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AFRREV, 10 (3), S/NO 42, JUNE, 2016
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An International Multi-disciplinary Journal, Ethiopia
Vol. 10(3), Serial No.42, June, 2016: 317-337
ISSN 1994-9057 (Print) ISSN 2070-0083 (Online)
Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v10i3.21
Major Development Communication Paradigms and Practices:
Implications for Graphic Communication
Ebigbagha Zifegha Sylvester
Department of Fine and Applied Arts
Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State
E-mail Address: ebigbaghazsylvester@yahoo.com
Phone: +2348033205662
Abstract
Modernization, Dependency, and Multiplicity are three major concepts of
development, which have occasioned the use of hierarchical and/or participatory
communication practices in our society today. These significantly impact on the
mediation role of the graphic encoder during media production process that could either
afford or hinder development. Therefore, in order to adopt communication strategies
that would produce desired outcomes, this paper focused on the implications of the
major paradigms of development and communication practices on graphic
communication. It employed a triangulation of research methods, the Critical-
Historical-Analytic Examination, In-depth interviews, Focus Group Discussion and
Content Analysis. The paper started with the centrality of graphic communication
media to the success of development initiatives. Furthermore, it aptly presented an
overview of the major paradigms of development vis-a-vis the key models of
communication on which practices are hinged. Moreover, it copiously discussed the
impact of the Source’s concept of development on mediation role of the graphic
encoder during communication development. And it examined the impact of
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communication practices on produced media for campaigns in Africa. The paper ended
with the need to adopt communication approaches that embed the graphic encoder and
other stakeholders in order to produce effective graphic communication.
Key Words: Major Development Paradigms, Communication Practices, Graphic
Communication, Graphic Encoder’s Mediation, Media Production Process.
Introduction
If development can be seen as a fabric woven out of the activities of millions of people,
communication represents the essential thread that binds them together…A
development strategy that uses communication approaches can reveal people’s
underlying attitudes and traditional wisdom, help people to adapt their views and to
acquire new knowledge and skills, and spread new social messages. The planned use
of communication techniques, activities and media gives people powerful tools both to
experience change and actually to guide it. An intensified exchange of ideas among all
sectors of society can lead to the greater involvement of people in a common cause.
This is a fundamental requirement for appropriate and sustainable development.
Fraser and Villet (2005, p. 12), making the above citation, reiterated the centrality of
communication to the success of development initiatives. Communication is critical to
mobilize, educate and persuade target audience to support human development
programmes, which every nation across the world embarks upon in order to grow and
improve existing standards of living. This could readily be seen in the use of graphic
communication campaigns in support of agriculture, education and health, to mention
a few.
The necessity to produce and utilize veritable graphic communication media
to share messages effectively cannot be over-emphasized. This is because both form
and content attributes of media are capable of being transferred to behavior. Invariably,
a positive or negative behavior could be elicited based on the way the content and form
of a development message is configured. Therefore, an effective or ineffective media
significantly impact on messages that could either afford or thwart respectively the
realization of desired communication goal (Ebigbagha 2012, 2013). For this reason,
Baran (2009), states that the media is the message. So, effective message is invariably
afforded by effective graphic channel.
The production of graphic channel/communication is usually executed by the
media team. This is a group of topic specialist in related areas of the campaign theme,
who are assigned the task to turn development ideas into effective messages. Often, an
appropriate intervention and thorough collaboration of the graphic encoder with other
members of the media team are undermined. This prevalent neglect of the proper
intervention of the graphic encoder, usually results in ineffective graphic
communication that hinders development. The graphic encoder (a person assigned the
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task to transform development ideas into graphic messages: forms, formats, codes and
configuration) is a crucial member of a media team. His/her role in the communication
development process is that of mediation. Mediation between the Source’s ideas on one
hand and the target audience information needs on the other, in which the ideas and
information needs are encoded into graphic language, using iconic and digital signs.
How this role of mediation is performed, whether or not it is proper, immensely
determine the quality and effectiveness of a produced graphic media (information,
education and communication –IEC materials). Usually, when the graphic encoder is
allowed to properly perform his/her mediation role, the graphic media produced
generate salutary effect, otherwise, the contrary is the result. Examples include, the IEC
materials employed for the Delayed Sexual Debut Campaign, Use Condom Campaign
and the Bird Flu Free Campaign in Nigeria, to mention a few (Ebigbagha 2012a, 2012b,
2016).
