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Abstract
Jane H Hill is Regents' Professor of Anthropology and Linguistics at the University of Arizona. She is a specialist on Native American languages, focusing on the Uto-Aztecan family, with fieldwork on Cupeño, Tohono O'odham, and Nahuatl. Her interests include linguistic documentation, the historical linguistics of the Uto-Aztecan language family, language contact and multilingualism in the southwestern United States and Mexico, and the way popular ideas about these phenomena shape the uses of language in communities in those regions, especially in the construction of white racist culture. She is the author of Mulu'wetam: the first people; Cupeño oral history and language (with Rosinda Nolasquez; Banning, CA: Malki Museum Press, 1973), Speaking Mexicano: dynamics of syncretic language in central Mexico (with Kenneth C Hill; Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1986), and A Grammar of Cupeño (Berkeley: University of California Publications in Linguistics, forthcoming).
... Kajian Goh Sang Seong dan Mashudi Kader (2004) (2008a) (2008b) dan Goh Sang Seong (2011) telah menunjukkan bahawa teori semantik ini sesuai digunakan untuk menganalisis ketepatan terjemahan kata kerja. Pandangan sosiolinguistik Fishman (1972) akan dimanfaatkan dalam kajian ini bagi melengkapi kaedah komponen analisis makna Katz dan Fodor (1963) dan Chierchia dan McConnel-Ginet (1990) yang lebih mendekati makna daripada aspek bentuk linguistiknya. Menurut Baker (1998, hlm.273), kebolehterjemahan difahamkan sebagai " keupayaan bagi suatu jenis makna dipindahkan daripada satu bahasa kepada satu bahasa lain tanpa menjalankan perubahan yang radikal. ...
... Kaedah ini bermakna kata kerja akan mendapat maknanya sebagai fungsi daripada argumen. Fishman (1972) mendakwa bahawa bahasa itu sebenarnya merupakan cerminan sosiolinguistik sesuatu komuniti atau kumpulan masyarakat bahasa. Organisasi sosial, jaringan komunikasi yang pelbagai dalam interaksi sosial dan tingkah laku ahli-ahlinya dalam organisasi telah terbentuk dan terjelma secara semula jadi dalam sesuatu masyarakat. ...
... Organisasi sosial, jaringan komunikasi yang pelbagai dalam interaksi sosial dan tingkah laku ahli-ahlinya dalam organisasi telah terbentuk dan terjelma secara semula jadi dalam sesuatu masyarakat. Pandangan Fishman (1972) ini menekankan semua aspek budaya sebagai cerminan aktiviti sesuatu masyarakat bahasa dalam pelbagai jaringan interaksi komunikasi sosialnya. ...
... Ferguson calls these varieties H(igh) and L(ow). In a diglossic situation, they are used in a subset of mutually exclusive functions (Ferguson 1959, Fishman 1972). On the one hand, the high variety is associated with the superior functions of language namely parliament, news, announcements and other forms of journalistic writing, editorials in newspapers, academic, intellectual and formal discourse, court, legislative bodies, invitation cards, notices and advertisements. ...
... His four case studies namely Egypt, Greece, Haiti and Switzerland concerned monolingual situations. Fishman (1972) proposed that Ferguson's 1959 model of diglossia be extended to bilingual situations. Whereas Ferguson (1959) is concerned with language varieties, Fishman (1972) relaxes this restriction and applies the concept diglossia to communities where two or more languages occur side by side. ...
... Fishman (1972) proposed that Ferguson's 1959 model of diglossia be extended to bilingual situations. Whereas Ferguson (1959) is concerned with language varieties, Fishman (1972) relaxes this restriction and applies the concept diglossia to communities where two or more languages occur side by side. Fishman's (1972: 92) distinction of varieties is "along the lines of H(igh) languages on the one hand and L(ow) languages on the other". ...
