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A number of plant species, including _Cymbopogon schoenanthus_, are traditionally used for the treatment of various diseases. _C. schoenanthus_ is currently, traded in the Saudi markets, and thought to have medicinal value. This study aimed at investigating the biological activities of _C. schoenanthus_ against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and to identify its chemical ingredients. The inhibitory effects of water extracts of _C. schoenanthus_ essential oils were evaluated against ten isolates of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria using the agar well diffusion and dilution methods. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was assayed using the broth microdilution test on five of the ten isolates. The death rates was determined by the time kill assay, done according to the Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines. The chemical composition of the essential oils of the plant was performed using GC/MS. The _C. schoenanthus_ essential oil was effective against _Escherichia coli_, _Staphylococcus aureus_, methicillin-sensitive (MSSA) _Staphylococcus aureus_ (MRSA) and _Klebsiella pneumoniae_. The essential oil was not effective against _Staphylococcus saprophyticus_ at the highest concentration applied of > 150 μg/ml. The MIC values were as follows: 9.37 μg/ml _for E. coli_ 4.69 μg/ml for _S. aureus_ (MRSA), 2.34 mg/ml for MSSA and 2.34 μg/ml for _K. pneumoniae_. The time-kill assay indicated that there was a sharp time dependent decline in _K. pneumoniae_ counts in the presence of the oil. This is in contrast to a gradual decline in the case of _S. aureus_ under the same conditions. The eight major components of the essential oil were: piperitone (14.6%), cyclohexanemethanol (11.6%), β-elemene (11.6%), α-eudesmol (11.5%), elemol (10.8%), β-eudesmol (8.5%), 2-naphthalenemethanol (7.1%) and γ-eudesmol (4.2%). The results of the present study provide a scientific validation for the traditional use of _C. schoenanthus_ as an antibacterial agent. Future work is needed to investigate and explore its application in the environmental and medical fields. In addition, to evaluating the efficacy of the individual ingredients separately to better understand the underlying mechanism.
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Biological activity of Cymbopogon schoenanthus
essential oil
Gasal M. Hashim
b
, Saad B. Almasaudi
a
, Esam Azhar
b,c
, Soad K. Al Jaouni
d
,
Steve Harakeh
b,*
a
Biology Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia
b
Special Infectious Agents Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
c
Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah,
Saudi Arabia
d
Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, King Abdulaziz University Hospital, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Received 23 February 2016; revised 7 May 2016; accepted 6 June 2016
KEYWORDS
Cymbopogon schoenanthus;
Essential oils;
Gram-positive;
Bacteria;
Gram-negative bacteria
Abstract Introduction: A number of plant species, including Cymbopogon schoenanthus, are tradi-
tionally used for the treatment of various diseases. C. schoenanthus is currently, traded in the Saudi
markets, and thought to have medicinal value. This study aimed at investigating the biological
activities of C. schoenanthus against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and to identify
its chemical ingredients.
Materials and methods: The inhibitory effects of water extracts of C. schoenanthus essential oils
were evaluated against ten isolates of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria using the
agar well diffusion and dilution methods. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was
assayed using the Broth microdilution test on five of the ten isolates. The death rates were deter-
mined by the time kill assay, done according to the Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI)
guidelines. The chemical composition of the essential oils of the plant was performed using GC/MS.
Results: The C. schoenanthus essential oil was effective against Escherichia coli,Staphylococcus
aureus, methicillin-sensitive (MSSA) S. aureus (MRSA) and Klebsiella pneumoniae. The essential
oil was not effective against Staphylococcus saprophyticus at the highest concentration applied of
>150 lg/ml. The MIC values were as follows: 9.37 lg/ml for E. coli 4.69 lg/ml for S. aureus
(MRSA), 2.34 mg/ml for MSSA and 2.34 lg/ml for K. pneumoniae. The time-kill assay indicated
that there was a sharp time dependent decline in K. pneumoniae counts in the presence of the oil.
This is in contrast to a gradual decline in the case of S. aureus under the same conditions. The eight
*Corresponding author at: King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80216, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia.
Tel.: +966 0559392266.
E-mail address: sharakeh@gmail.com (S. Harakeh).
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.
Production and hosting by Elsevier
Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences (2016) xxx, xxxxxx
King Saud University
Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences
www.ksu.edu.sa
www.sciencedirect.com
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.06.001
1319-562X Ó2016 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Please cite this article in press as: Hashim, G.M. et al., Biological activity of Cymbopogon schoenanthus essential oil. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences (2016),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.06.001
major components of the essential oil were: piperitone (14.6%), cyclohexanemethanol (11.6%), b-
elemene (11.6%), a-eudesmol (11.5%), elemol (10.8%), b-eudesmol (8.5%), 2-naphthalenemethanol
(7.1%) and c-eudesmol (4.2%).
Conclusion: The results of the present study provide a scientific validation for the traditional use
of C. schoenanthus as an antibacterial agent. Future work is needed to investigate and explore its
application in the environmental and medical fields. In addition, to evaluating the efficacy of the
individual ingredients separately to better understand the underlying mechanism.
Ó2016 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction
Medicinal plants have been widely used in traditional medicine
for several centuries for the treatment of many health-related
ailments. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), the majority of the world’s population depends on
traditional medicine for primary healthcare. There has been
an increasing interest in medicinal plants and their active ingre-
dients because of their potency and negligible adverse side
effects. In Saudi Arabia, medicinal plants account for more
than over 50% of all plants spices (1200 out of 2250) (Mossa
et al., 1987). Despite the indigenous knowledge of the healing
ability of certain plants in Saudi Arabia, few plant extracts and
essential oils have been assessed in vitro or in vivo for their ther-
apeutic potentials (Al Yahya et al., 1983). Recent published
data on medicinal plants worldwide revealed that some exhib-
ited: antioxidant (Narendran et al., 2016; Noorudheen and
Chandrasekharan, 2016; Puthur, 2016; Santhosh et al.,
2016), anti-diabetic and attenuation of insulin resistance
(Kannan and Agastian, 2015; Balamurugan, 2015), anti-
diarrheal activities (Antonisamy et al., 2015), cardio and hep-
atic protective ability (Nandhini and Bai, 2015; Rathi et al.,
2015).
