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Review Paper
The centrality of water resources to the realization of Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG). A review of potentials and constraints on
the African continent
Frank Mugagga
n
, Benon B. Nabaasa
Department of Geography, GeoInformatics and Climatic Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
article info
Article history:
Received 17 February 2016
Received in revised form
24 May 2016
Accepted 26 May 2016
Keywords:
Water resources conservation
Economic drivers
Sustainable development goals
Africa
abstract
Africa is endowed with vast water resources including but not limited to lakes, rivers, swamps and
underground aquifers. However, the way of life in Africa does not reflect this kind of wealth owing
majorly to degradation and underutilization of these water resources. This review discusses the cen-
trality of water resources in Africa's pursuit of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Following the
Sustainable Development Model, the paper thematically examines and synthesizes the importance and
potentials of water resources to Africa's development through exploring their contributions and lim-
itations to the various economic sectors namely; agricultural and livestock production, energy, manu-
facturing and processing, tourism, health, fisheries, trade and other institutional mechanisms such as
payment for ecosystem services (PES), mutual cooperation and economic cooperation. Data were col-
lected by review of online peer-reviewed and grey literature published between the year 2000 and 2015.
It is observed that sustainable management of water and sanitation for all (SDG 6) will be central to the
attainment of all the other SDGs (particularly SDG 1 (No poverty), 2 (No hunger), 3 (Good health), 14 (life
below water) and 15 (life on land)) across Africa. African states should therefore increase their com-
mitment to water conservation and management as this will significantly decide Africa's future devel-
opment paths.
&2016 International Research and Training Center on Erosion and Sedimentation and China Water and
Power Press. Production and Hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-
ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Results and discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1. Agriculture and food production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2. Livestock production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3. Energy........................................................................................................ 4
3.4. Manufacturing and processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.5. Tourism.............. ........................................... .............................................. 5
3.6. Health......................................................................................................... 5
3.7. Payment for ecosystem services (PES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.8. Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.9. Mutual cooperation and economic integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.10. Trade ....................................... ................................................ .................. 6
4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/iswcr
International Soil and Water Conservation Research
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2016.05.004
2095-6339/&2016 International Research and Training Center on Erosion and Sedimentation and China Water and Power Press. Production and Hosting by Elsevier B.V. This
is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mfrank@caes.mak.ac.ug,fmugagga@gmail.com (F. Mugagga).
Peer review under responsibility of International Research and Training Center on Erosion and Sedimentation and China Water and Power Press.
Please cite this article as: Mugagga, F., & Nabaasa, B. B. International Soil and Water Conservation Research (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.iswcr.2016.05.004i
International Soil and Water Conservation Research ∎(∎∎∎∎)∎∎∎–∎∎∎
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References.............................................................. ....................................... .......... 8
1. Introduction
Water is life, so the old adage goes. This is owed probably to
the ubiquitous nature of the resource. Water is a universal
component of every living thing but more importantly of human
life. It is not only home to myriads of marine species (Polidoro
et al., 2008) but also a huge driver of man's economic and social
expediency making his home a lot more habitable (FAO, 2011).
Globally, water is one of the leading drivers of economic devel-
opment but also a source of contention and conflict (UNEP, 2010).
