al. 2016). It is here, where appropriate methods in wastewaters and drinking water treatment plants (WWTP) are crucial to ensure water reuse. ...
Water scarcity is one of the major concerns worldwide. In order to secure this appreciated natural resource, management and development of water treatment technologies are mandatory. One feasible alternative is the consideration of water recycling/reuse at the household scale. Here, the treatment of actual washing machine effluent by electrochemical advanced oxidation processes was considered. Electrochemical oxidation and electro-Fenton technologies can be applied as decentralized small-scale water treatment devices. Therefore, efficient decolorization and total organic abatement have been followed. The results demonstrate the promising performance of solar photoelectro-Fenton process, where complete color and organic removal was attained after 240 min of treatment under optimum conditions by applying a current density of 66.6 mA cm⁻². Thus, electrochemical technologies emerge as promising water-sustainable approaches.
... Coastal desalination plants have the privilege of considering ocean (Gude 2016a, b). Readers are also referred to other contributions on this topic (Khawaji et al. 2008;Zotalis et al. 2014;Amy et al. 2017 (Rice et al. 2016). It was found that the unplanned treated water reuse occurs at a higher rate than the expected in these cities. ...
The act of ensuring freshwater is considered the most essential and basic need for humanity. Although the planet is water-rich in some terms, the freshwater sources available for human consumption and beneficial uses are very limited. Excess population growth, industrial development coupled with improving living standards have caused an unprecedented need for freshwater all over the world. Regions once rich in water resources are struggling to meet the ever increasing demands in recent years. In addition, climate change and unsustainable management practices have led to a situation called “drought” in many regions. Water supplies in drought conditions can be addressed by taking two major approaches related to management and technology development. The management approaches include demand mitigation and supply enhancement. Demand mitigation can be done by implementing water conservation practices, and by enforcing a mechanism to influence user-responsible behavior through higher water fares and other billing routes. Supply enhancement can be achieved by utilizing the methods available for water reclamation, reuse and recycle including rain harvesting. This paper provides a critical insight of the causes for drought and the issues caused by persistent drought conditions followed by discussion of management and technological approaches required to maintain adequate water resources around the world. Challenges and opportunities involved in implementation of desalination and water reuse technologies in addressing global water scarcity are discussed in detail with case studies
... This practice is so widespread that the extent of unplanned reuse is largely unknown (NRC, 2012). While most people are wholly unaware of this everyday occurrence, survey research suggests individuals who are familiar with unplanned potable reuse are significantly more accepting of planned potable reuse (Rice et al., 2016). Planned potable reuse projects are intentional, local, and, importantly, apply advanced wastewater treatment processes that are not used in cases of unplanned reuse (e.g., microfiltration, reverse osmosis, and advanced oxidation). ...
The potential to supplement potable water supplies with highly treated municipal wastewater, or sewage, is of increasing interest to water planners in many parts of the world. Most of the current social science focuses on public acceptance, however there is a relative lack of research that explores the subjectivity of people who are involved with water recycling or water planning. This study draws on Gramscian theories of governance and Q Methodology to analyze common sense principles that are held by water stewards who currently govern potable water reuse in the southwestern United States. Two competing perspectives emerged from the analyses, which I label neosanitarian and ecosanitarian. Drawing upon tenets established in the Progressive Era, neosanitarians believe that use of recycled water is an appropriate way to expand urban drinking water supplies. Drawing upon tenets established in ecology, ecosanitarians are not opposed to potable water recycling, however they are also interested in radical alternatives to the sanitary status quo. For example, neosanitarians favor advanced wastewater treatment, while ecosanitarians prefer composting toilets and preventative actions. Differences between the common sense views pivot on ideas about the most appropriate technology but also reflect contested visions of ideal society.
The projected increase in ‘water scarcity – water reuse’ situations, the associated risks and sustainability challenges, and trends towards holistic approaches motivate the development of integrated assessment for decision-making. The integrated Risk and Sustainability Assessment (RSA) Framework combines the analysis and evaluation of both risk and sustainability of ‘water scarcity – water reuse’ situations. This work aims to test the RSA Framework in a case study in Chile. The analysis uses a multi-layer approach and lane-based approach to translate the real-world system into an information system and to determine interlinkages between indicators. The evaluation involves thresholds and weights to calculate risk and sustainability sub-indices and an RSA index applying TOPSIS. The results indicate low interlinkage between risk and sustainability indicators, visibilising the importance of which and how indicators are considered and what they measure. They show a higher than tolerable degree of risk but an acceptable degree of sustainability. The relevance of spatial and temporal scales for the assessment becomes evident. Spatial aspects are key in determining the degree of water scarcity and how the impact of water reuse can be included in its calculation. Temporal aspects complicate the integration of risk (scenario-based) and sustainability (snapshot mode) assessments. The TOPSIS method appears to be suitable for the aggregation of risk and sustainability performance indicators. Altogether, the results show the potential of the RSA Framework for organising and processing information required to support decision-makers addressing ‘water scarcity – water reuse’ situations from the perspectives of risk and sustainability.
Increase in population in urban areas with lacking drinking water, there is a critical need to sort out the problems caused by the problems caused by energy and water as they are most common and essential part the human life. In this modern society the balancing of energy and adequate water supply with ergonomic surrounding is most important. These problems can short out by implementing Reverse osmosis (RO) system or by Conventional thermal distillation method. Utilising solar thermal energy membrane water distillation process represents a renewable energy and eco-friendly system. In ecologically perspective water demand in cities and urban areas are sorted by building environments in regions with a high correlation between water shortage and high solar rays. The main objective of this research is to treat the grey water with renewable energy system with cost effective manner.
The recent drought in the Western Cape Province in South Africa has been marked as the worst since 1904. The drought impacted severely on the availability of bulk water supply in many parts of the Western Cape Province, particularly the Cape Town Metro and surrounding districts. In order to alleviate water scarcity, wastewater recycling (water reuse) has been identified to have the potential to augment water supplies in the province. This paper argues that although water recycling has the potential to contribute towards alleviating water scarcity, studies have shown that public perceptions greatly influence the outcome of any water recycling scheme. The study collected data using face-to-face interviews, focus group discussions, and the application of the Story with a Gap participatory exercise. One of the key findings is that residents have to trust the municipal competencies and systems, and this can be achieved through meaningful engagement between the municipality and residents. We argue that rolling out a water reuse scheme by starting with affluent areas increases the likelihood of acceptance among low-income communities.
As food supply practices must adapt to the reality of limited natural resources, we must find alternative solutions to meet the dietary needs of a growing world population. This dissertation reports on the viability of edible insects as a solution to globally improve food security. Compared to conventional livestock, insect production requires less feed, water, and space while generating less pollution and waste. Moreover, circular insect farming methods can allow the reintroduction into the food chain of various types of clean and traceable organic residues in order to produce sustainable animal proteins within cities, therefore improving food sovereignty at the local scale. However, the general aversion for edible insects represents a major barrier that must be alleviated.