One important medicinal plant, Cymbopogon schoenanthus,
locally known as Sakhbar, Izkhir or Athkhar traditionally
named as camel grass, is a desert species that grows in dry stony
places (Al-Ghamdi et al., 2007; Farooqi, 1998). It was men-
tioned in Alhadith for its potential applications (Marwat
et al., 2009). Its oil has a strong aromatic odor and has great
medicinal value. The plant is well known traditionally and is
widely used as: antispasmodic, a protection against fever,
anti-intestinal ailment problems, anti-malarial, and anti-
helminthic (especially against Guinea worms) (Yente
´ma et al.,
2007; Marwat et al., 2009). It is an effective renal antispasmodic
and diuretic agent (El-Askary et al., 2003; Elhardallou, 2011;
Sabry et al., 2014), and it was shown to possess sedative, diges-
tive and anti-parasitic properties (Sousa et al., 2005). Norbert
et al. (2014) demonstrated that it is an antifungal and anti-
inflammatory agent used for the prevention and treatment of
acute inflammatory skin conditions. The vapor phase is more
effective as an antifungal agent as compared to the liquid phase
and may be used for the decontamination of air in hospitals. It
has also been used as an anti-abortive, anti-convulsive or laxa-
tive agent, aroma and anti-rheumatic, asthmatic, and antipyre-
tic agent (Ketoh et al., 2006). Furthermore, C. schoenanthus is
used in the treatment of colds, epilepsy, abdominal cramps and
pains, as well as in culinary and perfume products (Takaisi-
Kikuni et al., 2000). In Saudi traditional medicine, it is mainly
used as a diuretic to inhibit kidney stone formation and as an
anti-infectious agent in urinary tract infections (Al-Ghamdi
et al., 2007).
The aim of this study is to evaluate the antimicrobial activ-
ity of the essential oil of C. schoenanthus against susceptible
and resistant pathogenic bacteria in order to validate some
of its traditionally claimed therapeutic properties.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Plant collection and extraction
C. schoenanthus was collected from Asfan area, north-east of
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The plants were washed, dried in the
shade, crushed into small pieces, then were subjected to distil-
lation using conventional methods. Water was added to com-
pletely cover clean dried crushed plants that had been
compressed into a boiling chamber. The mixture was then
allowed to simmer and gently brought to boil. Ice cold water
was continuously circulated to the condenser to facilitate the
condensation process of the generated steam. The process
lasted for 48 h. The concentration of the stock solution was
determined by dividing the weight of the plant parts used over
the volume of the resulting distill. Stock solutions were sus-
pended in Tween 80 to preserve the activity of the oil, divided
into small aliquots and stored at 80 °C till the day of the
experiment. One aliquot was thawed on ice and used on the
day of the experiment and was discarded soon after the com-
pletion of the experiment. Tween 80 was added to the control
at the same concentration as that in the stock containing the
extract to rule out the effect of Tween 80 (Lahlou, 2004).
2.2. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing
The antimicrobial activity of C. schoenanthus essential oil was
evaluated using three tests: (i) Agar well-diffusion test, (ii)
Broth microdilution test, and (iii) time-kill assay test.
2.2.1. Agar well-diffusion test
2.2.1.1. Preparing the agar plates. Mueller–Hinton agar was
used (Oxoid Limited Wade Road Basingstoke Hants, England),
and prepared according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Post
autoclaving, the agar was allowed to cool down (45–50 °C) in a
water bath. Then, the agar was dispensed into Petri dishes,
stored in the refrigerator and used within five days.
2.2.1.2. Bacterial cultures. Ten bacterial pathogens were
used and purchased from the American Type Culture
Collection, ATCC, Virginia, USA. The pathogens included
2 G.M. Hashim et al.
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Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin sen-
sitive (MSSA) (ATCC 6538), methicillin resistant S. aureus
(MRSA) (ATCC 33591), Staphylococcus saprophyticus (ATCC
35552), Enterococcus faecalis (VRE) (ATCC 51299) and Ente-
rococcus faecium (ATCC 6569) and Gram-negative bacteria:
Escherichia coli (ATCC 11229), Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC
4352), Proteus mirabilis (ATCC 7002), Pseudomonas aerugi-
nosa (ATCC 15442) and Serratia marcescens (ATCC 14756),
2.2.1.3. Inoculum preparation. The inoculums were prepared
using the direct colony suspension method according to CLSI
guidelines. Colonies were fished from a fresh (18–24 h) Tryptic
Soy Agar (TSA) (Oxoid Limited, Wade Road Basingstoke
Hants, England) plate and inoculated in Tryptic Soy Broth
(TSB) (Oxoid Limited, Wade Road Basingstoke Hants, Eng-
land). The suspensions were mixed by vortexing then the tur-
bidity was adjusted with sterile Tryptic Soy Broth (TSB) to
reach a 0.5 McFarland.