This article examines the impact of current lexicographical work in Zimbabwe on some sectors of Shona language use, namely education, media, medicine and local government. It looks specifically at Shona monolingual lexicographical projects completed by the African Lan-guages Research Institute (ALRI), successor to the African Languages Lexical Project (ALLEX). It analyses how users of Shona in these particular sectors are responding to the different lexico-graphical products published by ALRI. The article maintains that Shona monolingual lexicography has resulted in language raising and awareness. It has also led to term creation and has contributed towards standardisation of the language. Shona has furthermore gained the abstractive power it needs to explain its own and other concepts. All these have caused diglossia leakage from Low (L) Shona to High (H) Shona in some areas of Shona language usage. The overall effect is that Shona is now used in some formal sectors such as the above-mentioned ones which previously were the preserve of English in Zimbabwe.
Keywords: MONOLINGUAL LEXICOGRAPHY, GENERAL DICTIONARIES, SPECIALISED DICTIONARIES, STANDARDISATION, LANGUAGE RAISING, LANGUAGE AWARENESS, LANGUAGE USE, SLCA, ALLEX, ALRI
... Certain values place limitations on men and women. The way in which women behave, communicate, and utilize language is likewise influenced by this (Heriyati, 2013). It is interesting to note that a study reveals that female Bataknese students are more prominent in employing male language traits, such as brief sentences. ...
... code-switch) to their own native language when there are other members who share the same native language with them. The timing of code-switching is affected by social factors such as the combination of interlocutors, as well as the social context of the talk or the topics of the discussion [8]. Beyond speaking in a common language or a native language, NNS can adopt code-switching to alternate between different languages across Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, Vol. 2 conversational threads, in a conversational thread, or even a single utterance while maintaining grammatical correctness [24,25]. ...
When multiple non-native speakers (NNSs) who share the same native language join a group discussion with native speakers (NSs) of the common language used in the discussion, they sometimes switch back and forth between common language and their native language to reach common ground. However, such code-switching makes others feel excluded and thus not considered appropriate during formal meetings. To offer NNSs more flexibility to code-switch in a group discussion while minimizing the cost of excluding others, we introduced a language support tool that automatically detects a user's spoken language, and then transcribe as well as translate them into another language (common language or NNS's native language). In a within-subject study involving 19 quads (two Japanese and two Chinese) in a collocated setting, participants were asked to perform a series of decision-making tasks with and without the tool. Results showed that the language support tool encouraged diverse use of language during a meeting, resulting in more participation from NNSs - they increased active initiating behaviors from NNSs. Although the perceived quality of collaboration became lower, it also elicited helping behaviors among the NNS pairs.
... Domain according to Fishman is"...a socio-cultural construct abstracted from topics of communication, relationships and interactions between communicators and locales of communication in accord with the institutions of a society..." (Fishman1972:82). Family is one of those vital domains Fishman allocates special place to in his work as he argues that, "multilingualism often begins in the family and depended upon it for encouragement if not for protection" (Fishman, 1972: 82). ...
Arranged marriages are the norm in traditional Indian families. With the Sindhi community such arranged marriages result at times with Sindhi brides being transplanted in new territories, having to learn new languages in order to communicate with interlocutors in the new setting. We investigate language choices of a Malaysian Sindhi woman who married an Indian Sindhi and settled down in New Delhi in an extended family system. What is the dominant language choice of a transplanted woman in her new family over a period of thirty years? Is it the heritage language, the local languages, or an international language? This research using both Fishman's domain concept for analysing language choice in a number of domains and retrospective data of discourse in a number of settings, will not only determine the dominant languages used but also interview the subject to determine reasons for the choice of the languages. In this way both an etic and emic perspective is provided in this study.