This dissertation identifies strategies to efficiently and sustainably introduce insect farming and consumption at the city scale. The introductory chapter of this thesis provides the rationale behind my research, framing its research area and explaining its key objectives. The second chapter is oriented towards consumer behavior as it focuses on the challenges related to marketing insect food products, paying particular attention to the motivations driving food choices. The third chapter exposes the results of both a national survey I developed aiming to assess the perceptions and attitudes of Canadians towards entomophagy (i.e. insect consumption) as well as insect tastings I organized in order to develop a better understanding of Quebeckers’ preferences for edible insect products. The fourth chapter exposes an action research project I led involving high school students delving on exposure and familiarization with edible insects as an avenue to positively change their perception towards entomophagy. The fifth chapter discusses how following industrial ecology principles in insect farms can allow to lower both production costs and environmental impacts. Finally, the concluding chapter holistically reflects on entomophagy and entotechnologies (i.e. insect farming practices) as sustainable solutions to reduce the ecological impacts linked to the production and consumption of animal proteins – tackling food waste and thus reducing the carbon footprint associated to the management of rapidly decomposable organic materials.
Sewage management is a key issue within circular economy and climate change scenario. Ensuring water supply is a challenge on a global scale. Numerous projects for potable water reuse (indirect or direct) are carried out in different parts of the world. This territorial study analyzes the situation of sewage in the Campo de Cartagena – Mar Menor region (Southeastern Spain), an area with semi-arid Mediterranean climate with structural scarcity of water and high competition for the uses of water. With data provided by ESAMUR, the evolution of its performance, use of reclaimed water and the presence of pollutants at the entrance and exit of the STPs are examined. It concludes that the concentrations of parameters contemplated in Directive 91/271/EEC are met regardless of the greater or lesser presence in the inlet flow. It is convenient to advance with potable reuse pilot projects and greater investments.
The realization that linear systems enhance humanity's footprint relative to the Earth's carrying capacity is challenging us to develop circular systems. In circular systems, waste is recycled back into raw materials, increasing its value. For wastewater treatment systems, this means that one needs to develop technologies that remove human pathogens and contaminants of emerging concern (CEC), while recovering water (reclaimed water), carbon, phosphate, nitrogen, macro and microelements (K, Co, Mo, etc.), metals (Cu, Zn, Fe), polymers (PHA, EPS), cellulose, fatty acids, pigments, and others. All these resources are present in wastewater and should be reused in the circular economy. Microalgae-based technologies are increasingly used for wastewater treatment as it has been shown that they are very efficient at the assimilation of nutrients and other microelements. The microalgal biomass can then be used as a raw material for the production of fertilizers, biostimulants, bioplastic, and value added products. Algae fertilizer incorporates the usual elements used in inorganic fertilizers (P, N, K), and also the microelements. Microelements are essential for crop growth, and are often overlooked in modern agriculture leading to empoverishment of our soils with decreased crop yields. This chapter discusses algae-based wastewater treatment from a circular economy perspective. We focus on current and developing technologies for resource recovery and its applications. We also discuss the bottlenecks related to the recycling of the microalgal biomass, such as residual pollutant (human pathogens and CEC) levels and desired biomass elemental composition for fertilizer application (C:N:P). Finally, we discuss how to tackle these bottlenecks to ensure a true circular wastewater treatment.
The planned reuse of treated wastewater is the most effective instrument for the sustainability of water resources management. Given the various possibilities and advantages of reusing treated wastewater, sociocultural acceptance can be a limiting factor for the success of this practice. This study analyzed the perceptions and social acceptability regarding the reuse of treated water in individuals with a high level of education, as they have a strong influence on the transformations of societ. The study was carried out in the city of Palmas (Brazil). The results indicated that the public was receptive to this practice for indirect uses, but had a strong rejection of direct reuse. Schooling was associated with knowledge about sanitation issues. This correlation with the acceptability of reusing treated wastewater for the investigated uses was not observed. Of the total respondents, 96.3% stated that cultural factors can cause people to reject the practice of reuse, resulting from the consequent culture of waste and non‐valorization of water sources.
Water recycling has been offered as an important adaptation for urban water systems facing deficits due to climate change. While the volume of recycled water has increased exponentially since the 2000s, its integration into municipal supply has not reached its potential. To better understand the processes that influence its uptake, this paper synthesizes published research that describes and analyzes adoption of water reuse in urban areas globally. We identified 39 articles published between 2010 and 2019 which document drivers and barriers of water reuse for 54 urban areas in 20 countries. Evidence shows that external environmental shocks, like drought, may be a catalyst but a nexus of place-based factors combined with economic, regulatory and political alignment more likely foster systemic change in water systems.
Due to the negative impact of Heavy Pollution Projects (HPPs) on the surrounding environment and the general public’s daily life, HPPs are often resisted by the public during the site selection process, resulting in “Not in My Back Yard (NIMBY)” events, which hinder the implementation of the project. Demonstrating an early warning system is important to determine the NIMBY likeliness of HPPs. However, the existing literature related to the NIMBY assessment has deficiencies in terms of the assessment subject, method, and procedure. The aim of the study was to establish an early warning system to determine NIMBY level of HPPs in China. The early warning system was constructed based on the ordered weighted averaging operator and cloud model from the perspective of public perception. The results showed that the NIMBY level of the case project was “Center”, and the indicators with “High” level included the public security influence, the impact of production safety accidents, the impact of wastewater pollution, and the impact of toxic gas pollution. Finally, by analyzing the NIMBY issues for the project, we propose suggestions for the prevention and treatment of social security issues, production safety accidents, and wastewater and toxic gas pollution. To reduce the NIMBY level and ensure the smooth implementation of the project, the environmental protection department of the government should strengthen its environmental protection supervision, and the enterprise should strengthen the social safety management of workers, establish a perfect production management system, and upgrade and improve the treatment facilities of wastewater and toxic gas.
Worldwide, fresh water scarcity is often caused by a high demand from the agricultural sector that globally accounts for 69% of fresh water withdrawal. This is not only an issue for arid regions with low rainfall and high population density that are prone to increasing water stress; temperate areas with intense agriculture also suffer from frequent non-potable water shortages. The intentional reuse of sewage treatment plant (STP) effluent in sub-surface irrigation (SSI), which is currently discharged in large volumes to surface water, may provide an alternative freshwater source. Additionally, the load of contaminants of emerging concern (CoECs) to surface water may be reduced due to soil passage and related (bio)transformation processes. In this review, the policies and guidelines concerning non-potable water reuse are highlighted. We discuss the processes that affect the fate of CoECs in SSI, and the expectations with regard to exposure and risks. Furthermore, knowledge gaps as well as challenges and opportunities of intentional STP effluent reuse via SSI are addressed with the aim of stimulating future research toward an enhanced understanding of the fate and risks of CoECs in SSI.