Even when the images of our planet show vast quantities of
water, this is only a mirage as most of the water is salty and not
suitable for human consumption (UN, 2015;World Business
Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), 2006).NEPAD
(2006) states that only 2% of the global water is freshwater fitfor
human use. This leaves the global population with only 0.5%
(10,000,000 km
3
in underground aquifers, 119,000 km
3
net of
rainfall falling, 91,000 km
3
in natural lakes, over 5000 km
3
in
man-made facilities and 2120 km
3
in rivers) to survive on (UN,
2015). Africa has 9%, the least percentage of fresh water at con-
tinental level. America has the largest share of the world's total
freshwater resources with 45%, followed by Asia with 28% and
Europe with 15.5%. This natural distribution of water together
with several anthropogenic factors has, in part, created the water
problem that the global village is battling with today (UNEP,
2010). The natural distribution of water is highly variable geo-
graphically and seasonally (United Nations World Water Assess-
ment Programme WWAP, 2015); with some areas having huge
amounts of water while others have little or none and seasons of
extremely high rainfall are often followed by long periods with
no rain. These patterns of inequity, variability, extremity and
unreliability are worsening in many areas because of the impacts
of climate change –especially in those areas occupied by the
poorest and least resilient communities (Ashton, 2002;Donkor,
2003;Freitas, 2013;IPCC, 2014;Wolf, 20 01;UN DESA, 2015;
WWAP, 2015). For a continent whose countries are ranked among
the least developed countries in the world (Freitas, 2013;Winkler
& Marquand, 2009) and whose population growth is un-
precedented (African Union (AU), 2014;IRENA (International
Renewable Energy Agency), 2015), Africa needs its water more
than any other continent. Africa has great potential of under-
ground water resources which according to Africa Progress Re-
port (APR) (APP, 2015), are 100 times more than surface water
sources. Though still a poor continent, Africa is fast picking pace
on the development track with GDP growths as high as above 6%
per annum in some sub Saharan countries like Rwanda, Ghana,
Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa (African Development Bank
(AfDB) et al., 2015;APP, 2015). As we move from the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) to embrace the new and more pro-
mising Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also termed as the
Global Goals (Fig. 1), the contribution of water resources to the
continent's development paths cannot be undermined. As de-
monstrated in the subsequent sections, this paper explores the
extent to which African water resources can enhance the at-
tainment of SDGs. Specifically, the paper examines the im-
portance and potentials of water resources to Africa's develop-
ment through exploring their contributions and limitations to the
various sectors of growth namely; agricultural and livestock
production, energy, manufacturing and processing, tourism,
health, fisheries, trade and other institutional mechanisms such
as payment for ecosystem services (PES), mutual cooperation and
economic cooperation.
2. Materials and methods
Ford et al. (2011) and Koricheva and Gurevitch (2013) demon-
strated the increasing utility of meta-analyses in social sciences in the
search for generalizable principles through the systematic assess-
ment of carefully selected literature. The methodological approach of
this study involved extensive review of both peer-reviewed and grey
literature published from the year 2000–2015. Online sources such as
Web of Knowledge, Google Scholar and Google were utilized with
grey literature collected from various institutional websites using
search filters “water resourcesþsustainable development goals þ
Africa's economic drivers”(Fig. 2).
The review analysis was informed by the sustainable develop-
ment model by Flint (2004). Sustainable development in this case
is taken to mean working to improve human's productive power
without damaging or undermining society or the environment. By
acting under the principles of sustainable development, our eco-
nomic desires/demands become accountable both to an ecological
imperative to protect the ecosphere and to a social equity im-
perative to create equal access to resources and minimize human
suffering. These requirements are the foundation of sustainable
development as represented by the three circle model (principle
elements) of sustainability. These three elements interact with
each other so continuously that we cannot make decisions, make
policy, manufacture, consume, essentially do anything without
considering the effects and costs upon all three simultaneously.
Each circle (sustainability principle) is defined as follows (Flint,
2004).
Economic Vitality (Compatible with Nature) development that
protects and/or enhances natural resource quantities through
improvements in management practices/policies, technology, ef-
ficiency, and changes in life-style.
Ecologic Integrity (Natural Ecosystem Capacity) understanding
natural system processes of landscapes and watersheds to guide
design of sound economic development strategies that preserve
these natural systems.
Social Equity (Balancing the Playing Field) guaranteeing equal
access to jobs (income), education, natural resources, and services
for all people: total societal welfare. Carrying out activities that are
sustainable requires simultaneous, multi-dimensional thinking
about the consequences of present actions in a cause and effect
pattern on future public and environmental health through ex-
amination of the connections among environmental, economic,
and social concerns when we make choices for action.
Informed by this model, the literature was thematically syn-
thesized according to Africa's main economic drivers (including;
agriculture and food production, livestock production, energy,
manufacturing and processing, tourism, health, payment for eco-
system services, fisheries, mutual cooperation and economic in-
tegration, transportation and trade).
F. Mugagga, B.B. Nabaasa / International Soil and Water Conservation Research ∎(∎∎∎∎)∎∎∎–∎∎∎2
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j.iswcr.2016.05.004i
3. Results and discussions
Results from the synthesis are presented and discussed in the
following sub-sections.