... We call it intercomprehending and define it as the emergent, responsive work that readers undertake to make sense of a text while engaged in dialogue that builds and builds on a collaborative ideational repertoire, a range of textual ideas generated before, during, and after reading in order to construct and ponder the text's meaning(s). Just as the idea of linguistic repertoires-or regular ways of using language within a community (e.g., Fishman, 1972;Gumperz, 1964;Martinez, 2016)-has helped focus attention on how groups of people share resources for speaking and writing, the idea of ideational repertoires may help focus attention on how groups of people share resources for the making of meaning. In practice, students express ideas mostly through linguistic means. ...
In this study, the authors examine how emergent bilingual second graders collaboratively constructed textual understandings, a phenomenon they call intercomprehending, by building on each other's contributions and positioning their ideas in relation to peer ideas. The study traces the interrelationships of the utterances of emergent bilingual students discussing text in English for the first time in the context of a small-group discussion focused on English-language picture books. The textual ideas students shared were highly contingent on peer ideas and at the same time drew substantially on the text itself, particularly the illustrations. The authors argue that intercomprehending may serve as a fruitful way for emergent bilingual students to build on what they know as they read and learn in school and that classroom teachers may do well to build on that resource.
... Code switching can perform mutually referential group and individual identity work by indexing shared norms of language use, ranging from code choice in different situations to the act of CS in itself. Some of the earliest CS research focused on usage domains, in which members of a particular social group normally use different languages in or in reference to specific settings, such as work and home (Fishman, 1972). CS plays an important role in group formation. ...
... Language has been asserted as a marker of identity, as well. Fishman (1972) wrote that (ethnic) identity has been claimed to have an inherent connection with language. In other words, identity " constructs and is constructed by language " (Baker, 1997, p. 419). ...
... Στη συγκεκριμένη πιλοτική έρευνα, επαληθεύτηκε, λοιπόν, η πρωτοϋποστηριχθείσα από το Fishman (1972) άποψη ότι τα δίγλωσσα άτομα εναλλάσσουν ανάμεσα στις γλώσσες τους, όταν αλλάζουν χώρο χρήσης της γλώσσας τους, υπακούοντας σε εξωτερικές επιταγές ορθότητας στη χρήση της γλώσσας, ανάλογα με το πού βρίσκονται, με ποιον συνομιλούν και για ποιο θέμα επικοινωνούν. Τα ίδια άτομα εναλλάσσουν ανάμεσα στις γλώσσες τους, όταν παραμένουν στον ίδιο χώρο και εμπλέκονται στην ίδια επικοινωνιακή περίσταση, υπακούοντας σε μια εσωτερική ανάγκη να δηλώσουν ποιοι είναι και πού ανήκουν. ...
... When this type of code-switching occurs, the teachers, having the rich contextual background necessary in a topic-chaining conversation, have made the leap that all students have that same contextual background. This is only optimal if everyone speaks the language (Fishman, 1972). This might be a faulty assumption on the teachers' part, as game play adds to the complexity of the task structure, and the students might not have the necessary skill to join (Bernstein et al., 2011). ...
Code switching is primarily a linguistic term that refers to the use of two or more languages within the same conversation, or same sentence, to convey a single message. One field of linguistics, sociocultural linguistics, is broad and interdisciplinary, a mixture of language, culture, and society. In sociocultural linguistics, the code, or language that is selected, can be triggered by a social situation or setting in which the speaker is placed. Code-switching can also apply to behavior. In physical education, teachers may communicate in the language of sport. When teaching a competitive activity in physical education class, the environment changes, becomes competitive, and the teachers often code switch and switch instructional choices unconsciously. This article examines the occurrence of code-switching during competitive activities.
... Studies on language attitudes in the Sudanese context indicate that ethnic migrants in Khartoum are undergoing a significant shift to Arabic in spite of the positive attitudes they hold toward their own languages (Miller and Abu Manga 1992;). Positive attitudes toward a language, then, do not necessarily lead to maintenance efforts (Fasold 1987; Fishman 1972). Negative attitudes appear to have played an important role in the endangerment of many ...