In Europe, there is a great variety of climates that, together with socio-economic aspects of each country, lead to a marked difference in the availability of water resources among the Member States (MS), where some are affected by water stress conditions. For this reason, some MS and regions of Europe have been issuing specific legislation on the use of reclaimed water, especially for agricultural use. Nevertheless, the lack of common criteria can affect the commercialization in the Common Market of products irrigated with reclaimed water. In this context, the European Union has finally decided to unify the criteria on the minimum requirements for water reuse by issuing a Regulation. In these circumstances, the future of reuse in Europe can evolve in several directions, which will be discussed using four scenarios. The first scenario is the approach to reuse for agriculture, the only use supported at present by the EU regulation. In the second reclaimed water is not limited to agricultural uses but includes a certain number of reuse possibilities. In the third scenario, there is a complete rejection of the reuse concept by a number of Member States and stakeholders, and in the fourth, a complete support to the practice by backing any initiative in this direction and with the availability of funds to support further research is supposed.
The reuse of municipal wastewater is increasingly implemented in cities to mitigate intensifying water supply problems. Public acceptance of water reuse is integral to successful implementation. This study uses survey research to explore local perspectives and uses of secondary (nonpotable) water for irrigation in two northern Utah cities—one that has implemented water reuse and one that has not. Findings revealed few differences between cities, suggesting that experience with water reuse may not influence acceptance or risk perception levels as long as it is limited to certain less direct purposes. In line with previous research, general support was found for water reuse for irrigation with relatively low health risk perceptions. Water reuse support was higher (and health risk perceptions lower) for those agreeing with the environmental and economic responsibility of water reuse. Having heard of water reuse was not related to health risk perceptions in either city. However, in the city with water reuse, those more familiar with the system had lower health risk perceptions and higher levels support for reuse for irrigation. Results suggest public acceptance of water reuse may not always be a barrier to local implementation, though continued communication about water reuse systems is important.
Practitioner points
• Risk perception of water reuse for irrigation was relatively low, particularly for more indirect uses such as irrigation.
• Public perspectives on water reuse for irrigation did not differ significantly between a community with water reuse for irrigation and one without.
• Environmental and economic motivations for water reuse offset risk perceptions, suggesting that public opposition to water reuse may not be a barrier in contexts in which water is understood to be a scarce resource.
• Awareness of local water reuse was not high and influenced risk perception, suggesting the need for ongoing communication.
Incorporating nanomaterials into point-of-use (POU) in-home water purification devices that treat well water or centrally-treated tap water offers new opportunities to meet growing customer demand for aesthetically pleasing and higher quality drinking water. While the technical performance and potential for nanomaterial release from POU devices have been studied, little is known about public acceptance of devices that use nanotechnology. We administered an 18-question survey of 1623 participants in four metropolitan areas—Phoenix, AZ (N = 362); Houston, TX (N = 380); Atlanta, GA (N = 419); and Philadelphia, PA (N = 415)—and one rural Arizona region (N = 47) to assess perceptions around using nanomaterial-enabled POU devices. Approximately 90% of survey respondents had little to no prior knowledge of nanomaterials or their use in numerous consumer products ranging from POU water treatment devices to clothing or baby products. Survey respondents were more likely to purchase conventional drinking water purification devices than ones containing nanomaterials, but the majority of survey respondents (~64%) claimed they would likely or probably change their opinions around using nanomaterials to treat their drinking water if they were given more information about nanomaterials and their role in treating drinking water. The results indicate that respondents are willing to changing their minds if they are provided information around nanomaterials and their use in in-home water purification. When we incorporated responses regarding previous knowledge of nanomaterials, we found that the less knowledge respondents had of nanomaterials, the more willing they would be to use them to treat their drinking water. 65% of respondents with prior knowledge of nanomaterials were unwilling to drink water treated with nanomaterials. Respondents considered the safety of the device as being most important to them, followed closely by treated water taste. 30% of respondents stated that they would purchase the drinking water purification product with nanomaterials if it worked as effectively as a competitor and was half the price. 26% of respondents stated that they would purchase the drinking water purification product with nanomaterials if it worked twice as effectively as a competitor and was half the price. The findings are discussed in regard to specific adoption of nanotechnology in drinking water and also broader adoption and acceptance of emerging technologies that hold promise to improve environmental outcomes.
Energy and water are inseparable resources whose management in urban residential buildings is important. Continuing urbanization in developing nations is increasing the demand yet the supply is inadequate or non-existent. Decentralized urban water recycling systems are an alternative source of water that could relieve the demand from public utilities. However, there are social, economic, environmental and technological factors that affect the uptake of these systems. Although advanced water treatment technologies for decentralized systems have been developed, there are challenges in their optimal operation. This paper introduces the open loop optimal control and closed-loop model predictive control (MPC) strategies aimed at ensuring safe and reliable operation of a grey water recycling system at building level. Both controllers have shown their ability in efficiently operate the system leading to water conservation and energy cost savings. Each of these controllers has its strengths in terms of cost, ease of implementation and robustness and they should be adopted according to specific application. Their adoption can greatly improve energy and water security in urban households, reduce their demand and waste water. Technology alone cannot solve resource insecurity, and therefore, appropriate policies, regulations, incentives and public awareness should be implemented to support such novel technologies.
Unplanned indirect (de facto) wastewater reuse occurs when wastewater is discharged into surface waters upstream of potable drinking water treatment plant intakes. This paper aims to predict percentages and trends of de facto reuse throughout the Yangtze River watershed in order to understand the relative contribution of wastewater discharges into the river and its tributaries towards averting water scarcity concerns. The Yangtze River is the third longest in the world and supports more than 1/15 of the world's population, yet the importance of wastewater on the river remains ill-defined. Municipal wastewater produced in the Yangtze River Basin increased by 41% between 1998 and 2014, from 2580 m³/s to 3646 m³/s. Under low flow conditions in the Yangtze River near Shanghai, treated wastewater contributions to river flows increased from 8% in 1998 to 14% in 2014. The highest levels of de facto reuse appeared along a major tributary (Han River) of the Yangtze River, where de facto reuse can exceed 20%. While this initial analysis of de facto reuse used water supply and wastewater data from 110 cities in the basin and 11 gauging stations with > 50 years of historic streamflow data, the outcome was limited by the lack of gauging stations at more locations (i.e., data had to be predicted using digital elevation mapping) and lack of precise geospatial location of drinking water intakes or wastewater discharges. This limited the predictive capability of the model relative to larger datasets available in other countries (e.g., USA). This assessment is the first analysis of de facto wastewater reuse in the Yangtze River Basin. It will help identify sections of the river at higher risk for wastewater-related pollutants due to presence of—and reliance on—wastewater discharge that could be the focus of field studies and model predictions of higher spatial and temporal resolution.
The main sources of water in Kuwait are seawater desalination and groundwater. Reclaimed wastewater effluent could be an additional water source. Its use would reduce the volumes of recycled water being disposed of to the environment and it could reduce the demand for fresh water supplies. The results of a questionnaire survey of more than 1,500 random households residing in 64 districts in Metropolitan Kuwait are presented. The frequency distribution of the education level, knowledge of wastewater reuse, age, nationality and gender of the sample population are presented. In addition, we have presented the results of a survey of attitudes amongst residents of their willingness to use reclaimed water for a variety of purposes. The research analyzes the costs and benefits of using reclaimed water. The study concludes with useful recommendations for both the authorities and the citizens of Kuwait.