2.2.1.4. Inoculation of agar plates. Within 15 min of adjusting
turbidity, for each bacterial suspension, a 0.1 ml of bacterial
suspension was dispensed and evenly spread over plates con-
taining Mueller–Hinton agar using a glass spreader. The plates
were allowed to stand for no longer than 15 min before drilling
wells in them using a sterile 8 mm cork borer. Then, 0.1 ml of
the essential oil was added into each well. The plates were cov-
ered immediately and incubated. A 5 lg/ml oxacillin antibiotic
disk (BD biosciences, USA) was also placed on the surface as a
reference. The plates were then incubated at 36 ± 1 °C for
approximately 18 h in an ambient-air incubator. The zones
of inhibition were measured.
2.2.2. Broth microdilution method for MIC test
The MIC test was performed according to the CLSI guidelines
(CLSI, 2013), with some modifications. The inoculum was pre-
pared using the direct colony suspension method as indicated
earlier. Two milliliters of the prepared bacterial suspension were
added to 40 ml of Broth to reach a dilution of 1:20 and a final
concentration of approximately 5 10
5
CFU/ml. Within one
hour of preparing the bacterial suspension, and after gently
mixing by inverting five to six times, the microtiter plate was
inoculated. Serial 1:2 dilutions of the oil were performed in
the microtiter wells with Mueller–Hinton Broth and subse-
quently inoculated with the appropriate bacteria. The last well
in each row was left blank as negative controls. The test was per-
formed in triplicates. The microtiter plate was covered then
incubated at 36 ± 1 °C for 24 h in an ambient-air incubator.
2.2.3. Time-kill assay test
To study the kinetics of inactivation of bacteria by the extract,
the time-kill assay was done according to the CLSI guidelines,
with some specific modifications. The inoculum was prepared
using the direct colony suspension method according to the
CLSI guidelines. Several colonies of similar morphology were
fished from a fresh (18–24 h) TSA plate and inoculated in TSB.
The suspensions were mixed by vortexing, then turbidity was
adjusted visually with sterile TSB to reach that of a 0.5
McFarland standard. 0.1 ml of the standardized suspension
was transferred to 5 ml of the Broth. In performing the assay,
1 ml of a dilution of the oil, (concentrations determined by
MIC test), S. aureus and K. pneumoniae were treated for
specified periods of time (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 24 h) at room
temperature. Phosphate buffered solution was used instead of
oil in the case of controls. The activity of the oil was immedi-
ately stopped at specified sampling intervals (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12
and 24 h) by placing 0.1 ml of the test solution into 0.9 ml of
Broth. Colonies of surviving microorganisms were counted
using the plate count method and the number of bacteria
was estimated.
2.3. Determination of the active ingredients
To determine the major constituents of the essential oil, elec-
tron impact mass spectra were determined at 70 eV on a GC
5890 HP instrument. Samples of 1 lL were analyzed by capil-
lary gas chromatography [Hewlett–Packard 5890 Gas chro-
matograph (GC); Palo Alto, CA, USA] equipped with a mass
detector and a 30 m 0.25 mm HP-5 column with 0.25 lm film
thickness. Temperatures were kept at 220 and 300 °C, respec-
tively. Helium was used as the carrier gas; the flow rate through
the column was 1 ml/min. Subsequently, the essential oil of C.
schoenanthus was analyzed chemically by GC/MS.
3. Results
3.1. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of C. schoenanthus
3.1.1. Agar well-diffusion test
In vitro antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of C.
schoenanthus plant was tested against 10 bacterial pathogens
using the agar well-diffusion method. Antimicrobial activity
was recorded as the clear zone of inhibition (in millimeters)
surrounding the agar well. The means of the zones of inhibi-
tion are shown in Table 1. Inhibitory effect was detected on
five pathogens, including three Gram-positive (S. aureus,
MSSA, S. aureus, MRSA) and two Gram-negative bacteria
E. coli and K. pneumonia).The zones of inhibition (in mm)
were as follows: the lowest inhibition was noted in the case
of S. saprophyticus (10 ± 0.19), for S. aureus (MSSA) (12.5
± 0.6) and MRSA (11 ± 0.4). In the case of the two Gram
negative bacteria, the zone of inhibition was as such: E. coli
(15 ± 0.2), K. pneumonia (14 ± 0.16), no antimicrobial activ-
ity was observed against P. mirabilis,P.aeruginosa,S. marces-
cens,E. faecium and E. faecalis.
3.2. Broth microdilution MIC test
The MIC of C. schoenanthus was carried out on the five bacte-
rial pathogens that showed positive results using the agar well-
diffusion test. Maximum growth of bacteria was achieved at
24 h for the Broth microdilution test. The oil was found effec-
tive against E. coli (MIC: 9.37 lg/ml), S. aureus (MSSA)
(MIC: 4.69 lg/ml), S. aureus (MRSA) (MIC: 2.34 lg/ml) and
K. pneumoniae (MIC: 2.34 lg/ml). The MIC was too high to
be detected for S. saprophyticus at 150 lg/ml) (Table 2).
3.3. Time-kill assay
There was a time dependant decline with respect to time in the
case of S. aureus, with a 90% reduction reached within 8 h of
exposure (Fig. 1). However, K. pneumonia, was a lot more
Biological activity of Cymbopogon schoenanthus essential oil 3
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sensitive with an inhibition of 99.95% achieved within the first
two hours of contact (Fig. 2).
3.4. Chemical composition of C. schoenanthus essential oil
The solutions of C. schoenanthus were analyzed by GC/MS.
The chromatographic profile of the major constituents
obtained is shown in Table 3. The eight major components
that identified were: piperitone (14.6%), cyclohexanemethanol
(11.6%), beta-elemene (11.6%), alpha-eudesmol (11.5%), ele-
mol (10.8%), beta-eudesmol (8.5%), 2-naphthalenemethanol
(7.1%) and gamma-eudesmol (4.2%).