The meditation role of the graphic encoder in communication development
process is greatly determined by the communication paradigm and practices adopted
by the source (media requesting agency). The communication concepts and practices
that employ a Hierarchical - one-way approach, permit the Source to lead the entire
development process. This results in restricted involvement of the graphic encoder in
the decision making process that hinders comprehensive understanding of a given
campaign. On the contrary, communication paradigms/practices that employ a two-
way approach, allow the source, the graphic encoder/media team, and other
stakeholders, including target audience to participate in decision making process. This
facilitates the understanding of the themes, issues and facts of a campaign. From this
well-informed standpoint of view, the graphic encoder is able to perform his/her
meditation role properly and produce effective graphic messages.
Approaches in communication practices for development programmes have
emanated from three major concepts of development (Modernization, Dependency and
Multiplicity/ Another Development), which occasioned suitable models of
communication (Ashley 2003; Garland 2005a; Vineet, 2011). These concepts of
development and their attendant communication models have shaped communication
practices, with great implications for the graphic encoder’s mediation role and graphic
communication.
Therefore, it is necessary to examine the major communication practices that
have co-existed in our society up till now vis-à-vis the paradigms of development. Also,
it is salient to consider the implication of major communication practices on the
mediation role of graphic encoder, so that counterproductive activities to proper
performance of the role are minimized. And it is important to examine some IEC
materials produced for nationwide campaigns on health in Nigeria and Egypt, in order
to consider the impact of the major communication practices on the outcome of graphic
messages.
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Major Development Paradigms Vis-À-Vis Communication Practices
Today, Modernization, Dependency, and Multiplicity are three major concepts
of development that have evolved. This is since 1947, when development is carried out
as an organized activity/intervention to improve the living standards of a people by
international, national or institutionalized bodies. In Modernization and Dependency,
development is conceived as aid from more development countries/sources to less
developed countries/receivers across the world. These employed the
Transmissive/Diffusion communication practices, a vertical, top-down/hierarchical,
one-way approach. While in Multiplicity, development is seen as a product of
collaboration and participation of all stakeholders. This employs the Participatory
communication practices, a horizontal, two-way approach. Ashley (2003), classified
these three concepts of development into periods as follows;
1. The early period (1950s-1970s), the paradigm of Modernization
2. The middle period (1970s-1990s), the paradigm of Dependency; and
3. The present period (1990s to Present), the paradigm of Another Development/
Multiplicity.
The Paradigm of Modernization (1950-1970s)
The concept of Modernization, which characterized the early period (1950s-
1970s) of development communication, holds that wealth and development occur in a
poor and undeveloped society or receiver, when ideas are disseminated into it from rich
and developed society or source. This affords the top-down, one-way communication
approach, whereby the rich and developed source disseminates information deemed
salient for the development of the poor receiver that needs to be uplifted. So, the
transmissive models of communication were employed. Examples include Lasswell
Formula, 1948; Shannon-Weaver Model, 1949; and the Schramm’s Model of Mass
Communication, 1954.
The Lasswell Formula, and Shannon and Weaver model placed emphasis on
the source, which produces the message and the channel from which the receiver
decodes the encoded graphic messages. It is emphasized that the channel must be free
of noise, so that development messages get to purported destination and decoded by
receivers as intended by the source. Schramm (1954), placed emphasis on the message.
The message is seen as stimulus, which on its own should be potent and sufficient to
persuade target audience and generate desired responses as it is interpreted and
decoded. Rogers (1973), also emphasized stimulus to create awareness and interest that
encourages evaluation, trials and rapid adoption of development ideas.
From the above, the Source production of stimulus with content and form
attributes that are free of noise, attract attention and stimulate interest are indispensable
to inform, mobilize and effect the expected development of target audience.
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The Paradigm of Dependency
Closely related and following the concept of Modernization is the concept of
Dependency. Like the concept of Modernization, it holds that development would
occur when ideas are transmitted into societies that are undeveloped from developed
society. Moreover, it holds that there is dependency between the source and the receiver
in the process of development, and the receivers’ socio-political structure must be
considered. It utilizes the transmissive/diffusion models of communication. Examples
include Rogers Innovative Diffusion Model, 1973; Ball-Rokeach and Defleur’s
Dependency Model of Mass Communication Effects, 1976 and Freires’ Consciousness
Model, 1970 (McQuail and Windahl, 1986; Servaes and Malikhao, 1994; and Garland,
2005a, Vineet, 2011).