3.1. Agriculture and food production
Development of water resources and making water available is
a key ingredient for agricultural and broader economic growth
(FAO, 2011;UN DESA, 2015;WWAP, 2015). Most economies in
Africa are closely tied to natural resources with rain-fed agri-
culture, largely the single most important economic driver of
economic growth for most countries (UNEP, 2010), accounting for
about 20% of Africa's GDP. According to AU (2014), for Sub Saharan
African countries like Uganda, agriculture will not only be the
main source of foreign exchange and savings but also an important
source of inputs for industries like the ever growing food industry.
Water is directly linked to agriculture (UNEP, 2010). Hence it will
play a decisive role in ending poverty in all its forms (SDG 1),
firstly and straight forwardly, not only because it accounts for 60%
of the labour force in Africa, but also it is a main source of income
to the majority of Africans (UNEP, 2010). By providing over 90% of
the African foods (German Development Institute (GDI), (2015)), it
enhances the attainment of SDG 2 (ending hunger) and SDG 3
(good health and wellbeing). AU (2014) argues that Africa is the
only continent where the growth in food production is less than
the growth in population, yet water availability for agriculture is
already limited and uncertain in some African countries including
but not limited to Chad, Cameroon, Niger and Nigeria, Mauritania
and Sudan (UNEP, 2008) owing to the increasing erratic rainfall,
and the situation is predicted to worsen (IPCC, 2001,2007,2014;
de Wit & Stankiewicz, 2006). This is a big blow for the African
economy whose leading sector relies immensely on water with-
drawals. Even with such a bleak future, water-reliant agriculture
has a dormant potential to transform the continent but only if
tapped into.
Water can be made available for agriculture through various
innovative ways. Firstly, through effective rain water harvesting
and storage for use in drier and more erratic seasons. Food and
Agriculture Organization (2005b) states that 7% of the arable land
in Africa is currently under irrigation. Secondly, increasing the area
under irrigation can also ensure uniform and continuous supply of
water to the fields throughout the seasons. Employment of water
and energy-efficient methods and techniques of irrigation can also
ensure agricultural productivity and consequently economic
growth. Thirdly, conservation of the environment and watersheds
will guarantee perpetual flow of water to agricultural fields and
productivity all year round. Finally agriculture does not necessarily
require clean. As such water from other uses can be appropriately
treated and recycled in agriculture fields. This concurrently in-
creases water's lifecycle and agricultural productivity both of
which contribute to economic, social and ecological perpetuity.
Therefore, the utility of water in running Africa's agriculture will
depend on the commitment presented by sovereign governments
to make water available to the plants at the right time and in
optimum amounts. This commitment will be reflected in techno-
logical advances, breeding exercises, informed policies and water
management techniques; all of which must take care of the social,
economic and ecological dimensions of development.
Fig. 2. The conceptual model of sustainable development that illustrates the re-
lationship among economic, ecologic, and social issues of concern in decision-
making. The black overlap of the three circles represents the nexus of connection
among issues.
(Adapted from Flint, 2004).
Fig. 1. The Global Goals
Source: http://www.globalgoals.org/Public Domain.
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3.2. Livestock production
Water plays an unequivocal role in driving the livestock in-
dustry right from watering point of the livestock to the consumer.
In the dairy sector, water is a major component of milk and greatly
curtails milk yields if absent or taken in inadequate amounts (FAO,
2005a,2005b). For instance, the production of eggs, pig meat and
poultry meat in Sub Saharan Africa tripled between 1970 and 2000
while that of milk and mutton and goat meat doubled and that of
beef increased by nearly 70% (Otte & Knips, 2005). However, the
increases in production were not big enough to keep pace with
population growth (Otte & Knips, 2005). FAO (2005a,2005b),
states that over 90% of household cash incomes are derived from
livestock and livestock products. This implies that the livestock
industry can variously play a significant role in attaining SDGs 1, 2,
3 and 4. A slight diversification of the livestock industry can result
into production of biogas energy, hence contributing to SDG 7.
The beef sector though not as heavily dependent on water as
the diary, its reliance on water resources is significant and cannot
be undermined. Water is not only a requirement in mixing acar-
icides(Estrada-Peña & Salman, 2013) for vector elimination but
also a necessity of steers putting on weight for the beef market. In
poultry, water is as essential as it is in the other sectors with both
broilers and layers laying significant claims to the existing water
resources. Water is an essential component in the manufacturing
of a number of livestock products including milk and hides, and
beef and chicken (Wilkinson, 2003). However, with the acute
water stress in most African countries, most animals, like people,
go without water and some starve (UNEP, 2008). This is ex-
acerbated by the fast changing climate triggering various shocks,
stresses and extremes with a huge impact on the industry in
particular and the economy at large (de Wit & Stankiewicz, 2006;
APP, 2015). Thus the livestock industry in Africa operates well
below half its full potential (FAO, 2005a).