... Hakuta & D'Andrea covered seven different domains in their 18-item questionnaire), viewing all interactions between parents and children as part of the same domain. (4) Role-relations between family members may affect verbal behaviour no less than language proficiency or language preferences (Fishman, 1972;Winter & Pauwels, 2000). Differentiation between family members, especially the parents, may therefore be an important dimension when assessing language maintenance among children of immigrant families. ...
Patterns of language maintenance among immigrants have been researched widely, and lie at the core of daily life for immigrant families. The present study reports on a questionnaire developed to assess various aspects of language maintenance, focusing on parent–child communication. Parents and children of 307 immigrant families living in Sydney, Australia, were asked about their use of and preference for language in a range of contexts involving communication between parents and children. Factor analyses of the questionnaires revealed distinct dimensions for parents and children. The parent sample showed evidence of domain separation, with a greater tendency toward use of and preference for the mother tongue in intimate interactions, as opposed to the public domain, where the tendency to use English was higher. No distinction emerged across domains between use of and preference for language. In contrast, use of and preference for language in the children's sample emerged as distinct facets of language maintenance, with no indication of domain separation. Children reported using their parents' mother tongue more than they would prefer to in general, and more with their mother than with their father in particular.
... Language ability can then be explored within the context of currently available models of bilingualism. Domains of language use (Fishman, 1972) can be probed to examine the social contexts in which a language is spoken (work, home, school) and how that influences language choice and communicative style. Language use data can be collected to explore the contexts of use, such as frequency of use, conversational partners, and situational factors (Paradis, 1987; Muñoz et al., 1999). ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the judgments of adult speakers of English as a second language (ESL) of the intelligibility of American English spoken under four different conditions. These conditions included (1) speaking at a normal or typical rate, (2) a faster than normal or typical rate, (3) a slower than normal speaking rate, and (4) an exaggeratedly slower than normal speaking rate. Twenty Ethiopian males served as listeners for this study. One American male participated as the speaker for this investigation. The listeners heard a total of 44 sentences generated using the Sentence Intelligibility Test and repeated the sentences to the examiners. Their responses were recorded on audiotape. Listeners also indicated their preferences for one of the speaking styles. The results revealed significantly greater performance in the areas of total intelligible words and percent intelligibility when listeners heard the sentences spoken at either of the two slower-than-normal rates. However, listeners indicated a preference for hearing speech produced at a normal or typical rate. The implications of these findings for the assessment, training, and counseling of adult communicators for whom English is a second language are discussed.
Three key concepts will make up the pillars of this paper: second, foreign and heritage languages. Whenever appropriate “additional language” will be used as an umbrella term. A study of the domains of language use will be applied to these three different sociolinguistic contexts. To date, there are not many empirical studies on the domains of language and, more specifically, among young learners in different areal contexts, as it is the case of this study.
This chapter details the development of a pedagogy for teaching literacy in two languages at Murrupurtiyanuwu Catholic School, and the adoption of that approach elsewhere. The process was informed by the emerging research and practice literature on bilingualism and the teaching and learning of English as a Second Language in the 1980s. The chapter also explores the shift from two parallel teaching programs to a more unified bilingual-bicultural teaching one implemented through the ‘Walking Talking Texts’ methodology for literacy and general curriculum delivery in both languages.
This contribution traces the development of the sociology of language and its key research approaches. Close attention is paid to the contrast between research approaches that focus on verstehende (understanding) and those whose primary goal is erklaerende (explanatory). The piece concludes that the sociology of language education (SLE) must be inclusive enough and supportive enough to provide room and recognition for both erklaerende and verstehende approaches to its subject matter.
This paper is a policy document on language education presented to the Minister for Education from the State Board of Education (the Board) and the Ministerial Advisory Committee on Multicultural and Migrant Education (MACMME). The Board and MACMME have undertaken this task for the Minister to enable schools in Victoria to implement newly developed government policy (expressed in recent Ministerial Papers) on language teaching. Ministerial Paper No. 6, Curriculum Development and Planning in Victoria, charges schools with the responsibility of furthering the knowledge, understanding and competencies necessary for young people to be able to participate effectively in the life of a multicultural society (1984:12). Furthermore, each school council is asked to "ensure that its program enables students progressively to ... acquire proficiency in another language used in the Australian community" (1984:17).