The concept of Dependency, employed the transmissive, and the diffusion
models of communication. It placed emphasis on effective stimulus as a key to getting
target audience developed as in transmissive models; and underscored knowledge of
the receiver and his/her socio-political environment as prescribed in the diffusion
models. Rogers (1973), states that for the stimulus to be effective to create persuasive
graphic massages to facilitate the decision to adopt and confirm adoption of
development messages, it is necessary to have knowledge of the receiver and the social
system variables. This is because development and socio-political processes are inter-
twined (Freire, 1970; and Ball-Rokeach and Defleur, 1976).
The paradigms of Modernization and Dependency impact on the Source to
adopt the Hierarchical or Top-Down, One-Way-Communication practices that direct
the entire development process in two ways: focus on stimulus conditions (media) and
neglect of key stakeholders.
Firstly, there is the emphasis on stimulus conditions (for example, the size,
intensity of colour, novelty, etc. of a given poster) as wholly necessary and sufficient
to generate desired response from target audience. This makes the Source to focus on
the generation of stimulus conditions that he/she prefers at the expense of target
audience. A consideration of both stimulus and target audience conditions are
necessary to elicit desired responses from target audience.
Secondly, the Source usually ignores essential stakeholders, particularly, the
target audience in the process of communication development. The prevalent non-
participation of the receiver, his/her input, information needs, and social system as well
as the prescribed graphic encoder’s role of mediation during media production process
are detrimental to achieving overall desired communication goal. This neglect has
grave consequences for development because it often results in making graphic
encoding choices that do not depict the receivers’ socio-cultural environment pivotal
for successful production of persuasive stimulus, which facilitate the decision to adopt
and confirm adoption of Source’s ideas. So, the graphic encoders’ role of mediating
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between the Source and the target audience are conditioned by the Source. This does
not often give room to produce effective graphic messages, which would have
emanated from the free and creative integration of the Source ideas about development
and the information need of the target audience.
The above often results in the production of stimulus or graphic messages that
are technically accurate and precise by the Source’s standards but are largely abstract
or meaningless, ineffective and far removed from the knowledge, aptitude and practices
of the target audience. This is exemplified by the first executive director’s choice of
the ORT campaign in Egypt, which would be discussed later. The principle of variety
is employed to elaborate contrast and create awareness, attract attention, stimulate
interest and liking to generate the Source’s desired response (McGuire, 1989, 1999;
Machado, 2002; and Ronald et al, 2003).
However, these two paradigms of development and the communication
practices employed were inadequate because they did not produce the desired
development of target audience. Garland (2005), citing MacBride (1980, p. 6) states
that:
The former models used communication especially for disseminating
information, getting people to understand the ‘benefits’ promised by development and
the ‘sacrifices’ it demands. The initiation of a development model on the hypothesis
that wealth, ones (sic) acquired, will automatically filter down to all levels of society,
including the propagation of communication practices from top-bottom… The effects
were a long way from the effects that were expected.
From the above, the need for a paradigm shift in development and
communication practices cannot be over-emphasized. The emphasis on Source’s ideas
of development imposed on target audience as the needed panacea for growth and
development has generated insignificant result. This has led to the concept of
development: Another Development or Multiplicity, which employ the participatory
communication strategies.
The Paradigm of Another Development/Multiplicity
The third and most recent concept of development is the paradigm of Another
Development/Multiplicity. In this concept, development is seen as a product of
collaboration and participation of all stakeholders and communication is seen as an
essential tool for participation. The concept holds that true development is endogenous,
taking into account user felt needs and getting them involved in the process to proffer
solution. It utilizes the participatory models of communication, which are characterized
by a two-way communication process. An example is the Berrigan’s Methodology of
Community Media.
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According to Garland (2005b), the Berrigan’s Methodology of Community
Media, emphasizes interactivity and identified eight steps. The first step is the
Identification of the felt needs by means of direct interaction with the receivers. The
second is Concretization, which examines the needs identified by the receivers in the
light of local conditions. The third is Selection of priority problems by the receivers.
The forth step is Formulation of a durable methodology for seeking solutions to priority
problems of felt needs. The fifth step is Identification of the Amount of Information
Required and Access to this information. The sixth is Action Execution by thorough
participation of the receivers of the project that they have designed. The seventh step
is the Expansion towards the outside to make known the point of view of the receivers
to other group of receivers or to the authorities. And the eight step is the Liaison with
the communication system to make known the action of the receivers to others that
could benefit from the experience of the receivers, who carry out actions to execute
identified needs.