4. Discussion
The data obtained demonstrated that the essential oil of C.
schoenanthus exhibited antibacterial activity against five of
the ten tested bacterial pathogens. Published work by El-
Kamali et al. (2005), using the well-diffusion method, indicated
that essential oil of C. nervatus had antibacterial activity on all
bacteria tested (S. aureus,Bacillus subtilis,E. coli,P. aerugi-
nosa,Salmonella paratyphi A, Salmonella paratyphi B, Shigella
dysenteriae,Shigella flexneri,Shigella boydii,P. mirabilis and
K. pneumoniae), except for Salmonella typhi. The maximum
inhibitory effect was against S. dysenteriae and K. pneumonia.
Table 2 Determination of minimum inhibitory concentration of Cymbopogon schoenanthus extract.
Escherichia coli Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) S. aureus (MSSA) Klebsiella pneumoniae S. saprophyticus
9.37 lg/ml 4.69 lg/ml 2.3 lg/ml 2.3 lg/ml >150 lg/ml
Abbreviation: MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration; MSSA, methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus.
Table 1 Antibacterial activity of Cymbopogon schoenanthus essential oil by measuring zones of growth inhibition (mm) using agar
well-diffusion assay.
a
Test Microorganism Zone of Inhibition (mm)
b
Essential oil Oxacillin 5 lg/ml
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538 12.5 ± 0.6 28 ± 0.14
S. aureus ATCC 33591 (MRSA) 11 ± 0.14 0
S. saprophyticus ATCC 35552 10 ± 0.19 12 ± 0.17
Escherichia coli ATCC 11229 15 ± 0.2 0
Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 4352 14 ± 0.16 0
Proteus mirabilis ATCC 7002 0 0
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442 0 0
Serratia marcescens ATCC 14756 0 0
Enterococcus faecium ATCC 6569 0 0
E. faecalis ATCC 51299 (VRE) 0 0
a
Oxacillin 5 lg/ml was used as a reference.
b
Each value represents the mean and standard deviation of three separate experiments.
0%
50%
100%
024681012141618202224
% Survival
Time (Hrs)
Figure 1 Effect of Cymbopogon schoenanthus oil on the survival of Staphylococcus aureus in relation to time.
4 G.M. Hashim et al.
Please cite this article in press as: Hashim, G.M. et al., Biological activity of Cymbopogon schoenanthus essential oil. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences (2016),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.06.001
In addition, ethanol and chloroform extracts of C. schoenan-
thus collected from Salboukh, north of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
were noted to have antibacterial activity against S. aureus.
The MICs of both extracts for S. aureus were higher than what
has been reported by us (Al Yahya et al., 1983; Lahlou, 2004).
This discrepancy might be due to the method of extraction of
essential oils. It is not unusual to notice significant differences
in data for the same plant species. These variations might be
due to many factors, including the method of extraction of
essential oils, climatic, seasonal and geographical conditions,
and harvest time. For this reason, it is important to standard-
ize the methods of extraction and specify all the conditions
that may affect the extraction.
Although it is commonly known that Gram-negative bacte-
ria are slightly more sensitive to essential oils than Gram-
positive ones (Chatterjee et al., 2011; Johnson et al., 2011;
Ravikumar et al., 2012; Moussa et al., 2012), this is not always
true. For instance, in a study by Deans and Ritchie (1987), fifty
commercially available essential oils were tested against 25
genera, and no difference in sensitivity was found between
Gram-negative and Gram-positive microorganisms. More-
over, E. coli was more susceptible to tea tree oil and other oils
than S. aureus (Gustafson et al., 1998). Our study showed that
K. pneumoniae, a Gram-negative bacterium, was the most sus-
ceptible microorganism. However, other Gram negative bacte-
ria did not follow the same pattern. Takaisi-Kikuni and
colleagues (2000) previously studied the effect of various
amounts of the essential oil of C. densiflorus on the metabolic
activity, growth and morphology of S. aureus. They concluded
that relatively high concentrations of the oil impaired staphy-
lococcal growth in a bacteriostatic manner, and in low doses,
metabolism became ineffective due to energy losses in the form
of heat (Reichling et al., 2009).
McLaughlin et al. (1998) suggested that any study on plant
extracts and/or essential oils should include toxicity tests, as
bioactive compounds are almost always toxic in high doses.
Their results indicated that eight identified components of
the oil accounted for 79.9% of the essential oil composition.
These compounds belonged to two main classes: monoterpenes
and sesquiterpenes. However, the proportion of sesquiterpenes
(46.6%) was higher than that of the monoterpenes (14.6%). In
a comprehensive review, Heiba and Rizk (1986) studied the
essential oils of a number of Cymbopogon species and their
components. They reported the presence of citronellol, far-
nesol, geraniol and sesquiterpene alcohols. Shahi and Tava
(1993) studied the chemical composition of several essential
oils and found that the main constituent of C. schoenanthus
was piperitone (64.71%). Yente
´ma et al. (2007) tested the
chemical composition of essential oil of C. schoenanthus in
Burkina Faso and identified sixteen major compounds, which
accounted for 65.2% of the whole oil composition. The per-
centage of monoterpenes (53.2%) was higher than that of
sesquiterpenes (12%), and the major compounds were piperi-
tone (42%), d-2-carene (8.2%) and elemol (6.2%). The results
of this study are in agreement with those of previous research
in that the major ingredient was piperitone, although in a
much lower concentration (14.6%). In 2005, a chemical study
performed by Sousa and colleagues, 2005 revealed that the
main components of the oil of C. schoenanthus were cis-para-
menth-2-en-1-ol, trans-para-menth-2-en-1-ol and elemol when
CO
2
was used as solvent and cis-piperitol, trans-piperitol and
elemol when ethanol was used as solvent (Sousa et al., 2005).