If well planned and managed, Africa's water resources have the
potential to build the industry to its desired glory. This requires
the involvement of all stakeholders from government to Non-
Governmental Organizations to the communities interfacing with
these resources. Rightly informed and guided water policies can
turn the situation around and set the continent on a better de-
velopment path. Since most of the water resources in Africa are
communally owned (JICA, 2010), collaborative management of
these resources will ensure security of water for livestock even in
fragile areas. Consequently, water resources can only transform
the livestock industry and contribute to the continent's develop-
ment only if cognitive decisions are taken that carefully address
the diverse needs of both crop farmers on one side and livestock
herders on the other, as has been evidenced across several com-
munities within Africa.
3.3. Energy
Energy is harnessed from either renewable or non-renewable
sources (IRENA, 2015). Non-renewable sources require millions of
years to replenish and include petroleum, coal and radioactive ele-
ments while renewable sources can replenish within the lifespan of
man though can become non-renewable if their rate of depletion
surpasses their rate of restocking (IFAD, 2010;IRENA, 2015). Renew-
able energy sources include wind, the sun, tides and water. Africa
practically runs on both renewable and renewable energy as it drives
its factories, feeds its people, and transports its goods. Hydro power
from water accounts for 17.8% of the total energy consumed on the
continent (UNIDO, 2009). Africa has got over 1270 hydropower dams
with almost half of them in Southern Africa (UNEP, 2010). Hydro-
power has not only been a source of economic development across
Africa but also of controversy over shared and transboundary water
resources. Africa’s susceptibility to potential water-induced conflict
can be separated into four regions: the Nile, Niger, Zambezi, and Volta
basins. Running through Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan, the Nile’swater
has the potential to spark conflict and unrest. In the region of the
Niger, the river basin extends from Guinea through Mali and down to
Nigeria. Especially for Mali - one of the world’s poorest countries - the
river is vital for food, water and transportation, and it's over usage is
contributing to an increasingly polluted and unusable water source. In
southern Africa, the Zambezi river basin is one of the world’smost
over-used river systems, and so Zambia and Zimbabwe compete
fiercely over it. Additionally, in 2000, Zimbabwe caused the region to
experience the worst flooding in recent history when the country
opened the Kariba Dam gates. Finally, within the Volta river basin,
Ghana is dependent on its hydroelectric output, but plagued by reg-
ular droughts which effect the production of electricity from the
Akosombo Dam and limit Ghana’s ability to sustain social and eco-
nomicgrowthaswellasenvironmentalprotection.Pairedwiththe
constraintsthisalsoputsonGhana’s ability to provide power for the
area, this could potentially contribute to regional instability (UNEP,
2010;http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/struggleoverthenile/;
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_scarcity_in_Africa), These scuf-
fles may end up offsetting the recognized benefits of the resource on
the naturally wealthy continent, thereby constraining the attainment
of all the 17 SDGs.
Additionally, the capacity in terms of cost and technical ex-
pertise of most African countries to establish and maintain the
power dams is absurdly inadequate (AfDB et al., 2015). This is
evidenced by the frequent power rationing and blackouts experi-
enced in several countries. It is estimated that the continent has
the potential to produce more energy from water alone than it
produces presently (UNIDO, 2009). For the continent to have this
as a reality, it needs to have sound policies regarding energy and
the environment, secure enough funding for mega hydro projects
and develop alternative renewable sources of energy. Un-
certainties in water availability accompanied with climate change
based hazards like floods leaves hydropower, the most used form
of energy in Africa's industrial sector in suspense hence sending
the majority of African countries development at a standstill (APP,
2015). This in turn will directly constrain the attainment of SDG
7 and indirectly inhibit the attainment of the majority of the SDGs.
Africa's energy state has to be wisely boosted because the entire
developing industrial and other economic sectors require energy
which employs an increasing number of local people hence con-
tributing to the attainment of SDGs 1, 3 and most of the other
SDGs directly and/or indirectly.