From the above, development is endogenous, whereby ideas spread from inside
to outside in the participatory approach. Garland (2005c), compressed the
aforementioned eight steps into four, which constitute the participatory development
communication model. These four steps are: Diagnosis, Planning, Interventions or
Experimentation and Assessment.
In addition, the paradigm of Multiplicity holds that there is no one way to
development but a multiplicity of approaches. As a result, the practices of
communication employed, adopted mixed approaches, which combined different
communication. Examples include the practice for supporting communication in
development projects, which combined the community approach with practices of
diffusion models using small mass media; the approaches that come from social
marketing, using research techniques for small groups/communities and large scale use
of big mass media (as exemplified by the Delayed Sexual Debut Campaign in Nigeria).
The concept of Another Development or Multiplicity emphasizes interaction
and participation of all stakeholders with particular emphasis on the target audience in
the development process: Diagnosis, Planning, Intervention or Experimentation, and
Assessment. The Source encourages actions that produce information and involvement
of the receiver in the development process. This facilitates the graphic encoder’s role
of mediation between the development ideas of the Source and the information need of
target audience; and facilitates the achievement of the overall desired communication
goal.
Impact of Source’s Concept of Development on Mediation
The Source’s concept of development greatly determines the communication
practices employed in development. The hierarchical, top-down, and one-way-
approach of communication is the predominant practice adopted in the paradigm of
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Modernization and Dependency, whereby the transmissive and diffusion models of
communication performed heuristic functions. While the horizontal and two-way-
approach of communication is the prevalent practice employed in the paradigm of
Another Development, whereby the participatory development communication model
that serves as a guide.
The above, immensely impact on graphic communication, which is a product
of the proper mediation between the Source and the target audience by the graphic
encoder. The role of mediation is important for the graphic encoder to transform
development ideas into effective graphic messages. Ejembi (1989), states that the
encoder should play the key role of mediating between the intentions and interactions
of the Source and the target audience as well as the needs of both, especially that of the
target audience. The ultimate aim of this mediation role should be to successfully
integrate information from and about the source with information from and about the
target audience.
The mediation role of the graphic encoder is either facilitated or hindered by
the communication practice the Source employs. This is usually experienced during the
media production process. This mediation role is hinged on effective collaboration of
the Source, the target audience and the graphic encoder. So, a communication strategy
that hinders or promotes a go between the Source, who have the information or ideas
about development and the target audience, which the Source aims at reaching, would
create communication gaps that often result in the production of ineffective graphic
messages or bridge such gaps that usually result in the production of effective graphic
communication respectively.
The hierarchical/vertical/top-down/one-way-communication practices, often
hinder the mediation role of the graphic encoder. On the contrary, the horizontal/two-
way-communication approaches often promote the mediation role of the graphic
encoder; and invariably, the kinds of graphic encoding choices that result from it
(Ebigbagha, 2016).
The Hierarchical/Top-Down communication practice is characteristically led
by the Source. This entire direction of the development process by the Source, greatly
impact on the graphic encoder, the graphic message and the target audience response
as follows;
i. It often undermines the described/prescribed roles of the graphic encoder; some of
which are;
a) To give form to content by organizing a given information in a meaningful
way, to communicate ideas in the most effective manner possible. Thereby
making information clear, visually appealing, and accessible.
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b) To be involved in decision-making by discussing proposal with client or
Source, which are often revised at several stages before the draft of the design
is produced with final instruction for reproduction; and
c) To plan for mechanical production and small scale or massive dissemination
(Hollis, 1994).
ii. It often results in the production of ineffective graphic messages; this is because of
the following;
a) The focus is on Source’s information rather than on the felt needs of target
audience (Servaes and Malikhoa, 1994; Chandler, 1994; Garland, 2005a,
Vineet, 2011). This often leads to graphic encoding choices that result in mere
pure form generation (Wallschlaeger and Busic-synder, 1992). This might be
abstract or meaningless to target audience because emphasis placed on
Source’s information, in most case, might not be of real interest to the target
audience. Since the target audience might not have participated in the decision-
making process, and as there is no ‘Bottom-up’ communication, their interest
may largely be unknown.
b) The orders/directives of the Source, particularly when hinged on ignorance of
what makes communication effective. This often
(1) Interferes with the graphic encoders’ creativity. This is worsened by
the exclusion of the graphic encoder in the decision making process;
and the often inadequate time to muster his or her creative abilities to
accomplish a given design task. However, there could be spontaneity
of design -a leap of insight from the graphic encoder within the short
period given.