About a quarter of legal jurisdictions in the world operate in more than one language. Despite this, language policies governing the functioning of law in such jurisdictions, other than in the European Union, rarely receive much attention in research. Given, however, that the policy contrast between legal monolingualism and multilingualism is often a matter of strategic response to the rising or declining power of one or more particular language communities, the conferring of legal authority on some language(s) but not others calls for analysis. Advocacy and justification surrounding potential or actual change of legal language, for example, consists of competing rhetorics advanced by politicians, legal professionals, and campaign groups, and to this extent politics permeates both the promotion and presentation of legal multilingualism, despite reluctance among legal policy makers to engage directly with this aspect of the process. This article situates legal multilingualism within a wider understanding of multilingualism and language policy. It first surveys status labels assigned to languages in multilingual jurisdictions. It then compares, across jurisdictions, rhetorical strategies deployed in promoting and opposing specific proposals about language status, in both official and public discourses, and analyses contradictions and dilemmas embedded in them. The argument extends [Rhetoric as jurisprudence: An introduction to the politics of legal language.
Code switching/code mixing is the systematic alternation of two or more languages during a conversation and is part of virtually every bilingual community. This article presents an overview of the terms and the structural and social facets of code-switching as well as its significance during bilingual language acquisition. Research into language contact and its various manifestations has been vibrant and fruitful, bringing together linguists from all subfields of linguistics. The last three decades have seen a shift in code switching research, moving from descriptive studies of the social dynamics of bilingualism and code switching to looking at the structure of mixed code discourse and its implications for theories of syntax and language acquisition.
Papia Kristang, or Malacca Portuguese Creole, is the language used by the descendants of the Portuguese who conquered Malacca in 1511. However, in 1984, the creole, which is a stable natural language developed from the mixing of parent languages, (Portuguese, Macanese and Malay) was listed in the UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages as it had experienced language shift. To date, it is spoken by 5,000 speakers of Portuguese Settlement community in Malacca due to the receding use of the language in the community. Kristang families with higher socioeconomic status normally communicate in English as they regard Kristang as a low prestige language. The study thus focuses on Kristan g's present endangerment, and the community's awareness and response to the shift. It first identifies key socio-historical factors leading to the linguistic fragility in these recent years. The paper will then discuss the community's awareness and its res ponse to its endangered language. Data is gathered from observations and interviews with members of the Portuguese Settlement's speech community in Malacca to analyze the community's awareness and response to the situation. It is found that there is a low level of urgency for language maintenance, due to lack of support and awareness from the Malaysian general population, the Portuguese community itself, and the government. In conclusion, it is hoped that the study would raise general awareness to strengthen the community's response to Kristang's language shift, thus preserving it and its unique culture from effacement.
Ethnic churches in the course of their development encounter a number of organizational dilemmas. These are related primarily to the tension between the old world language and culture of the first generation immigrants, and that of the adopted host society. The transformation of the ethnic group through the process of assimilation generates these critical internal problems. The purpose of this paper is to analyze this "tension" and its attendant organizational problems as they exist in the Buddhist Churches of Canada, the largest foreign-oriented minority church within the Japanese Canadian community. The Buddhist Churches of Canada (18 congregations) are organizationally linked to the Mother Temple of Jodo Shinshu (True Pure Land SecO, the Nishi Honganji in Kyoto, Japan. A major focus of this paper is upon the problem of religious leadership in ah ethnic religious organization that has a highly assimilated membership, but is dependent upon a religious body in the "old country '" for almost all of its leaders.