It is not always true that the most abundant active ingredient
is responsible for the activity of the essential oil. In a study on
the anti-fungal activity of a plant extract where piperitone
(24.74%) constituted the highest ingredient present, which is
similar to our findings, and was tested alone and as a part of
the whole extract. The results indicated that activity of the
oil of Tagetes patula L. was not a result of the major con-
stituents; rather, it was the result of the synergistic effect of
all compounds present in the oil (Romagnoli et al., 2005).
0%
50%
100%
024681012141618202224
% Survival
Time (Hrs)
Figure 2 Effect of C. schoenanthus oil on the survival of Klebsiella pneumoniae in relation to time.
Table 3 Composition of the Cymbopogon schoenanthus oil.
Compound Percent
Piperitone 14.6
Cyclohexanemethanol 11.6
b-Elemene 11.6
a-Eudesmol 11.5
Elemol 10.8
b-Eudesmol 8.5
2-Naphthalenemethanol 7.1
c-Eudesmol 4.2
Biological activity of Cymbopogon schoenanthus essential oil 5
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However, this synergism was not the case in a different study
by El-Saeid et al. (2011), the main inhibitory effect resulted
from piperitone against four phytopathogenic fungi.
The antimicrobial action of essential oils against Gram-
positive bacteria is likely due to the destruction of the cell walls
and cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria, resulting in leakage of
the microorganism’s cytoplasmic contents and subsequently its
inactivation. In other Gram-positive bacteria sensitive to imi-
dazole and whose cell membranes are rich in unsaturated fatty
acids, the rearrangement of the microorganism’s membrane
components results in the loss of cell viability and eventually
lysis (Kalemba and Kunicka, 2003). The authors concluded
that the underlying mechanism of action of essential oils is
caused by the inhibition of the synthesis of DNA, RNA, pro-
teins and polysaccharides in both fungal and bacterial cells
(Kalemba and Kunicka, 2003).
5. Conclusion
The essential oil of C. schoenanthus has an antibacterial effect
against S. aureus, MSSA, S. saprophyticus,E. coli and K. pneu-
moniae, as indicated by its minimum inhibitory concentration.
The results of the present study provide a scientific validation
for the traditional use of the medicinal plant C. schoenanthus.
Future studies should be conducted to assess the effect of the
C. schoenanthus as a possible natural agent to enhance the effi-
cacy of already existing antibiotic agents and to evaluate its
application in various fields of medicine. Further, the mecha-
nism of action by which the oil exerts an antibacterial effect
has to be elucidated in order to determine more of its potential
as an antibacterial agent.
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6 G.M. Hashim et al.
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Biological activity of Cymbopogon schoenanthus essential oil 7
Please cite this article in press as: Hashim, G.M. et al., Biological activity of Cymbopogon schoenanthus essential oil. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences (2016),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.06.001
... Bacillus cereus had the greatest inhibitory effect and was 25 mm in diameter, followed by Staphylococcus aureus (22 mm), Klebsiella pneumonia (21 mm), and Escherichia coli (16 mm), at 200 mg/mL, respectively. Hashim et al. [45] found that the essential oil of Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) exhibited antibacterial activity against 50% of the pathogenic bacteria tested in their study. Bacterial pathogens were tested. ...
... A constant state was then maintained until the end of the incubation period ( Figure 5). Hashim et al. (2017) [45] reported a time-dependent decline in the case of Staphylococcus aureus, with a 90% reduction achieved within 8 h of exposure to Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) essential oil. The time-kill assay revealed a sharp time decline in Klebsiella pneumonia at a Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) (azkhar) concentration of 150 mg/mL after 1 h of incubation, followed by a gradual reduction in growth at 75 µg/mL after 1 h, after which a constant state was maintained until the end of the incubation period ( Figure 6). ...
... A constant state was then maintained until the end of the incubation period ( Figure 5). Hashim et al. (2017) [45] reported a time-dependent decline in the case of Staphylococcus aureus, with a 90% reduction achieved within 8 h of exposure to Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) essential oil. The time-kill assay revealed a sharp time decline in Klebsiella pneumonia at a Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) (azkhar) concentration of 150 mg/mL after 1 h of incubation, followed by a gradual reduction in growth at 75 µg/mL after 1 h, after which a constant state was maintained until the end of the incubation period ( Figure 6). ...
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In Saudi Arabia, Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) has been traditionally used to treat a variety of diseases. This study aimed to investigate the crude methanolic extract of Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) phytochemical, chemical composition, and antibacterial activity. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of tannins, poly-tannins, steroids, alkaloids, essential oils, terpenoids, and flavonoids. The presence of functional groups such as -COOH, -OH, -C=O, and CH2 was revealed via FTIR spectroscopy. 13C and 1H NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) were used to determine the types and number of protons (hydrogen atoms) and their electronic states. Using an agar well diffusion assay, methanolic extract of Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) inhibited the growth of some foodborne pathogenic bacteria in zones ranging from 8 to 25 mm in diameter. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for Staphylococcus aureus was 12.5 mg/mL, whereas it was 25 mg/mL for Bacillus cereus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli. The time–kill assay revealed a sharp decline in Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumonia after 2 h at a concentration of 150 mg/mL, while Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli showed a gradual decline with constant concentrations of 75 to 150 mg/mL. The minimum bactericide concentration (MBC) value for Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli was 50 mg/mL, while it was 25 mg/mL for Klebsiella pneumoniae. In conclusion, our study revealed that Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) methanolic extract has a significant antibacterial effect, suggesting that it could be used to treat various foodborne pathogens.