(2) Results in the use of non-specialist in the field of graphic design. In
Nigeria, it is assumed that anybody can handle the task of graphic
design. So graphic design tasks are often carried out by people who do
not understand graphic design or its communication process. This
accounts for the poor quality of graphic language frequently seen in
campaign materials on development programs in agriculture (Ejembi,
1989). For this reason, Nelson (1994) states that, graphic language
intended to change attitude and behavior of people towards
development, should be handled by specialist in graphic design, who
should collaborate with specialists in other fields of communication.
iii. It often fails to elicit the desired target audience response. This is because target
audience interests; involvement and participation are not adequately taken into
consideration in the development process. This was the main reason for the shift of
emphasis from the Top-down, one-way communication practice, in the paradigm
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of modernization/dependency to the participatory two-way communication process
in the paradigm of Multiplicity/Another Development.
On the contrary, the participatory approach in development communication allows
target audience, other members of the media team and the graphic encoder to
participate in the decision-making and communication development processes. This
provides ample opportunity for the graphic encoder to fully understand the various
dimensions of development issues at stake, and focus is directed to a more
comprehensive position relative to user needs and involvement.
The above present enormous advantages and challenges. The integrated
planning, participation and involvement of people - target audience, graphic encoder
and other members of the media team, advantageously position the graphic encoder. It
positions him/her to produce effective graphic encoding choices/messages. This shows
the development ideas in the light of local conditions, employing comprehensible and
photo- realistic images that are meaningful to target audience and basically serve as a
tool to encourage and facilitate target audience support in development programmes.
These are enhanced by new technology; digital photography, computer, and direct
image printing to mention a few (an example is the billboard posters of the delayed
sexual debut campaign).
However, the challenges of the participatory communication approach are such
that require the graphic encoder to comprehend the total development communication
process, educate other members of the media team about the graphic communication
process, and produce graphic language, which effectively communicate with target
audience by diligent representation of their knowledge, aptitude and practices.
Impact of Source Communication Practices on IEC Materials
The communication practice occasioned by a paradigm of development, which
the Source adopts, often immensely impact on the Information, Education and
Communication (IEC) materials used for campaigns. The IEC materials are the result
of graphic encoding choices that the graphic encoder makes during media production
process. This is usually a function of the mediation role of the graphic encoder in the
development process. Whether or not the communication practice employed facilitates
the proper mediation of the graphic encoder’s role is readily seen in the effectiveness
or ineffectiveness of IEC materials produced. This is exemplified in development
communication campaigns on health issues examined (Ebigbagha, 2016). These
campaigns are: Kwara is Bird Flu Free, Use Condom, Delayed Sexual Debut, and ORT.
The Kwara is Bird Flu Free, is a campaign sponsored by the Kwara state
government. It was in response to mitigate the increasing fear of the avian influenza
outbreak in Galadima farm, Airport, Ilorin, Nigeria in November 2006. The IEC
materials produced for the campaign included stickers, pamphlets and posters, to
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mention a few. However, a consideration of the media production/communication
development process of the poster is sufficient and necessary to reveal the impact of
communication practice on the graphic media/IEC materials produced. An
assessment of the media production process, using Focus Group Discussion (FGD, a
participatory rapid appraisal technique), showed that the graphic encoder was not given
the opportunity to properly perform his prescribed mediation role in all the stages of
the media production process, particularly, the pivotal points of Clarification with
Media Requesting Agency, Topic Study, Pre-testing, and Evaluation; where the
graphic encoder need intervene in order to produce effective graphic communication
(Ebigbagha, 2016). The Source: Kwara State Government, through its Ministry of
Information, led the entire communication development process using the hierarchical
communication practice. The graphic encoder, who is a specialist in textiles design,
and a staff of the graphic unit, Kwara State Ministry of Information was given order to
urgently come up with designs to address the Bird Flu outbreak. The media draft/design
produced was not based on information processed from activities during the media
production process that would have generated effective graphic communication.
The graphic and typographic elements in the poster are laden with syntactic
uncertainty, which created a higher noise-to-signal ratio. The prime messages and
particularly the supporting information are lost as a result of excessive variation of lines
and haphazard placement of design elements. In addition, it is clumsy, wordy and
illegible; which is aggravated by a showing-through-background. Also, it neglected the
principles of organisation, particularly, Economy and Dominance in the way the
elements of design are combined. So, the stimulus conditions necessary for proper
perception of the graphic messages are inadequate and could be said to lack credibility
for used as an IEC material to facilitate effective communication for development.