This paper considers a number of pertinent sociolinguistic aspects of a distinct process of language shift recently noted in some historically Afrikaans first language (L1) communities established in the Cape Metropolitan area. Particularly, it considers qualitatively how a number of families made deliberate choices to change the family language from Afrikaans L1 to English L1. It elaborates on an exploratory study undertaken in 2003, adding data collected in 2008 and 2009, investigating linguistic repertoire and language choice in a number of families where there has been contact between English and Afrikaans over a number of generations. The aim, eventually, is to characterise the nature of the perceived process of language shift. The paper considers how widespread use of both English and Afrikaans in communities that until recently were predominantly Afrikaans, impacts on linguistic identities. It reports on structured interviews with members of three generations of families who currently exhibit English-Afrikaans bilingualism where members of the younger generation are more fluent in English. It finds that there is evidence of language shift, it reports on the circumstances that motivate such shift, and concludes that the third generation presents either a monolingual English identity where Afrikaans has a decidedly second language status, or a strong English-dominant bilingual identity.
This article reviews basic issues of theory and method in qualitative research approaches to applied linguistics research. As pointed out by Lazaraton (this issue), a great deal of debate, misunderstanding, and confusion currently surrounds the use of qualitative research methods in the applied linguistics field. Much of this controversy appears to center around three interrelated issues: research traditions, definitions of research, and qualitative research theory and methods. In this article I examine these issues with a view toward dispelling some of the confusion and illuminating the ways in which qualitative research can contribute to our understanding of language acquisition and use.
In this study, language transition among the children of Caribbean immigrants in the US is examined from two main perspectives. First, speeds of language transition among children in French- and Spanish-Caribbean immigrant families are compared. Second, the mediating roles of socio-demographic factors and sibling characteristics in language transition are also examined. The results reveal that, with increasing assimilation, children in French-Caribbean families experience a faster transition to English monolingualism than their counterparts with Spanish-Caribbean parents. Transition to English monolingualism is also negatively associated with the number of first-generation siblings within a household. However, increases in the number of second- and first-generation monolingual-English siblings significantly shift children's language use towards complete Anglicisation. Instructively, this impact offsets the influence which ethnically endogamous parents have on the retention of the mother-tongue within immigrant families.
This qualitative study was concerned with examining the first language of young Mexicano bilinguals who had already learned enough English to work in all-English classrooms. In order to capture natural language usage within the school setting, five focal children were chosen, observed and audiotaped throughout their school day, for a period of roughly four months. This research presents data on the functions that Spanish continued to serve in the lives of these developing bilinguals. Additionally, it describes the competence they showed in their Spanish. Throughout their school day, in different roles, and in distinct contexts, the children used Spanish in varied and complex ways: (a) to provide information and assistance with school work; (b) to seek explanations, information and clarification; (c) to provide their own self-talk which helped them think through problems, plan strategies and assess their own work; d) to establish and maintain a variety of social relationships, juggling changes in friendships and group tensions; (e) to integrate their out-of-school worlds into their school world through narratives, commentary, play and imagination; and (f) to negotiate and maintain participation in on-going conversations. These descriptions and analyses of naturally-occurring Spanish language interactions have contributed to a more detailed picture of the young bilingual’s first language in contact situations.
Will Hispanic youth in Dade County (Miami, et al.) Florida sustain their Spanish‐English bilingualism? Or, will they shift to English‐only monolin‐gualism? Prior studies pertaining to the status of Spanish‐English bilingualism among Cuban American youth in Florida revealed an emerging pattern in which they tended to use both Spanish and English in the home, leaning toward English when speaking to their siblings. This paper reports the results of a sociolinguistic analysis on the status of Spanish‐English bilingualism among Hispanic youth in Dade County, Florida, focused on the questions: Which languages (Spanish or English) do the Hispanic youths speak to whom? And, under what circumstances? What is their attitude toward Spanish and English? And, to what extent are they literate in Spanish and English? Answers to these questions have crucial implications for the maintenance of native Spanish in the United States as well as implications pertaining to the social, political, and economic future of the nation as well as Hispanic youths. Analysis of the accrued data indicated a statistically significant difference in the amounts of English and Spanish used in two contexts: in the formal and in the familial settings. Subjects also reported a preference for English over Spanish in terms of attitudes as well as amounts of Spanish and English used. The data allowed the inference that Spanish‐English bilingualism is at a crossroads among Dade County's Hispanic youths. While the youths are Spanish‐English bilinguals by their senior year, they appear to be shifting toward the use of English as their primary language of communication. Recommendations for educational policies and practice are provided.