3.4. Manufacturing and processing
Africa's human population growth now standing at 4.8% an-
nually is unparalleled (IFAD, 2010;IRENA, 2015). This growth re-
quires industries to clothe, house and feed the people hence
contributing to the attainment of SDGs 2, 3, 6 and 8. This in turn
means rapid increase in the number of manufacturing and pro-
cessing industries across the continent. Global water demand for
manufacturing is predicted to increase by 400% from 200 0 to
2050, which is much larger than any other sector and most of this
increase will be in emerging economies and developing countries
(AU, 2014). Principal manufacturing industries on the continent
include food products, plastic and rubber, chemicals, basic metal
work, and non-metallic mineral products (Wilkinson, 2003). These
industries directly or indirectly rely on water for smooth flow of
operations and activities. Manufacturing and processing industries
use water directly as a solvent, sanitation agent or as a coolant.
Indirectly, these industries heavily rely on power (hydropower)
generated from fast speed water. A significant amount of all the
hydropower produced on the continent is consumed by this sector
F. Mugagga, B.B. Nabaasa / International Soil and Water Conservation Research ∎(∎∎∎∎)∎∎∎–∎∎∎4
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(Wilkinson, 2003). However, the sector's contribution to the much
needed development is usually hampered by the recurrent
blackouts the continent is experiencing. For instance, according to
APR (2015) and WWAP (2015), energy-sector bottlenecks and
power shortages cost the African region 2–4% of GDP annually,
undermining sustainable economic growth, jobs and investment.
With cheap labour (UNDP, 2011), copious quantities of minerals
(Winkler & Marquand, 2009) and favourable climate on the con-
tinent, the sector singly has an enormous potential to transform
Africa. For the continent to recognize this potential, member
countries have to fine tune their policies regarding energy use,
provide the required infrastructure (SDG 9), encourage investment
in the sector and allocate a significant percentage of their national
budgets to the sector.
3.5. Tourism
Africa is beautiful owing to its natural endowment (Rogerson,
2007). The continent boasts of more than 1100 mammal species,
2500 bird species and over 4200 species of reptiles only in East
Africa (Christie & Crompton, 2001). These attract myriads of
tourists to the continent and, therefore, foreign exchange. The
tourism sector contributes over 2% of the GDP and over 5% of
exports in Sub Saharan African countries (Rogerson, 2007). In
Rwanda and Kenya, like some other countries on the continent,
tourism is the principal sector driving the national economy and
the leading foreign exchange earner (Nielsen, 2010). Tourism in
Africa can directly or indirectly contribute to the attainment of
SDG 8 (Promote sustained, inclusive economic growth, full and
productive employment and decent work for all); SDG 12 (Ensure
sustainable consumption and production patterns) and SDG 14
(Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine re-
sources for sustainable development) (http://icr.unwto.org/con-
tent/tourism-and-sdgs).
Water resources and tourism are closely interwoven with a
huge number of tourist attractions either being water resources
(like Murchison falls in Uganda) or acting as habitats of famous
sought living species like lake Mburo National Park (UTB, 2014).
Species synonymous with water resources include birds (including
migratory birds) for example the 606 bird species near Lake Ed-
ward in Queen Elizabeth National Park, crocodiles and hippopo-
tamus in Lake Mburo National park (UTB, 2014), native fish all of
which are prominent tourist attractions. However, tourism linked
with water resources is hampered by degradation of water re-
sources (Christie & Crompton, 2001;Willem & Saayman, 2005)
through pollution, indiscriminate fishing and encroachment. In
Africa, tourism, notably ecotourism, has the potential to support
the continent's socio-economic transformation and growth paths.
This potential may, however, remain a dream if governments do
not increase funding to the sector, encourage research, move
towards a green tourism economy, engage the private sector,
promote cultural heritage and build politically stable countries
(Rogerson, 2007;UNEP, 2011).
3.6. Health
Economies cannot survive without a healthy labour force (AfDB
et al., 2015;Hall, 2011). The failure to provide safe drinking water
is perhaps the greatest development failure of the 20th century
(Gleick, 2006). A report by Corcoran et al. (2010) shows that about
90% of all waste water in developing countries, most of which are
in Africa, is discharged untreated directly into the available water
sources. This compromises people's health to the extent that over
half of the hospital beds in Africa have patients suffering from
water- borne related illness (Pan African Chemistry Network
(PACN), 2010).AU (2014) shows that 80% of all diseases in Africa
are water borne, especially, diarrhoea and dysentery. Attainment
of the SDGs in Africa will thus be an illusion if water related ill-
nesses continue to prevail among the people and ecosystems.