Plate I: A poster on Kwara is Bird Flu Free by Kwara State Government
Another campaign that elucidates the impact of development paradigms and
communication practices on graphic encoding choices/communication is the Use
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Condom campaign. This campaign was organised by the Society for Women and AIDS
in Africa (SWAAN). The main aim of the campaign was to warn against unprotected
sex through the use of condom as a measure to stem HIV/AIDS in Nigeria.
The campaign employed many information, education and communication
materials, which included pamphlets, stickers and posters to mention a few. However,
the communication practice during the media production process, a poster and a sticker
(Plate IIa and IIb) employed in the campaign are examined.
(a) (b)
Plate II: A poster on the “No Condom, No Sex”; and A sticker on “Female Condom
Does Not Promote Promiscuity” by Society for Women and AIDS in Africa - Nigeria
An assessment of the media production process and IEC materials, using a
triangulation of In-depth interview, and Content Analysis respectively, showed that the
graphic encoder was not permitted to properly perform his prescribed mediation role
during the media production process. This is especially so in the pivotal points of
Clarification with Media Requesting Agency, Topic Study, Pre-testing, and Evaluation;
where the graphic encoder’s intervention is critical to producing effective graphic
messages (Ebigbagha, 2016). The Source: SWAAN and their foreign sponsors, led the
entire communication development process using the top-down communication
approach. The media draft/design produced was not based on information processed
from activities that involved the target audience; which would have resulted in effective
graphic messages.
The graphic and typographic elements in the poster (Plate IIa) are on the use
of condom. It depicts a man approaching three ladies in front of a building (albeit a
brothel). The man is in attire usually worn by Western and Northern Nigerians. The
three ladies, each in front of a door to a room wore seductive attires and seem to
communicate with the man. However, the illustration in the poster is fair but contains
a lot of misleading misrepresentations that could destroy the essence of the campaign
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because of semantic uncertainty. Some of the interpretations that could be inferred from
it include:
i. Only those who go to brothel are at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS and need use
condom.
ii. Only those who patronise prostitutes are at risk to contract HIV/AIDS and need
to use condom.
iii. Only those who are from the Western and Northern parts of Nigeria are at risk
to contract HIV/AIDS and need to use condom; and
iv. Only those who want to prevent HIV/AIDS need use condom.
A consideration of these interpretations would have been made at the draft
stage and informed decisions taken had there been no communication gaps between the
graphic encoder and other members of the media team in the media production process.
If the IEC materials had been properly pre-tested with target audience, the attire of the
man would have been revised because of the socio-cultural implications. Also, the
attention to brothels and prostitutes would have been revised. This is because the most
liable age group to HIV/AIDS: fifteen to twenty-five years (SFH Corporate
Presentation, 2006) are more in the schools and out-of-school environment including
the brothel. Nowadays, prostitution along the street is more common and fashionable
than in the brothels.
The sticker, ‘Female Condom Does Not Promote Promiscuity Use It’ (Plate
IIb) suffers from syntactic and semantic uncertainties. The word ‘Promiscuity’ is
emphasised with red colour and boldly written in capital letters. The prime message
‘Female Condom’ is deemphasised with green colour though boldly written in capital
and low letters. The supporting information ‘Does not promote’ and ‘use it’ are written
in slim italics and further deemphasised with black colour. The iconic image of the
condom and the container are placed on both sides separately and further deemphasised
with green colour in half tone. Each set of words are expressed in a different typeface
and in all, there are four typefaces. On the whole, the haphazard placement of both the
graphic and typographic elements defies any existing described/prescribed layout for
the production of graphic language. At a distance, one is confronted with these three
words ‘Female Condom Promiscuity’ The IEC materials seem to encourage
promiscuity, which is against its real communication goal. Besides, it is unattractive,
uninteresting and loaded with uncertainties. The iconic image was so paled to the point
that it was insignificant and target audience asked for real representation for the purpose
of clarity because they could neither understand it nor identify what it was. It lacks all
the qualities of been handled by experts who are specialist in design, which could have
been improved upon had it been pre-tested with target audience. It failed to elicit the
desired response from the target audience.