Water reclamation implementation and management practices at municipal wastewater treatment plants throughout the world are reviewed and some implementation and operational issues are defined. The information is based on a conventional literature survey, on an in depth survey study of European, Israeli and Australian medium and large-scale water reclamation utilities and on the findings of a dedicated international workshop.
The review identified over 3,300 water reclamation projects and designed the map of the main process technologies and their fields of product water application. The main conclusion of the enquiry is that the technological risks no longer represent a major concern for the development of water reclamation projects, rather issues such as the financing, failure management and social acceptance have become more critical.
In this paper are identified several factors which affect a potential user's willingness to use recycled water for agricultural irrigation. This study is based on the results of a survey carried out among farmers in the island of Crete, Greece. It was found that a higher level of income and education are positively correlated with a respondent's willingness to use recycled water. Income and education are also positively correlated with a potential user's sensitivity to information on the advantages of using non-conventional water resources. Overall, extra information on the advantages of recycled water has a statistically significant impact on reported degrees of willingness to use recycled water.
Cognitive interviewing has emerged as one of the more prominent methods for identifying and correcting problems with survey questions. We define cognitive interviewing as the administration of draft survey questions while collecting additional verbal information about the survey responses, which is used to evaluate the quality of the response or to help determine whether the question is generating the information that its author intends. But beyond this general categorization, cognitive interviewing potentially includes a variety of activities that may be based on different assumptions about the type of data that are being collected and the role of the interviewer in that process. This synthesis reviews the range of current cognitive interviewing practices, focusing on three considerations: (1) what are the dominant paradigms of cognitive interviewing—what is produced under each, and what are their apparent advantages; (2) what key decisions about cognitive interview study design need to be made once the general approach is selected (e.g., who should be interviewed, how many interviews should be conducted, and how should probes be selected), and what bases exist for making these decisions; and (3) how cognitive interviewing data should be evaluated, and what standards of evidence exist for making questionnaire design decisions based on study findings. In considering these issues, we highlight where standards for best practices are not clearly defined, and suggest broad areas worthy of additional methodological research.
Many countries’ water resources are limited in both quantity and quality. While engineering solutions can now safely produce recycled and desalinated water from non-potable sources at a relatively low cost, the general public is sceptical about adopting these alternative water sources. Social scientists, policy makers and technical experts need to better understand what is causing this lack of acceptance by the general population and how acceptance levels for recycled and desalinated water can be increased. This study is the first to conduct a comparative analysis of knowledge, perceptions, and acceptability, and determine segments of residents who are more open-minded than the general population toward the use of recycled and desalinated water. The Australian population once perceived desalinated water as environmentally unfriendly, and recycled water as a public health hazard. The general level of knowledge about these two concepts as potential water sources has historically been low. After nearly five years of serious drought, accompanied by severe water restrictions across most of the country, and subsequent media attention on solutions to water scarcity, Australians now show more acceptance of desalinated water for close-to-body uses, and less resistance to recycled water for garden watering and cleaning uses. The types of people likely to be strong accepters of the two alternative water sources are distinctly different groups, and can be reached through different media mixes. This finding has significant implications for policy makers and water practitioners.
In Europe the last two decades has witnessed growing water stress, both in terms of water scarcity and quality deterioration, which has prompted many municipalities to look for a more efficient use of water resources, including a more widespread acceptance of water reuse practices. This paper reviews European water reuse practices and sets out the map of the water reclamation technologies and reuse applications. The data are based on a conventional literature survey, on the preliminary evaluation of an in-depth survey of a large number of European water reuse projects and on the findings of a dedicated international workshop. The preliminary evaluation indicates that for an increased utilisation of reclaimed wastewater, clearer institutional arrangements, more dedicated economic instruments and the set-up of water reuse guidelines are needed. Technological innovation and the establishment of a best practice framework will help, but even more, a change is needed in the underlying stakeholders' perception of the water cycle.
Purpose
To provide a thorough analysis of the role of the internet in survey research and to discuss the implications of online surveys becoming such a major force in research.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper is divided into four major sections: an analysis of the strengths and potential weaknesses of online surveys; a comparison of online surveys with other survey formats; a discussion on the best uses for online surveys and how their potential weaknesses may be moderated; and an overview of the online survey services being offered by the world's largest research firms.
Findings
If conducted properly, online surveys have significant advantages over other formats. However, it is imperative that the potential weaknesses of online surveys be mitigated and that online surveys only be used when appropriate. Outsourcing of online survey functions is growing in popularity.
Practical implications
The paper provides a very useful source of information and impartial advice for any professional who is considering the use of online surveys.
Originality/value
The paper synthesizes the vast literature related to online surveys, presents original material related to survey methodology, and offers a number of recommendations.
Popular concern over water quality has important implications for public water management because it can both empower water utilities to improve service but also limit their ability to make changes. In the desert city of Phoenix, Arizona, obtaining sufficient high-quality water resources for a growing urban population poses a major challenge. Decision makers and urban hydrologists are aware of these challenges to water sustainability but the range of acceptable policy and management options available to them is constrained by public opinion. Therefore, this study examines cultural models of water quality and water management, termed ethnohydrology, among urban residents. The study yields three key findings. First, urban residents appear to have a shared model of ethnohydrology which holds that a) there are significant water quality risks associated with low financial investments in city-wide water treatment and the desert location of Phoenix, and b) government monitoring and management combined with household-level water treatment can yield water of an acceptable quality. Second, people with high incomes are more likely to engage in expensive water filtration activities and to agree with the cultural ethnohydrology model found. Third, people living in communities that are highly concerned about water quality are less likely to share high agreement around ethnohydrology. The results have implications for water policy making and planning, particularly in disadvantaged and vulnerable communities where water quality is perceived to be low.
This paper identifies factors that are associated with higher levels of public acceptance for recycled and desalinated water. For the first time, a wide range of hypothesized factors, both of socio-demographic and psychographic nature, are included simultaneously. The key results, based on a survey study of about 3000 respondents are that: (1) drivers of the stated likelihood of using desalinated water differ somewhat from drivers of the stated likelihood of using recycled water; (2) positive perceptions of, and knowledge about, the respective water source are key drivers for the stated likelihood of usage; and (3) awareness of water scarcity, as well as prior experience with using water from alternative sources, increases the stated likelihood of use. Practical recommendations for public policy makers, such as key messages to be communicated to the public, are derived.
"From a river-basin perspective, wastewater irrigation is an important form of water and nutrient reuse; however, there are important water quality, environmental, and public health considerations. This report explores the advantages and risks of urban wastewater reuse for crop production in the water-short Guanajuato river-basin in west-central Mexico, and then by a selective literature review demonstrates how common this practice is worldwide. It also evaluates several alternative water-management scenarios through application of the Interactive River Aquifer Simulation (IRAS) model, developed by Cornell University and Resource Planning Associates."