For a continent whose level of mechanization is still very low
(AfDB et al., 2015), reliance on human labour force is not only
necessary but also cheap. Clean water sources will, to a good de-
gree, guarantee a sound and healthy citizenry on the continent
and, therefore, help spur growth. UN Water (2008) approximated
that 340 million people were lacking access to safe drinking water;
and whether water resources will transform the continent through
their effect on human health and labour will depend on the
commitment of governments to provide safe drinking water to the
populations.
3.7. Payment for ecosystem services (PES)
Water can be harnessed as a good when it is used in factories,
homes and sustaining people's livelihoods. It plays a key role as a
service through conservation and support inbuilding self-perpe-
tuating ecosystems. Water also provides ecosystem services like
regulating, supporting, cultural and provisioning services (Forest
Trends et al., 2008). The world has realised and recognized that
the potential of water and countries are slowly putting together
efforts to maximise it. Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) is a
relatively new mechanism with new emerging markets. PES is
entails building self-sustaining ecosystems (Forest Tends et al.,
2008) through commoditizing their services, attaching a price to
them and trading in such services. These emerging markets in-
clude Carbon, biodiversity and water markets termed thus ac-
cording to the ecosystem providing the service. The idea is that
countries and companies that cannot provide the defined eco-
system service can offset their failure by buying credits from their
counterparts who can provide the service in excess or at a lower
cost.
Water resources can provide the service directly through the
water market but also aid other ecosystems in providing their
services to the respective markets. This is evident in cases where
water resources are biodiversity hotspots like in Southern Africa
(Brett et al., 2012) or active carbon sinks in forests thus generating
credits for both biodiversity and carbon markets. In Africa, PES
markets channel in millions of dollars annually, employ a sig-
nificant number of locals and maintain the ecosystems on which
they depend (Watson et al., 2005). However the biggest challenge
is how to integrate PES programmes with other rural development
initiatives in order to avoid contradictory policies and actions in
rural development and land use planning (Andrew & Masozera,
2010;Richards & Jenkins, 2007) Appropriate involvement of water
in PES can help in directly attaining SDG 14 and 15 and indirectly
contribute to the achieving of most of the other SDGs. If govern-
ments improve their management of water resources, these mar-
kets have an enormous potential to brighten the continent's paths
towards meeting her SDGs.
3.8. Fisheries
Africa's water resources are home to around 600 fish species
representing over 60% of the global fish stocks (FAO, 2014;UNEP,
2010). This has spurred a rapid growth of the fishing industry on
the continent turning in a significant amount of money in foreign
exchange and providing nutrition and employment to a huge
number of locals within resident countries. However, the fish fu-
ture for Africa is clouded by unsustainable fishing techniques like
over fishing and indiscriminate fishing, underdeveloped fishing
technology and pollution of fish habitats. Available evidence points
to the fact that several of Africa's fish species are already extinct,
endangered, threatened or over fished (Polidoro et al., 2008)
F. Mugagga, B.B. Nabaasa / International Soil and Water Conservation Research ∎(∎∎∎∎)∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 5
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j.iswcr.2016.05.004i
further crippling the industry's future. Even when marred with
such hiccups, the industry when targeted for development
through more investment and community collaboration can be
turned into a major earner for a number of African countries. Fish
is the main source of proteins to African communities surrounding
water bodies. Hence the fishing industry, if packaged well can
directly and indirectly help improve the health of Africans thus
significantly contributing to the attainment of SDG 1 (no poverty),
SDG 2 (no hunger), SDG3 (ensuring healthy lives and promoting
well-being for all at all ages) and SDG 14 (life below water).