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In addition to the aforementioned campaigns, is the Delayed Sexual Debut
Campaign organised by the Society for Family Health (SFH). The main aim of the
campaign was to delay the median age for sex in order to prevent unwanted pregnancy
and HIV/AIDS in Nigeria.
The campaign employed many information, education and communication
materials, which included pamphlets, radio and television spots, ‘idents’ and posters to
mention a few. However, the communication practices examined during the media
production process and analyses of the posters produced would suffice to show how
communication practices adopted during communication development process do
impact on graphic communication.
An assessment of the media production process and IEC materials, using a
triangulation of In-depth interview, and Content Analysis respectively, showed that the
graphic encoder was allowed to properly perform his/her prescribed role of mediation
during the media development process. Particularly in the identified crucial points
where the graphic encoder’s intervention is indispensable for the production of
effective graphic messages: Clarification with Media Requesting Agency, Topic Study,
Pre-testing, and Evaluation (Ebigbagha, 2016). The Source: SFH and their foreign
sponsors, collaborated with all stakeholders including the graphic encoder and the
target audience throughout the entire communication development process, using the
Participatory, Horizontal, and two-way communication approach. The production of
the media draft was based on informed choices derived from pieces of information
processed from activities that involved the target audience.
The two billboard posters produced for the campaign, carry the same prime
messages and supporting pieces of information in Pidgin/English, and Hausa: “Sex is
worth waiting for ZIP UP…” and “Yana Da Daraja Ku Dakata KU KAMA KANKU -
It is respectful to hold yourself” (see Plate IIIa and IIIb). Even though these posters are
configured differently as a result of diligent consideration of target audience socio-
cultural environment, the impact are similar. Therefore, the English/Pidgin version
would be copiously discussed instead of the two.
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(a) (b)
Plate III: A billboard poster on Sex is worth waiting for ‘ZIP UP’; and Yana Da Daraja
KU KAMA KANKU (it is respectful to hold yourself) by Society for Family Health.
The prime message ‘Sex is worth waiting for ZIP UP’ is legible and articulately
emphasized in size and hue. The letter ‘l’ in the ‘ZIP’ is the iconic sign of a zip that is
done up, a ploy of visual reiteration. Also, the supporting information ‘Delay sex now,
unwanted belle or HIV/AIDS fit spoil your life’, appears in white but smaller in size
and italicized, which makes it an important warning slogan. The pictorial elements:
four youths in trendy cloths with captivating smiles, create awareness that attracts
attention and arrest interest in the poster. The relation in size and space between the
typographic and graphic elements are well thought of and excellently articulated. The
colour usage in terms of hue, value and intensity are superb, symbolic and instructive.
The red and black colour symbolizes danger and death respectively, which could result
from HIV/AIDS, other sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancy. While
yellow could depicts the burning passion of youthful exuberance; the blue background
and the white letterings are symbolic of peace, and purity respectively. This seems to
suggest that if the target audience adopts the development message, peace is guaranteed
in relation with sex. Also, the spatial relationship in terms of surface division followed
the established principle of the ‘golden mean’- a ratio of three to five (3:5) that as well
conforms to the Fibonacci theory of harmonious surface division. In addition, the
background is free of any distraction. The whole typographic element in the poster was
executed using a simple legible, formal San-serif (Swiss) typeface, with degree of
importance shown by font and size.
In general, the design of the graphic language of the posters are superb.
Literally and figuratively, all the elements of design (typographic and graphic) and the
principles of organisation employed, do accurately, appropriately and vividly presented
the prime messages and supporting information of the campaign.
And the ORT Campaign in Egypt is the last example examined to show the
impact of communication practices that a Source adopts on graphic communication for
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development. It emphasises very strongly the need to adopt a participatory approach of
communication, whereby the draft of the graphic encoding choices for development
programmes are adequately pre-tested, and revised if necessary before final production
for campaign (World Health Organisation, 1987). These steps underscore the need for
collaboration and integrated planning, which are important in order to avoid the dangers
associated with rash decision-making and the production of ineffective graphic
communication.
The first Executive Director of the Egypt ORT Project was to decide on and
adopt a logo for the project. Having examined many logo ideas submitted to the project
by different artists and designers, he liked one more than the others (see Plate IV). The
director was tempted to adopt the particular logo he liked for the project without further
deliberation. However, he decided to withhold his opinion or decision until all logos
had been well tested.
Plate IV: Logos Pre-tested for the ORT Campaign in Egypt, showing how test
improved logo; cited from World Health Organisation 1987.