The growing scarcity of potable water supplies is among the most important issues facing many cities, in particular those using single sources of water that are climate dependent. Consequently, urban centers are looking to alternative sources of water supply that can supplement variable rainfall and meet the demands of population growth. A diversified portfolio of water sources is required to ensure public health, as well as social, economical and environmental sustainability. One of the options considered is the augmentation of drinking water supplies with advanced treated recycled water. This paper aims to provide a state of the art review of water recycling for drinking purposes with emphasis on membrane treatment processes. An overview of significant indirect potable reuse projects is presented followed by a description of the epidemiological and toxicological studies evaluating any potential human health impacts. Finally, a summary of key operational measures to protect human health and the areas that require further research are discussed.
Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 44.1 (2001) 17-31
--A. K. Reinhart (1990)
Anthropologists have long puzzled over why certain objects and activities are avoided, reviled, or proscribed in many cultures. Numerous theories have been proposed, but as Reinhart (1990) suggests above, a full explanation remains elusive. Psychologists recently have begun to explore the nature of the revulsion that is occasioned by the sight of excreta, rotten food, slime, and bugs. They have described and categorized the emotion of disgust and have even proposed a location in the brain where disgust may be seated. However, the total body of research into disgust is so scant that it has been described as the "forgotten emotion of psychiatry" (Phillips et al. 1998).
Our interest in disgust has its roots in a decade of work exploring hygiene behavior in Africa, India and Europe. The failures of the health education approach in promoting hygiene has drawn attention to the need to understand existing motivations and practices more fully. Although there is much variation in the behaviors that are considered acceptable and appropriate in different societies, we found signs of a consistent pattern. We found that hygiene was important to all of the people that we worked with, and that hygienic behavior often was motivated by the desire to avoid or remove things that were found disgusting. Review of the anthropological, psychological, historical, and medical literature suggests a wide variety of explanations for hygienic behavior. However, few writers offer explanations for the origins of hygiene or consider how it might be related to the disgust emotion. This paper explores the nature of disgust and argues that it can best be understood as a mechanism for defense against infectious disease.
Disgust is a powerful emotion and is thought to be a human universal. Darwin (1872) counted it as one of the six basic emotions. The manifestations of disgust include a particular facial expression (wrinkling of the nose, pulling down the corners of the mouth), characteristic neurological signs (lowered blood pressure, lowered galvanic skin response, and nausea) and characteristic actions (stopping, dropping the object of disgust, shuddering or saying "yuk!") (Rozin et al. 1993). The facial expression of disgust has been found to be recognizable across cultures (Ekman and Friesen 1986; Mesquita and Frijda 1992). Disgust apparently is distinguishable from fear in that disgust involves a suspension of activity, while fear heightens activity in preparation for fight or flight (Phillips et al. 1998). Recent magnetic resonance imaging studies have proposed a specific neurological substrate for disgust, located in the anterior insular cortex (Phillips et al. 1997).
Though the details of what constitutes a disgusting stimulus may vary to some degree from culture to culture (Davey et al. 1998) and from individual to individual, there appear to be some prototypical objects of disgust. Phillips and colleagues (1998) suggest that these are waste products of the human body, while Rozin and Fallon (1987) see the key source of disgust as "the prospect of [oral] incorporation of an offensive object." Rozin and Fallon continue: "The offensive objects are contaminants; that is, if they even briefly contact an acceptable food they tend to render that food unacceptable." According to Rozin, substances of animal origin, poor hygiene, violations of the body envelope, and death are disgust stimuli. Disgust is also elicited by physical contact with unpleasant or unknown people (Rozin and Fallon 1987). Furthermore, disgust appears to have a cultural domain and can be elicited by immorality and violations of social rules (Miller 1997; Rozin et al. 1999b).
Our program of qualitative field work exploring the motivation for hygiene behavior generated sets of objects and events that were found to be disgusting from five studies in Africa, India, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and in an international airport. These are reproduced in Tables 1 through 5, and the data sources are described in the notes. Asking people what disgusts them produced a very diverse set of objects, events, actions...
This paper outlines a five year investigation which aimed to develop a measurement to predict community intended behaviour in relation to the reuse of wastewater. It has been apparent that communities support the concept of water reuse as a means of responsible water resources management. However, reactions from people when it comes to actually using the recycled water are frequently quite different, particularly when it involves close personal contact or ingestion of the water. Little has been known of how people make their decisions to accept or reject schemes. Therefore, a research program was designed to systematically identify, measure and test the major factors that govern people's decision-making. A social experiment was designed whereby a large group of random community members participated in tasting and swallowing what they believed to be recycled water from different sources and products grown with recycled waters. This provided an immediate experience for the development of measures of psychological and other factors in decisions to taste and/or swallow. This then formed the basis for whole of city surveys which tested and refined an hypothesised model of intended behaviour, and three case studies over time which sought to replicate the model.
Australia is a relatively dry continent with an average runoff of 50 mm per year. The use of water resources in some river basins is approaching the limits of sustainability. Some adverse environmental impacts have been observed resulting from water diversions and from both reclaimed water and stormwater discharges. The paper describes current water recycling initiatives in Australia. These include: beneficial reuse of reclaimed water for urban, residential, industrial and agricultural purposes; recycling of greywater and stormwater; advanced treatment using membrane technology; and water efficient urban design. Some possible water recycling scenarios for Australia in the 21st century are examined. The implications of these scenarios are discussed.
An analysis of the potential impacts of severe drought on long-range wafer resource management in Nogales, Arizona, reveals that insufficient attention is paid to the potential combined impacts of such a drought on the water systems of Nogales, Arizona, and Nogales, Sonora. Most notably, effluent is an increasingly important renewable wafer resource for meeting demand in both communities. Today, most of the effluent is produced in Nogales, Sonora, and flows across the border to Nogales, Arizona. Effluent from both cities is treated on the Arizona side of the border at the Nogales International Wastewater Treatment Plant (NIWWTP). The treated water flows northward, recharging the aquifer and supporting a lush stretch of riparian vegetation and habitat along the Santa Cruz River. Should Mexico choose to retain its portion of the effluent currently treated at the NIWWTP, then Nogales, Arizona, could experience significant declines in wafer availability. Under extended drought conditions, this water source would likely become even more important and could generate negotiations for retaining the effluent in Sonora, or receiving compensation from Arizona. A parallel sensitivity analysis of the urban water system in Nogales, Sonora, an in-depth analysis of the implications of climate variability for water policy on both sides of the border, and greater availability and use of climate information are needed to address such potential stresses on transboundary wafer resources.
The authors are conducting a project to evaluate how wastewater-derived disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and their precursors contribute to DBPs in drinking water. Here, a field survey of many different types of wastewater treatment plants documents that they are sources of halogenated DBPs, if chlorine disinfection is practiced, and DBP precursors in all cases. Because the level of ammonia in treated wastewater usually is high, the addition of chlorine typically forms combined chlorine (chloramines), which minimizes the instantaneous formation of most halogenated DBPs. However, nitrosamines (e.g, N-nitrosodimethylamine [NDMA]) often are formed. Treated wastewater contains residual drinking water natural organic matter (NOM). Although the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration of the effluent organic matter (EfOM) is relatively high compared to drinking water, the humic content of the EfOM - based on specific ultraviolet absorbance (SUVA) - is relatively low. Waters low in SUVA tend to be less reactive with chlorine and typically form less trihalomethanes (THMs) and other DBPs per unit DOC. The presence of THM precursors and, in some cases, haloacetic acid precursors correlates best with SUVA. Preliminary data suggest that the formation of certain nitrogenous DBPs (e.g., haloacetonitriles and nitrosamines) or the presence of their precursors in treated wastewater is significant. The presence of precursors for some nitrogenous DBPs correlates with the level of dissolved organic nitrogen.