This study aims at investigating language mixing and switch- ing found in the language of the messages (i.e., Indonesian and English) sent through SMS. This research is focused on the factors influencing and the reasons causing language mixing and switching. The research design of this study is descriptive qualitative and the data of the research are 100 messages received by the cell phone of the researcher within four months. The results show that there are five influential factors and nine reasons accounting for language mixing and switching when people are writing a message through SMS. The five factors are: (1) the conversation content, (2) the formality of verbal interaction, (3) the nature of relationship be- tween participants, (4) message effectiveness, and (5) space limitation; and the nine reasons are: (1) talking about a particular topic, (2) being emphatic about something, (3) using sentence fillers or connectors, (4) doing repetition for clarification, (5) clarifying the speech content for the interlocutor, (6) expressing group identity, (7) softening or strengthening request or command, (8) real lexical need, and (9) communication effi- ciency.
In the United States of the 1980's bilingual education is beginning to mature, and as an innovation it may be judged, challenged and explained in terms of its sociology. It is becoming apparent that the success or failure of bilingual education as a remedy or an enrichment has to do with sociocultural factors present in the community but outside the control of educators. Fishman (1976) may be quite correct in saying that “the school can provide instructional power for bilingual education but not functional power for it.” Only the local setting can serve its functional needs. In order to focus this inquiry, we begin by asking a question of each local setting to which bilingual education is brought. The question is: “What is the purpose of bilingual education in this community!” The answers we get may be subsumed under four responses: 1) Bilingual education is more equitable for language minority children. 2) Bilingual education is more effective in teaching English. 3) Bilingual education is helpful in attaining functional bilingualism for a language minority group. 4) Bilingual education is helpful in attaining functional bilingualism for all children. In this essay these four responses are discussed.
Three Mexican American children who were labeled language disordered were observed for four months in their communicative interaction as it existed within the home, neighborhood, and school environments. The purpose of the study was: (1) to examine and describe the communicative competence of the three children who had been labeled as language-disordered; and (2) compare the perceptions of clinicians with those of parents and the children’s observed communicative competencies in naturalistic settings. The results indicated that linguistic, discourse, and social competencies differed for two children who were not seen by the parents as language-disordered and the one child who was believed by the parents to be language- disordered. The conclusion of the study suggested that two of the three children studied were not language-disordered but had limited exposure to the English language. The third child was language-disordered.
From an Africanist standpoint, the paper maps the frontiers of the emerging language management paradigm in the study and practice of politics of language from the perspectives of theory, method, discipline, and practice. The discussion advances two core arguments. First, an Africanist interpretation of the discourse of the politics of language that underpins language management brings to the fore the peculiarities of language management within the African space. Second, it is imperative to develop the theoretical and practical advances in language management concurrently, especially in a continent that is known to rely on intellectual advances from other continents.
This study sets the parameters for the language planning response to Lau us. Nichols. The study examines seminal studies in sociolinguistics and bilingualism as appropriate bases for the response; principally the UNESCO report,‘The Use of Vernacular Languages in Education,’and the research of W. E. Lambert and his associates. The study synthesizes the findings, resolving apparent contradictions by means of certain intervening social-psychological variables. This synthesis is applied to a model constructed from Fishman's summary of world-wide policy responses to bilingualism and bi-dialectal education. This socio-linguistic synthesis is related to political alternatives available for the implementation of the planning. From this, the study demonstrates possible alternative responses to Lau vs. Nichols. The study defines and evaluates each response and concludes in favor of a pluralistic response with its‘bargaining’ consequence.