... Medicinal plants have been widely handled in traditional medicine for several centuries for the treatment of many health-related ailments [1]. Hence, in low-income countries such as Burkina Faso, medicinal plants are used with significant results to treat many pathologies, e.g., tumors, boils, or chronic wounds, especially in villages where modern health care is totally inaccessible. ...
... In fact, Cymbopogon schoenanthus is traditionally used for the treatment of various diseases. The rhizomes are used both internally, as a tonic, febrifuge, intestinal disinfectant, as well as externally, as a funeral disinfectant, anti-malarial and against guinea worm [1,2]. ...
... EO extracted from the Sudanese plant has shown a high antiproliferative activity against human breast carcinoma and human colon adenocarcinoma cell lines [4]. EO extracted from the Saudi Arabian plant has strong protective effects against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-susceptible S. aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae [1]. The authors identified eight main components, such as piperitone (14.6%), cyclohexanemethanol (11.6%), β-elemene (11.6%), α-eudesmol (11.5%), elemol (10.8%), β-eudesmol (8.5%), 2-naphthalenemethanol (7.1%) and γ-eudesmol (4.2%) [1]. ...
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The aim of this research was to evaluate the essential oil of Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. (C. schoenanthus) from Burkina Faso in terms of cytotoxic activity against LNCaP cells, derived from prostate cancer, and HeLa cells, derived from cervical cancer. Antioxidant activities were evaluated in vitro. Essential oil (EO) was extracted by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC/FID and GC/MS. Thirty-seven compounds were identified, the major compounds being piperitone (49.9%), δ-2-carene (24.02%), elemol (5.79%) and limonene (4.31%). EO exhibited a poor antioxidant activity, as shown by the inhibition of DPPH radicals (IC50 = 1730 ± 80 µg/mL) and ABTS+. (IC50 = 2890 ± 26.9 µg/mL). Conversely, EO decreased the proliferation of LNCaP and HeLa cells with respective IC50 values of 135.53 ± 5.27 µg/mL and 146.17 ± 11 µg/mL. EO also prevented LNCaP cell migration and led to the arrest of their cell cycle in the G2/M phase. Altogether, this work points out for the first time that EO of C. schoenanthus from Burkina Faso could be an effective natural anticancer agent.
... Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng is an odorous grass that grows in large colonies of independent tufts based on a rhizomatous stock. C. schoenanthus (L.) Spreng., common name lemon-grass or Camel-grass, is an aromatic herb known in Egypt as "Halfa Barr" or "Halfabr," in Saudi Arabia as "Izkhir or Athkhar" [13], in Algeria, as "Lemmad" [5], common in the North and West tropical Africa, and Arabian Peninsula [18]. According to Zahra et al. [38], it was shown that Cymbopogon sp. ...
... Elemol (11.91%), ( +)-2-Carene (10.69%), β-Eudesmol (7.67%), α-Eudesmol (5.12%), and γ-Eudesmol (4.24%) as main components. The oxygenated monoterpene hydrocarbon Piperitone, the major component, increases nitrofurantoin susceptibility in members of the family Enterobacteriaceae [37] 2-Carene [4] and Elemol [13] are represented by very closely percent with previous literature [4,13]. The percentage of each β-Eudesmol, and γ-Eudesmol (7.67, and 4.24%) agree with the data from [13] (8.5 and 4.2%). ...
... Elemol (11.91%), ( +)-2-Carene (10.69%), β-Eudesmol (7.67%), α-Eudesmol (5.12%), and γ-Eudesmol (4.24%) as main components. The oxygenated monoterpene hydrocarbon Piperitone, the major component, increases nitrofurantoin susceptibility in members of the family Enterobacteriaceae [37] 2-Carene [4] and Elemol [13] are represented by very closely percent with previous literature [4,13]. The percentage of each β-Eudesmol, and γ-Eudesmol (7.67, and 4.24%) agree with the data from [13] (8.5 and 4.2%). ...
Article
Full-text available
This study aimed to evaluate the impact of C. schoenanthus essential oil (CSEO) on the immune system, antioxidant balance, and histological changes in the kidney and spleen of female BALB/C mice. The chemical composition of CSEO was analyzed using GC-MS. Twenty-nine compounds were identified, representing 99.04% of the total detected. The main components were Piperitone (47.93%), Elemol (11.91%), 2-Carene (10.69%), β-eudesmol (7.67%), α-eudesmol (5.12%), and γ-eudesmol (4.24%). For bioassay, the mice were divided into three groups: control, 0.5% CSEO (G1), and 1% CSEO (G2). The effects of CSEO on various markers, including malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), urea, creatinine, and cytokines (IL-4, TNF-α, and TGF-β1), were evaluated. Additionally, kidney and spleen histopathological examinations were conducted. The treatment groups showed a significant increase in IL-4, TNF-α, and TGF-β1 levels compared to the control group, except for G1, which showed a non-significant decrease in TGF-β1 levels. Group 2 exhibited a significant increase in MDA levels compared to the control group, while group 1 had a nonsignificant increase. Both treatments showed a significant increase in GSH levels, while SOD and CAT levels showed a non-significant increase in G2 and a non-significant decrease in G1. Urea levels showed a non-significant increase, while creatinine levels were significantly decreased in G2 and non-significantly decreased in G1 compared to the control group. The histopathological examinations revealed congested red pulp with activated hematopoiesis and focal fibrosis in spleen sections of both G1 and G2. The study suggests that medicinal herbs such as CSEO need to be used with caution, and their effects should be evaluated carefully, especially in terms of dose-dependent effects. The results indicate that high doses of CSEO may increase the levels of some cytokines and antioxidants and have harmful effects on kidney architecture, congested red pulp, and fibrosis with increased hematopoiesis. Therefore, the random use of medicinal herbs may have harmful effects and needs to be carefully controlled to ensure safe use.