3.9. Mutual cooperation and economic integration
Several of Africa's natural water resources are shared amongst
two or more countries and are commonly known as transbound-
ary water resources. A case in point is Lake Victoria which is
shared between Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. Transboundary
water resources have been observed to be sources of contention
and conflict amongst the riparian parties not only in Africa but also
across the entire globe (Wolf, 2001;UNEP, 2010;http://www.alja
zeera.com/programmes/struggleoverthenile). The most heated
conflict has been the scramble for ownership, use and develop-
ment of River Nile pitting Egypt and Sudan against the upstream
countries. Though Egypt and Sudan wish to maintain the old co-
lonial agreement which hands them a lion's share of the Nile's
waters, the upstream countries have signed a new agreement
pushing for equal rights over the Nile (Urama & Ozor, 2010;http://
www.aljazeera.com/programmes/struggleoverthenile). These
conflicts are not only expensive in terms of resources, but also in
straining relationships amongst riparian countries as is the case
with countries sharing Lake Chad (Fig. 3). However, an increasing
number of scholars and political analysts are refusing to see one
side of the story and state that these shared resources can as well
be a source of mutual cooperation amongst the conflicting parties
(Ferraro, 2009;UN, 2015). Besides breeding conflicts and wars,
which has implication on SDG 11, transboundary water resources
can provide opportunities for conflicting parties to mutually co-
operate and thus foster socio-economic integration (Wolf, 2001).
Where mutual use of transboundary water resources is allowed,
involved countries or regions will in this case strive to attain SDGs
8, 10 and 16 (reducing inequality within and among countries). In
a nutshell, the capability of shared water resources to transform
the continent will depend on whether they are seen as sources of
conflicts or as opportunities to cooperate.
3.10. Trade
Africa does not produce all that it consumes nor does it con-
sume all that it produces. This situation necessitates the continent
to import goods that it lacks and export those in excess thus
earning foreign exchange. Goods in and out of the continent are
either flown in or shipped and rarely conveyed by road, railway or
pipes. Some of prominent ports include Tunis, Port Said, Alexan-
dria, Tangier in North Africa; Dakar, Abidjan, Lagos, Tema and
Douala in West Africa; Mombasa, Dar es Salaam, Djibouti in East
Africa; Durban, Cape Town Port Elisabeth, Walvis Bay in Southern
Africa (AFDB, 2010). Annually a significant amount of goods are
shipped in and out of the continent (AfDB et al., 2015) further
Fig. 3. Climate change and variability together with competition over water, and pollution, increasingly threaten the sustainability of Lake Chad's water resources.
Source: UNEP, 2008
F. Mugagga, B.B. Nabaasa / International Soil and Water Conservation Research ∎(∎∎∎∎)∎∎∎–∎∎∎6
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j.iswcr.2016.05.004i
Table 1.
Examples of the role of water resources in achieving SDGs.(Source: UN DESA, 2015)
Sustainable Development Goal Examples of roles of water in achieving the SDG and implications
Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere
Target 1.4 advocates equal access to economic resources including ownership of
assets such as land, natural resources –which includes water
Target 1.5 on building the resilience of the poor is achievable only under condi-
tions of water security at national and household levels
Achieving Goal 6 on water and sanitation is a necessity for reducing poverty
Ending poverty is possible only with substantial equitable and sustainable eco-
nomic growth, which is not possible without reliable and adequate supplies of
water
Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture
Achieving Target 2.3, doubling agricultural productivity and the incomes of
smallholders will be possible only if farmers have access to a secure supply of
water among other factors, and are able to use the water productively. This applies
to rained as well as irrigated agriculture. Annual freshwater withdrawals for
agriculture including irrigation and water productivity have direct relevance to
both sustainable water management and sustainable agriculture
Achieving Target 2.4 on sustainable, resilient and productive agro-ecosystems is
achievable only with a reliable and secure water supply; a major impact of climate
change is likely to be a decrease in water security, especially in the areas where
the poorest people reside
Ending malnutrition in all its forms (Target 2.2) is achievable only if people have
access to safe water and adequate sanitation (Goal 6)
The major threat to food security, especially of smallholders and rural people
generally, is drought. Reliable and secure access to water is a necessary condition
for achieving food security
Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
Targets 3.3 and 3.9 specifically mention reducing water-borne diseases and re-
ducing diseases and deaths from water pollution
Achieving Goal 6 on Water and Sanitation (WASH) is a necessary condition for
achieving Goal 3, promoting healthy lives and well-being of all people
Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-long
learning opportunities for all
Provision of proper WASH facilities in all schools will lead to significant increases
in the number of students, especially girls, who complete their education
Access to good water and sanitation combined with good nutrition enhances the
performance of children in school and increases life-time labour productivity
In most of developing countries, access to water supply at reasonable distance
reduces burden on girls house hold work load and leaving time for education
Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