This paper reports results from a second Australian study of office worker attitudes to recycled water use. Survey respondents were employees of Bendigo Bank Limited who are located in Bendigo, Victoria. At the time of survey respondents had not yet moved into the Bank's new Head Office which is currently under construction, with stage 1 of 2 stages completed and occupied. This building will incorporate the use of Class A recycled water through an on-site wastewater recycling plant (MBR with chlorine disinfection). The recycled water system will be commissioned once the Head Office is fully occupied. The recycled water will be used to flush toilets within the building and irrigate nearby gardens. The study investigated attitudes to recycled water use for numerous uses, including those beyond which were to occur in the building. This included recycled water use for drinking and 'drinking indirectly' (explained to survey respondents as 'added to the drinking water reservoirs/river after treatment)'. Results of this study indicate that use of recycled water as will be incorporated in the Bendigo Bank Head Office is acceptable to the survey respondents who at the time of survey were to be future occupants of the building. Factors influencing an individual's acceptance of potable use of recycled water were found to be their beliefs, perceptions and attitudes surrounding trust in the water authority, information provision, risk perception (negative), environmental concern, satisfaction, fairness in implementation, and perceived need to recycled water. There were a number of differences observed between demographic groups and acceptance of recycled water use. 42% of respondents accepted the concept of direct potable reuse, and 56% for indirect potable reuse. The results of the study raise questions about current Government water policy.
Whilst the development of suitable technologies which provide opportunities for water recycling has moved on apace over the past decade, their practical application will not depend solely on effective and reliable engineering performance. Successful employment of preferred strategies and technologies will require an understanding of the social environment in which they are to be applied. The study reported below explores some of the attitudinal determinants of public acceptance of water recycling in the UK. Findings show that there is broad willingness to accept in-house water recycling as long as public health is not compromised.
Food and water shortages are two of the greatest challenges facing humans in the coming century. While our theoretical understanding of how humans become vulnerable to and cope with hunger is relatively well developed, anthropological research on parallel problems in the water domain is limited. By carefully considering well-established propositions derived from the food literature against what is known about water, our goal in this essay is to advance identifying, theorizing, and testing a broader anthropology of resource insecurity. Our analysis focuses on (1) the causes of resource insecurity at the community level, (2) “coping” responses to resource insecurity at the household level, and (3) the effect of insecurity on emotional well-being and mental health at the individual level. Based on our findings, we argue that human experiences of food and water insecurity are sufficiently similar to facilitate a broader theory of resource insecurity, including in how households and individuals cope. There are also important differences between food and water insecurity, including the role of structural factors (such as markets) in creating community-level vulnerabilities. These suggest food and water insecurity may also produce household struggles and individual suffering along independent pathways.
De facto potable reuse occurs when treated wastewater is discharged into surface waters upstream of potable drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) intakes. Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) discharges may pose water quality risks at the downstream DWTP, but additional flow aids in providing a reliable water supply source. In this work de facto reuse is analyzed for 2056 surface water intakes serving 1210 DWTPs across the U.S.A. that serve greater than 10 000 people, covering approximately 82% of the nation's population. An ArcGIS model is developed to assess spatial relationships between DWTPs and WWTPs, with a python script designed to perform a network analysis by hydrologic region. A high frequency of de facto reuse occurrence was observed; 50% of the DWTP intakes are potentially impacted by upstream WWTP discharges. However, the magnitude of de facto reuse was seen to be relatively low, where 50% of the impacted intakes contained less than 1% treated municipal wastewater under average streamflow conditions. De facto reuse increased greatly under low streamflow conditions (modeled by Q95), with 32 of the 80 sites yielding at least 50% treated wastewater, this portion of the analysis is limited to sites where stream gauge data was readily available.
In spite of the clear need to address water security through sourcing new and alternative water supplies, there has been marked resistance from some communities to the introduction of recycled water for potable use. The present studies tested the effectiveness of providing relatively brief information about the recycled water process and the safety of recycled water on cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses. Three information conditions (basic information or basic information plus information about pollutants in the water, or information that puts the risk of chemicals in the water in perspective) were compared to a no information control condition. Across three experiments there was general support for the hypothesis that providing information would result in more positive cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to recycled water. Information increased comfort with potable recycled water and, in general, participants in the information conditions expressed more positive emotions (Experiment 1 & 3), less negative emotions (Experiment 3), more support (Experiment 1 & 3), and lower risk perceptions (Experiment 1 & 3) than those in the no information control condition. Participants who received information also drank more recycled water than control participants (Experiment 1 & 2, although the differences between conditions was not statistically significant) and were significantly more likely to vote in favor of the introduction of a recycled water scheme (Experiment 3). There was evidence, however, that providing information about the level of pollutants in recycled water may lead to ambivalent responses.
A complete nitrogen mass balance for all wastewater generated in the Central Arizona–Phoenix ecosystem was developed using data from the 18 largest wastewater treatment plants (99% of flow). Components included total N in raw wastewater, denitrification in wastewater treatment plants, biosolids production, and effluent (reuse, recharge, and discharge). Denitrification and biosolids production remove 81% of wastewater N. Nearly all biosolids are recycled to cotton fields within the ecosystem. Most effluent is recycled within the ecosystem. As the result of wastewater management practices developed to reuse wastewater, wastewater N is either deliberately volatilized or accumulates within the system; only 4% of the original wastewater N is exported via the Gila River.
De facto wastewater reuse is the incidental presence of treated wastewater in a water supply source. In 1980 the EPA identified drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) impacted by upstream wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) discharges and found the top 25 most impacted DWTPs contained between 2% and 16% wastewater discharges from upstream locations (i.e. de facto reuse) under average streamflow conditions. This study is the first to provide an update to the 1980 EPA analysis. An ArcGIS model of DWTPs and WWTPs across the USA was created to quantify de facto reuse for the top 25 cities in the 1980 EPA study. From 1980 to 2008, de facto reuse increased for 17 of the 25 DWTPs, as municipal flows upstream of the sites increased by 68%. Under low streamflow conditions, de facto reuse in DWTP supplies ranged from 7% to 100%, illustrating the importance of wastewater in sustainable water supplies. Case studies were performed on four cities to analyze the reasons for changes in de facto reuse over time. Three of the four sites have greater than 20% treated wastewater effluent within their drinking water source for streamflow less than the 25th percentile historic flow.
Consumer attitudes toward water conservation were surveyed in seven northeastern Colorado communities to determine whether relationships exist between (1) attitudes and type of community or (2) attitudes and socioeconomic variables. The water conservation alternatives presented to these users included metering, price increases, restrictions on water use, restrictions on lawn size, controls on population growth, and reuse of treated wastwater for cotable purpose. Preferences for development of additional water supplies were also included favored by more than half of the respondents. Other conclusions arrived at are also discussed.