... Medicinal plants have been widely handled in traditional medicine for several centuries for the treatment of many health-related ailments [1]. Hence, in low-income countries such as Burkina Faso, medicinal plants are used with significant results to treat many pathologies, e.g., tumors, boils, or chronic wounds, especially in villages where modern health cares are totally inaccessible. ...
... EO extracted from the Sudanese plant has shown a high antiproliferative activity against human breast carcinoma and human colon adenocarcinoma cell lines [2]. EO extracted from the Saudi Arabian plant has strong protective effects against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Methicillin-susceptible S. aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae [1]. The authors identified eight main components such as piperitone (14.6%), cyclohexanemethanol (11.6%), β-elemene (11.6%), α-eudesmol (11.5%), elemol (10.8%), β-eudesmol (8.5%), 2-naphthalenemethanol 2 of 10 (7.1%) and γ-eudesmol (4.2%) [1]. ...
... EO extracted from the Saudi Arabian plant has strong protective effects against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Methicillin-susceptible S. aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae [1]. The authors identified eight main components such as piperitone (14.6%), cyclohexanemethanol (11.6%), β-elemene (11.6%), α-eudesmol (11.5%), elemol (10.8%), β-eudesmol (8.5%), 2-naphthalenemethanol 2 of 10 (7.1%) and γ-eudesmol (4.2%) [1]. EO of C. schoenanthus from Brazil presents an efficient anthelmintic activity, since the developmental of trichostrongylids obtained from naturally infected sheep is blocked in vitro [3]. ...
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The aim of this research was to evaluate the essential oil of Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. (C. schoenanthus) from Burkina Faso in cytotoxic activity against LNCaP cells, derived from prostate cancer, and HeLa cells, derived from cervical cancer. Antioxidant activities were evaluated in vitro. Essential oil (EO) was extracted by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC / FID and GC / MS. Thirty-seven compounds were identified, the major compounds being piperitone (49.9%), alpha terpinene isomer (24.02%), elemol (5.79%) and limonene (4.31%). EO exhibited a poor antioxidant activity, as shown by the inhibition of DPPH radicals (IC50 =1730 ± 80 µg/mL) and ABTS+. (IC50 = 2890 ± 26.9 µg/mL). Conversely, EO decreased the proliferation of LNCaP and HeLa cells with respective IC50s of 135.53 ± 5.27 µg/mL and 146.17 ± 11 µg/mL. EO also prevented LNCaP cell migration and led to the arrest of their cell cycle in the G2/M phase. Altogether, this work points out for the first time that EO of C. schoenanthus from Burkina Faso could be an effective natural anticancer agent.
... Les informations recueillies auprès des tradipraticiens de santé du Burkina Faso, font état d'une utilisation traditionnelle de cette plante comme antiseptique cutané et oral. Les propriétés antimicrobiennes de l'huile essentielle de Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng ont été rapportées par d'autres auteurs (10,11). Cependant, il n'existe pas de données sur l'activité antimicrobienne du Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng du Burkina Faso. ...
... Ces résultats sont en adéquation avec ceux obtenus avec les tests de sensibilité qui montraient que les premières souches étaient extrêmement sensibles, tandis que les dernières étaient très sensibles. Toujours en adéquation avec les résultats de l'essai de sensibilité, des CMI intermédiaires de 0,625 % (v/v) ont été obtenues avec les souches de Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermitis et Salmonella enteridis.Des CMI similaires ou plus faibles de CMI sur Staphylococcus aureus et sur Escherichia coli ont été obtenues par Alitonou et al. avec l'huile essentielle de Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng originaire de la région du Djougou au Bénin (10) et de l'Arabie Saoudite(11). Par contre, Koba et al.(21), ont montré l'absence d'activité antimicrobienne de l'huile essentielle de Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng du Bénin, sur des souches d'Aspergillus sp et de Pseudomonas aeruginosa avec des CMI supérieures à 500 mg.mL -1 .Des différences de CMI (d'un pas de dilution) entre l'huile essentielle fraichement préparée et celle vieille de cinq ans sont observées sur les souches de Pseudomonas aeruginosa et d'Escherichia coli. En dehors de ces deux cas, les CMI des deux échantillons d'huile essentielle sont similaires sur les autres souches. ...
Article
Dans un contexte de méfiance vis-à-vis des conservateurs antimicrobiens de synthèse, nous nous sommes intéressés à l'utilisation potentielle de l'huile essentielle et/ou l'extrait aqueux de Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng dans la protection des formules pharmaceutiques. Le pouvoir antimicrobien de ces extraits a été évalué in vitro dans cette étude sur six souches bactériennes et deux souches fongiques communément associées à la contamination des formes pharmaceutiques. La méthode de diffusion en milieu gélosé à partir de puits a été mise à profit pour l'évaluation de la sensibilité des souches aux extraits végétaux. Les concentrations minimales inhibitrices (CMI) ont été déterminées par la méthode de micro-dilution en milieu liquide. Toutes les souches microbiennes testées se sont révélées insensibles à l'extrait aqueux de Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. En revanche, l'huile essentielle a montré de fortes activités antibactérienne et antifongique à des faibles concentrations. Les valeurs de concentrations minimales inhibitrices (CMI) obtenues avec l'huile essentielle étaient de l'ordre de 0,312 à 1,250 % (v/v). Ces résultats montrent que l'huile essentielle de Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng pourrait être exploitée pour la conservation des médicaments. Mots-clés : Cymbopogon schoenantus, huile essentielle, extrait aqueux, antimicrobien, formes pharma-ceutiques, conservateur. Antimicrobial activity of Cymbopogon schoenantus (L.) Spreng essential oil and aqueous extract on microorganisms commonly associated to the contamination of liquid dosage forms Abstract In the context of current distrust of synthetic antimicrobial preservatives, the potential of Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng essential oil and/or aqueous extract in the protection of medicines was evaluated. In this work, the antimicrobial activity of these extracts has been studied in vitro with respect to six bacterial and two fungal strains commonly associated to the contamination of pharmaceutical products. The method of diffusion in agar and solid medium was used to assess the susceptibility of the strains to plant extracts. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) were determined by the method of micro-dilution in liquid Vol. 43, n° 1-Janvier-juin 2020, Science et technique, Sciences de la santé 9 medium. All microbial strains tested were found to be insensitive to the aqueous extract of Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. However, the essential oil has proven antibacterial and antifungal activities at low concentrations. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) values obtained with the essential oil were in the range of 0.312 to 1.250 % (v/v). These results show that the essential oil of Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng could be used for the preservation of medicines.