With the rapid increase in immigration from Latin America to the USA, many US high schools are struggling with the thorny question of how best to educate newcomer immigrant youth with low levels of English proficiency. This paper examines what some might consider an anachronistic educational model Á a segregated bilingual high school for Latino newcomers. Drawing on a qualitative case study of an unusually successful high school in Washington Heights, New York City, the paper argues that the school's vision of second language acquisition as a social process building on the speech community itself, and not just as the individual psycholinguistic process of students , is the key to its success. The paper specifies the factors characterising this speech community model of bilingual education. This school's anomalous success educating its immigrant Spanish-speaking population holds important lessons for the schooling of immigrant youth in an era of standards.
Through the analysis of the development of the current thick, explicit and control-oriented language policy in Estonia, the article argues that this policy cannot meet the future challenges of globalization and modernization of Estonian society, where the Estonian language has to create the basis for common sphere of information for both Estonians and non-Estonians.
This mini-thesis profiles some aspects realted to the accessibility of printed news to first language speakers of Xhosa. The major aim of this thesis is to investigate whether speakers of Xhosa do have access to printed news in English, which is not in their first language. Therefore, this thesis investigates whether African langusge speakers of school leaving age understand hwat they read in English newspapers.
This article explores the production of naturalized temporality and its ideological effects by focusing on the semiotic process of indexical order. Linguistic practice is linked with the exercise of power not only by constructing intersubjective social reality in an ongoing communicative process, but also, and perhaps more powerfully, by constructing an historical narrative that logically unfolds from the (naturalized) indexical order. Drawing on the case of the historical development of “women's language” in Japanese, the article discusses how an indexical order produces a tacit natural history of Japanese women, which surreptitiously turns gender inequality into nature.
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Semantic change is carried forward by specific individuals who think in particular ways, although it can be constrained by physiology and guided by social values. The measurement of color categories provides a close look at the various propelling incentives in a domain that is probably universal. Newly refined descriptive methods enhance such observations, because they permit verification of cognitive differences on the basis of correspondence between independently elicited orders of quantifiable data. Measurable change progresses through diverse trajectories in closely related Mayan languages whose social milieux are radically distinct. In Tzeltal, variation can be explained in terms of individual cognitive shifts within universal physiological parameters. But in Tzotzil a socially enforced conservatism creates tension between the preservation of traditional categories and the addition of new ones. The tension produces a taxonomy that is deeper than any others encountered by the major world color surveys. While a model of individual cognition explains how color categories change at the basic level, a social model accounts for differences between communities.
Uto-Aztecan languages exhibit classification of noun categories by plural marking. In Hopi and in the Tepiman languages, the marked-plural noun category is elaborated to distinguish the flat surfaces of bodies, real and metaphorical, from elements that protrude from and intrude into these surfaces. In Tepiman, nonpatrilineal kin are seen metaphorically as such protrusions/intrusions. The metaphor of the lineage as a body occurs among the matrilineal Hopi, but the specific affective relational dynamics involving nonmatrilineal relatives require that these kin be shifted to the unmarked plural category, for an "anti-Whorfian" effect where culture overrides language.
This paper is concerned with the social mechanisms of linguistic change, and we begin by noting the distinction drawn by Bynon (1977) between two quite different approaches to the study of linguistic change. The first and more idealized, associated initially with traditional nineteenth century historical linguistics, involves the study of successive ‘states of the language’, states reconstructed by the application of comparative techniques to necessarily partial historical records. Generalizations (in the form of laws) about the relationships between these states may then be made, and more recently the specification of ‘possible’ and ‘impossible’ processes of change has been seen as an important theoretical goal.