There is little evidence to support the widespread belief among many water management officials that public opposition constitutes an important obstacle concerning the adoption of renovated waste water for municipal supply.
Recycling of waste water presents one of the main options to the water supply planner. Public attitudes against recycled water, however, are seen to be a major inhibitor of its use. Research during the 1960s and 1970s indicated that acceptance of recycled water varied according to potential use—from about 50 per cent acceptance for potable water to almost 100 per cent for irrigation and industrial cooling. Initial acceptance is shown to depend mainly upon cognitive factors, including the awareness of the public about water supply, distribution and treatment, the perception of the adequacy of existing supplies, and income. Peripheral factors such as age, political affiliation and attitudes to local government are also related to acceptance, but neither price nor psychological factors influence the level of acceptance. It is concluded that public acceptance of waste-water reuse is not a formidable obstacle to its adoption, but that a greater constraint is the pessimistic perception by planners of consumer attitudes.
Eureau is the Union of most National Associations of Water Suppliers and Wastewater Services in Europe. Most northern Eureau countries have abundant water resources. There, the need for extra supply through the reuse of treated wastewater is not a priority, but the protection of the receiving environment is considered important. The situation is different in the southern Eureau countries, where the additional resources brought by wastewater reuse can bring significant advantages to agriculture (e.g. crop irrigation) and tourism (e.g. golf course irrigation). There, wastewater is reused but under very diverse regulatory environments. Therefore, considering its various potential benefits (protection of water resources, prevention of coastal pollution, recovery of nutrients for agriculture, augmentation of river flow, savings in wastewater treatment, groundwater recharge, and sustainability of water resource management, etc.), wastewater reclamation and reuse can be applied to the advantage of both northern and southern Eureau countries. In order to take advantage of its full potential, Eureau would like to become involved in setting up international best practices and guidelines related to the reuse of treated wastewater. Such criteria and/or guidelines should contribute to a better management of water resources, a better protection of public health and of the environment and to a more sustainable development. Reclaimed wastewater is a reliable source of water that must be taken into account in formulating a sustainable water policy. To encourage wastewater reclamation and reuse in all Eureau countries and to establish its safe practice, European guidelines for most applications must be developed.
Increasing demands on water resources have made water reuse an attractive option for extending water supplies in the southwest. However, concerns remain about the potential risks of contact with recycled water. This study focused on perceptions regarding water reuse and how these may affect future utilization of the resource. This study, based on a telephone survey of 400 randomly-selected Arizona residents, was used to assess public opinion of water reuse in the state. Survey results indicated that residents feel it is important for their community to use recycled water. In fact, 76% of those surveyed support using ‘consumer incentives for using recycled water’, and over two-thirds of respondents support ‘increasing water or sewer rates to treat water to higher standards’. Despite this support, the survey revealed that almost two-thirds of the respondents have concerns about recycled water. Those concerns can be alleviated by providing ‘better information about recycled water’. Education level proved to be the most significant demographic affecting perception of terminology and recycled water uses. These results can be used by water agencies – even those outside Arizona – to address community concerns, effectively promote water reuse, and develop more sustainable and accepted alternatives to augment their water portfolios.
Disgust is a specific reaction towards the waste products of the human and animal body. The relation of the various types of sensations to the disgust reaction depends upon the degree of intimacy of contact which they imply and upon the degree of specific association between sensory quality and disgusting object. Food substances which in themselves are not disgusting at all may easily become so through the presence of a disgusting object or even thinking of some disgusting situation. Circumstances which make possible an association between the excretory and the sexual functions include the common taboo of shame placed on both and the close anatomical and functional relationship between the excretory and genital organs. As disgust implies mainly the fear of becoming soiled, animals which have a factual or assumed relation to dirt, such as snakes and worms, frequently arouse disgust. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A descriptive-correlational study was recently conducted in a four county metropolitan area in the southeast United States (US) as part of a collaborative effort between nursing and environmental engineering researchers. The purpose of the study was to assess attitudes, knowledge and information sources concerning wastewater reuse and evaluate the results with respect to population demographics. The study indicated that both men and women unfavorably view the use of wastewater for possible consumption (released into potable surface or groundwater supplies) or applications involving close, personal contact (laundry). Women were especially concerned about pumping wastewater into the groundwater for subsequent potable use. Both genders felt that wastewater reuse for applications not involving close personal contact (such as firefighting, car washing, lawn irrigation and agricultural uses) was acceptable. General knowledge concerning wastewater reuse was mixed. Those with lower incomes, less education, and 65 years of age or older had significantly less knowledge of this issue than younger, more educated, higher income individuals. Primary sources of information for most demographic groups included newspaper and television, although the Internet was identified as a frequent source for selected groups.
Introducing reclaimed water as an alternative to the traditional mains water supply involves change in practices as well as technology. Therefore, the social effects of innovative solutions to sustainable water management need to be carefully considered. This paper will present findings from research undertaken in California and Florida, USA, and Australia. What is the community response to recycling reclaimed water? Are there ways of involving the public so that the change involved in introducing reclaimed water achieves sustainable outcomes? Results from a series of case studies where indirect potable reuse has been planned will be considered along with the findings from a range of industry surveys, mainly conducted in the USA. In relation to non potable reuse, this paper will cover acceptance of some of the main uses, and householder's experience of recycling water for residential use. The resulting analysis suggests that the shift from traditional, centrally controlled water supplies to innovative alternatives, requires a corresponding shift in resources to support what is essentially a social transformation in water service delivery and management.
The mounting necessity for recycle and reuse of water presents global challenges to our abilities to meet ongoing needs for water suitable for human consumption. Coupled with this is the reality that current practices of treating the total water demands of communities to levels required for human consumption are not indefinitely sustainable. Viable alternative strategies that integrate more effective water recovery for potable reuse with improved means for production and delivery of higher quality water for human consumption are thus essential. Given the inherent advantages of flexibility and responsiveness associated with decentralization of complex functions and operations, the strategic dispersal of flexible advanced treatment and control technologies throughout water transport and storage networks is one logical alternative to consider. Integration of advanced technology satellite systems with cost-critical components of current water infrastructures would facilitate optimal cost-effective applications of highly sophisticated advanced technologies within the context of existing treatment and distribution/collection systems. Most importantly, it would provide markedly enhanced “personal water” quality and significant potential for energy recovery.
Located approximately 100 km west of Brisbane, Toowoomba is home to approximately 95,000 people. Surface water from dams is the main source of water for the city. In 2006 the residents of Toowoomba were invited to vote in a referendum (plebiscite) concerning whether or not an indirect potable wastewater reuse scheme should be constructed to supply additional water to the area. At that stage dam levels in Toowoomba were at approximately twenty percent of capacity. Toowoomba residents, after intense campaigning on both sides of the referendum debate, voted against the proposal. In July 2008 dam levels dropped to eleven percent. Stage 5 water restrictions have been in place since September 2006, subsequently mains water must not be used for any outdoor uses. This paper describes in detail how public opposition in the case of Toowoomba's referendum, defeated the proposal for a water augmentation solution. Reasons for the failure are analysed. In so doing, the paper provides valuable insights with respect to public participation in indirect potable reuse proposals, and discusses factors including politics, vested interest and information manipulation. This paper is significant because of the lack of detailed information published about failed water infrastructure projects.