... Also, they found oxygenated monoterpenes (65.36 %) were the most dominant class of compounds. It has been also reported that piperitone, cyclohexanemethanol, beta-elemene, alpha-eudesmol (11.5%) and elemol (10.8%) were detected as major components in C. schoenanthus essential oil (Hashim et al., 2017). ...
... In this study by (Imane et al., 2020) rosemary essential oil showed MIC of 1.35 µg mL -1 against Staphylococcus aureus and 10.8 µg mL -1 against Escheriachia coli. Hashim et al. (2017) found a MIC of 4.69 µg mL -1 against S. aureus and 9.37 µg mL -1 against E. coli for lemongrass essential oil. El Amrani and colaboratters (2019) determined a MIC of 2.5 µL mL -1 for S. aureus and 5.0 µL.mL -1 for E. coli. ...
Article
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This study aimed to chemically characterize commercial Essentials oils and determine their thermal properties and their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Essential oils extracted from leaves of Rosemary, lemongrass, cloves, orange, Tahiti lemon and thyme were studied, with chemical characterization by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, thermoanalytical characterization and antimicrobial (microdilution) and antioxidant (ferric reduction activities power - FRAP). The chemistry of the essential oils composition was consistent with literature data and justified their thermal behavior. Comparing the thermal stability between the studied essential oils results revealed the optimization of the da Tonset = 106.6to clove`s essential oils. The results of differentiated antimicrobial and antioxidant activity justified by factors that influence the biological functions of Essentials oils, such as the origin of the plant (climate conditions), forms of cultivation and harvesting of the raw material, parameters and extraction method. Thus, it emphasizes the importance of a Brazilian production of essentials to take advantage of the technological and analytical capacity of national research centers, to provide the market with traceable products with certified identity.
... The composition of C. schoenanthus oil from Soudan and Saudi Arabia was also dominated by piperitone (47.7-71.5%; 18.48% and 14.6%, respectively) (Pavlović et al., 2016;Yagi et al., 2016;Hashim et al., 2016). In Algeria, the samples collected from the Sahara central (Tamanrasset and Illizi) was also characterized by a high content of piperitone (55.1%; 63.2% and 63.35%) followed by 2-carene (9.3%; 16.7% and 4.9%), elemol (4.8%; 9.5% and 6.9%) and βeudesmol (3.2%; 3.7% and 9.3%) (Aous et al., 2019;Hellali et al., 2016). ...
Article
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Cymbopogon schoenanthus is a natural plant that often grows in tropical regions such as North and West Africa. In order to valorize this aromatic plant from southern Algeria, we were interested in the chemical characterization of its essential oil by GC(Ir), GC-MS, and 13C NMR, and in the determination of the antifungal activity of its essential oil against toxinogenic strains isolated from spices sold in bulk. The detailed chemical analysis of all the parts of the plant collected from the station of El aguid of Bechar allowed to identify 48 components The composition was dominated by various alkohols bearing thep-menthane skeleton : cis-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (22.3%), trans-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (10.2%), cis-piperitol (10.1%) and trans-piperitol (5.3%). Monoterpenes hydrocarbons were representedby δ-2-carene (16.0%) and limonene (4.7%).β-elemol (4.8%) was the main oxygenated sesquiterpene followed by juniper camphor(2.6%), β-eudesmol (1.9%), selina-6-en-4α-ol(1.9%), intermedeol (1.4%) and α-eudesmol(1.3%). However in the second part of our study the essential oil of C. schoenanthus showed good activity towards Aspergillus fumigatus and AspergIllus flavus with inhibition zone diameters of 29.5mm and 23mm while the activity was lower towards Penicillium sp with a diameter of 11mm. The result of activity towards the toxic strain Penicillium sp has never been reported in the literature. On the other hand, the chemical characterization of the essential oil of the plant is the first one made on the station of el aguid of Bechar.
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The cytotoxic effects of Cymbopogon schoenanthus L. aerial part ethanol extract were examined against some cancer cell lines, and HUVEC normal cell lines using MTT assay. The ethanolic extract was prepared by ultrasonic-assisted extraction and analyzed by GC-MS and HPLC. The extract was found to be rich in terpene compounds. The extract proved to be highly selective and effective against breast and prostate cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-435, MCF-7, and DU 145) with IC50 as low as 0.7913 ± 0.14, 12.841 ± 0.21, and 30.51 ± 0.18 µg/ml, respectively. In silico modeling was performed to investigate the binding orientation and affinity of the major identified compounds against Polo-like kinase (PLK1 protein) a cancer molecular target using molecular docking and molecular dynamic whereas eudesm-5-en-11-ol, piperitone, and 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran displayed better binding affinity and stability against PLK1 compared to the reference drug. These findings encourage further in vivo studies to assess the anti-cancer effects of C. schoenanthus extract and its components.
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