Goal 5.a, to “undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources,
as well as access to …ownership and control over land and other forms of
property, …and natural resources …” should specify water as a critical natural
resource over which women should have equal rights
Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for
all
Needs no further discussion here
Goal 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all
Water supplies are critically important for energy generation; renewable energy,
thermal and thermos nuclear plants are dependent on water; and significant
amounts of energy are used in pumping and purifying water
Growing and processing bio-fuels requires significant amounts of water—ex-
pansion of bio-fuels accounts for most of the recent growth in the amount of
water used in agriculture
The water-energy nexus is further discussed below in Section 6
Goal 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment and decent work for all
Target 8.4, “improve progressively through 2030 global resource efficiency in
consumption and production, and endeavour to decouple economic growth from
environmental degradation”by implication includes water use efficiency
Water security is a necessary condition for sustained economic growth. Water is a
major driver for growth, and increasingly recognized by private firms as a major
risk factor
Development, production and wide-spread use of innovative water technologies
will create decent employment opportunities
Promoting sustainable tourism (Target 8.9) requires development and conserva-
tion of water resources
Goal 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable in-
dustrialization and foster innovation
Developing “quality, sustainable reliable and resilient infrastructure”(Target 9.1)
will include significant investments in water infrastructure
Target 9.4 on upgrading infrastructure for sustainability and resource use effi-
ciency necessarily includes water infrastructure (e.g. dams, irrigation schemes,
water supply systems) (see also 9.a on African infrastructure)
Goal 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries
Investment to improve access to and productive use of water for agriculture,
energy, industry and other sectors is an important strategy to improve the growth
rates of the poorest 40% of the population
Goal 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
Ensuring access to safe, reliable and affordable water and sanitation services is a
necessary condition to achieve the cities and human settlements goal
Target 11.5 on reducing the number of deaths and economic losses from natural
disasters specifically mentions water-related disasters
Goal 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
Target 12.2, “by 2030 achieve sustainable management and efficient use of natural
resources”, clearly includes water
Reducing global food wastes (Target 12.3) will significantly reduce water losses
Target 12.4 on reducing release of harmful chemicals and wastes to minimize their
impacts on people specifically mentions water
Target 12.5 implicitly includes water (“by 2030, substantially reduce waste gen-
eration through prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse”)
F. Mugagga, B.B. Nabaasa / International Soil and Water Conservation Research ∎(∎∎∎∎)∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 7
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j.iswcr.2016.05.004i
emphasising the role water resources play in trade and the
economy of the continent. Even when most of the countries in
Africa are landlocked (UNDP, 2011), the goods are shipped to
neighbouring coasts before they are delivered to those countries
by road. In East Africa for example Mombasa port is the commonly
used entry port for goods to Uganda and Rwanda. Increased in-
vestment in the transport sector and mutual cooperation of
landlocked countries with their coastal counterparts will enhance
the role of water resources in strengthening the African economy.
A summary of the roles of water in achieving sustainable de-
velopment goals and implications are presented in Table 1.
4. Conclusion
Though non exhaustive, the review has clearly demonstrated
the pivotal role of Africa's water resources to a realization of the
Sustainable Development Goals. Water is an enabler, indeed a
requirement, for achieving all the SDGs. Water resources have
been noted to penetrate every interstice of life and to support all
sectors of economic growth. However, the way of life in Africa does
not reflect this kind of wealth in water resources majorly owing to
degradation and underutilization of these resources. The global
village has moved on from the Millennium Development Goals to
the new and more promising Sustainable Development Goals.
Through their roles in providing energy, running industries and
feeding the masses, African water resources are a principal re-
source in ensuring socio-economic development as well as eco-
logical integrity. However, this can only be realised with increased
commitment of member countries to enhance the potential of
water resources by increasing investment to the sector, drafting
sustainable policies and collaborating with the surrounding com-
munities in water resources management. Transboundary water
resources that have hitherto been sources of conflicts can as a
matter of urgency provide the best opportunities for mutual co-
operation and advance socio-economic integration if African unity
and development are not sacrificed at the altars of national so-
vereignty and pride. With strategic planning and cooperation
amongst member countries, water resources on the continent can
be a key precursor to achieving the Sustainable Development
Goals.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully thank the anonymous reviewers whose com-
ments helped in improving the paper to its current form.
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