The Water Environment Research Foundation in the United States funded an interdisciplinary and integrative social science study on public perception and participation in water reuse within the US. It employed a three-phased research protocol consisting of 1) literature review and three comprehensive case studies, including interpretive white papers from five different social science disciplines and public health and environmental engineering scientists, 2) a multi-stakeholder workshop to promote integrative, interdisciplinary analysis of the literature and case study findings, and 3) peer-review among twenty-one social science and water resource management experts. The case studies included examples of potable and non-potable reuse, with elements of success and failure. Five themes were identified as critical to building and maintaining public confidence in water resource management and water reuse decision-making: managing information for all stakeholders; maintaining individual motivation and demonstrating organizational commitment; promoting communication and public dialog; ensuring a fair and sound decision-making process and outcome; and building and maintaining trust. The study produced guidance for water resource professionals with a strategy for assessing the community context and developing a principle-based approach to public outreach, education and participation.
Sixty-eight undergraduate students experienced 32 hands-on tasks designed to provide a behavioral validation for the paper-and-pencil Disgust Scale, which the students had completed 2 months before. Tasks assessed participant-determined degree of exposure (looking at, picking up, touching, and in some cases eating) to objects such as a cockroach, cremated ashes, and a freshly killed pig's head and to disgusting video clips (seconds watching). These tasks elicited strong negative affect in a way that was ethical and not very disturbing to participants; they may be useful for future laboratory study of emotion. Participants also experienced nondisgusting control tasks, such as imitating a chicken or holding one's hand in ice-water. Analysis of task intercorrelations indicated four factors: food-related disgust, body-violation-and-death-related disgust, compliance motivation, and embarrassability. Only the two disgust factors correlated significantly with the paper-and-pencil Disgust Scale; a combination of the two correlated .58 with Disgust Scale scores obtained months before the laboratory assessment and correlated .71 with scores obtained immediately after this assessment. Most generally, these results are a reminder that there is no gold standard for personality assessment. As with paper-and-pencil measures, behavioral measures require getting beyond face validity to assess threats to validity from factors such as embarrassment and compliance motivation.
Communities across the world face water supply challenges due to increasing demand, drought, depletion and contamination of groundwater, and dependence on single sources of supply. Water reclamation, recycling, and reuse address these challenges by resolving water resource issues and creating new sources of high-quality water supplies. The future potential for reclaimed treated effluent is enormous. Although water reclamation and reuse is practiced in many countries around the world, current levels of reuse constitute a small fraction of the total volume of municipal and industrial effluent generated. In addition, to meet their growing water supply needs, communities are considering other non-traditional sources of water such as agricultural return flows, concentrate and other wastewater streams, storm water, co-produced water resulting from energy and mining industries, as well as the desalination of seawater and brackish groundwater. Water reuse provides a wide range of benefits for communities, which translates into creating immense value for the public and the environment. The benefits of water reuse, however, can be difficult to quantify and often go unrecognized. One of the most significant benefits of water reuse is the value created by the inclusion of water reuse in integrated water resources planning and other aspects of water policy and the implementation of water projects resulting in the long-term sustainability of our water supplies. These integrated concepts, which involve the convergence of diverse areas such as governance, health risks, regulation, and public perception, also present a significant challenge to water reuse. These complex connections can assert equal influences on both the benefits and challenges associated with water reuse. In addressing these complex integrated issues, a number of significant barriers and impediments to the widespread implementation of water reuse projects arise. Numerous examples exist of barriers experienced by current water reuse projects around the world, including: the need for innovative technologies, technology transfer, and novel applications; the need for public education and increased public acceptance; better documentation of the benefits of water reuse; the lack of available funding for water reuse projects; working with the media; and the need for support by regulators and politicians. Integrated concepts can also be factors in a number of trends affecting water reuse globally. Current trends include addressing emerging pollutants of concern, the use of advanced wastewater treatments including membranes, indirect potable reuse, public perception, understanding the economics of water reuse, groundwater recharge and aquifer storage and recovery, salinity management (including concentrate disposal), increase in the use of “alternative sources”, environmental or natural system restoration, innovative uses of nonpotable water reuse, and decentralized and satellite systems. Since these trends are emerging developments in the field of water reclamation and reuse, there are a number of research needs associated with these topics. Research is needed to better understand the issues, to develop innovative technologies, and to develop tools and other assistance for communities and water agencies to implement successful water reclamation and reuse projects.
Water shortages in Australia have highlighted an urgent need for alternative water sources, and technologically, water recycling is argued to offer the most cost-effective, environmentally sustainable solution to these shortages. Yet public support for its implementation is low even in the drought-stricken areas of Australia. Drawing from the theory of social representations, this study addressed community perceptions of water recycling. Three interrelated methodologies were employed in a self-report questionnaire. Individual difference scaling/multidimensional scaling analyses of three word association tasks revealed that the emergent social representation of water recycling was contradictory in affect. Normative responses indicated an awareness of the need to use recycled water whereas the functional responses were associated with a fear of contamination. An analysis of differential use scales further revealed that the perception of contagion was specific to when recycled water had contact with the body. The discursive analysis of respondents' comments expanded on both these findings. The study identified the themata of purity/impurity as underpinning the social understanding of water recycling. Copyright (C) 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Australia is a relatively dry continent with an average runoff of 50 mm per year. The use of water resources in some river basins is approaching the limits of sustainability. Some adverse environmental impacts have been observed resulting from water diversions and from both reclaimed water and stormwater discharges. The paper describes current water recycling initiatives in Australia. These include: beneficial reuse of reclaimed water for urban, residential, industrial and agricultural purposes; recycling of greywater and stormwater; advanced treatment using membrane technology; and water efficient urban design. Some possible water recycling scenarios for Australia in the 21st century are examined. The implications of these scenarios are discussed. Copyright (C) 1996 IAWQ.
The new synthesis about disgust is that it is a system that evolved to motivate infectious disease avoidance. There are vital practical and intellectual reasons why we need to understand disgust better. Practically, disgust can be harnessed to combat the behavioural causes of infectious and chronic disease such as diarrhoeal disease, pandemic flu and smoking. Disgust is also a source of much human suffering; it plays an underappreciated role in anxieties and phobias such as obsessive compulsive disorder, social phobia and post-traumatic stress syndromes; it is a hidden cost of many occupations such as caring for the sick and dealing with wastes, and self-directed disgust afflicts the lives of many, such as the obese and fistula patients. Disgust is used and abused in society, being both a force for social cohesion and a cause of prejudice and stigmatization of out-groups. This paper argues that a better understanding of disgust, using the new synthesis, offers practical lessons that can enhance human flourishing. Disgust also provides a model system for the study of emotion, one of the most important issues facing the brain and behavioural sciences today.