When the logos were tested with a sample of the target audience, mothers, and
the result shows that, the logo the director preferred was the one least favoured by the
pre-test respondents. It also shows that the logo chosen needed to be modified in order
to be more effective. A large number of the respondents opined that the colour be
modified and the mother pictured in the logo should put on a wedding ring.
The logo selected by the pre-test respondents was adopted for the ORT
campaign. The experience so impressed the first Executive Director that he often
recounted the story, to emphasise the need to pre-test draft with target audience for
successful communication in development programme.
Had the director adopted the particular logo he liked without the target
audience involvement in the development process through pre-test, the necessary and
important improvements made on the logo, would have been missed. The introduction
of a wedding ring on the hand of the pictured mother in the logo, is very significant and
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instructive. It is a staple on the socio-cultural influence on the interpretation of graphic
language.
Significantly, it points to the socio-cultural interpretation of motherhood as a
product of legality in marriage, symbolised by the wearing of a wedding ring. It also
points to the fact that very crucial point can be omitted when making initial draft, which
can be corrected during the pre-test and evaluation process. The omissions, if not
corrected can significantly affect target audience response.
From the above, it is obvious that the draft of the graphic language should
appropriately reflect the topic under study, thoroughly pre-tested and recoded (if
necessary) based on feedback from target audience.
Findings
The results from In-depth interviews or Focus Group Discussion of members
of media team, and Content analysis of the Information, Education and Communication
materials produced by every media production team for the campaigns (Avian
Influenza/Bird Flu, HIV/AIDS and ORT) examined, show that the communication
paradigm and practices employed by the media requesting agency/Source in
development communication immensely impact on graphic communication
development and the achievement of the desired overall communication goal.
In the communication development process of the IEC materials for the Avian
Influenza/ Bird Flu, and the Use Condom campaigns, the Source employed the
Hierarchical, Top-Down, one-way communication approach. In this approach,
roles/activities of communication actors in the media production process were
restricted. So, there were insufficient collaboration, which did not involve all
stakeholders and was dominated by the Source. This resulted in the production of
ineffective graphic language/communication.
The above production of prevalent ineffective communication media is
because target audience are not integrated in the media production process and their
felt need not considered. This was the reason the development goals in the paradigm of
Modernization and Dependence were not achieved and needed be changed or
complemented (Vineet, 2011; Garland, 2005a; Servaes and Malikhao, 1994).
On the contrary, the media production process of the IEC materials for the
campaigns on Delayed Sexual Debut and ORT, the Source adopted the Horizontal,
Participatory, Two-way- communication approach. In this strategy, the target audience
and all other members of the media team including the graphic encoder are thoroughly
involved in the communication development process. The participation of all
stakeholders often provide platform for the felt need of the beneficiaries/target audience
to be satisfactorily addressed. This resulted in the production of effective graphic
language/communication. The outcome of the campaigns was a success and
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development ideas were rapidly adopted and utilised (Ebigbagha, 2016; SFH Corporate
Presentation, 2006; World Health Organisation, 1987).
Therefore, the involvement and participation of all stakeholders in the
communication development process as enabled by the development paradigm of
Another Development/ Multiplicity often result in the production of a more effective
graphic communication. The contrary often holds for the paradigms of Modernization
and Dependency, which does not integrate all stakeholders in the communication
development process but strictly controlled by the Source.
Conclusion
Effective, attractive, and excellent graphic language/communication is a
product of collaborative efforts and integrated planning. This is due to well informed
decision-making at all stages in the media production process, which is hinged on a
core value that consists of evidence based information from target audience research,
involvement and participation as well as collaboration of all stakeholders in the
development process. This is enabled in the paradigm of Multiplicity that employs the
participatory communication strategies.
Contrary to the above, an ineffective graphic language/communication is
usually a product of inadequate collaboration, which is dominated by the Source at the
expense of other stakeholders, particularly the graphic encoder and the target audience.
This often results in rash decision-making, and insensitivity to/neglect of target
audience socio-cultural environment and needs. This is the dominant feature of the
paradigms of Modernization and Dependency, which utilize the transmissive/diffusion
models of hierarchical communication practices.
Therefore, the graphic encoder and all stakeholders should have necessary and
sufficient knowledge of the impact of these major communication paradigms and
practices in order to act from an informed standpoint of view when assigned to perform
the task of producing effective graphic communication that would facilitate the rapid
adoption/utilization of development ideas.
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