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The isolated wolf population south of the Douro river: status and action priorities for its recovery

January 2004

Authors:

Clara Grilo

CIBIO | InBIO | BIOPOLIS

Sara Roque

University of Lisbon

Helena Rio Maior

Francisco Petrucci-Fonseca

University of Lisbon

Livestock guarding dog with iron protective collar (Photo: S. Ribeiro)

…

Wolves hunted in Portugal in the 1970s (photo F. Álvares/Grupo Lobo)

…

Wolf South Douro River distribution.

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nterviewing a shepherd about wolves, in Castelo Branco-Portugal (photo C. Espirito-Santo)

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A convergent walls "Fojo" or wolf trap and result of a hunt party-with 2 dead wolves-in one of these traps in the 1950s (Photos: F. Álvares)

…

Figures - uploaded by Sara Roque

Content may be subject to copyright.

Content uploaded by Sara Roque

Content may be subject to copyright.

The magazine of The UK Wolf Conservation Trust, published quarterly

Issue 20 Summer 2004

Special edition on Portugal

Published by:

The UK Wolf Conservation Trust

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Reading RG7 5NT

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Editor

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Editorial Team

Julia Bohanna,Andrew Matthews,

Gwynne Power,Sue Sefscik

Contributors to this issue:

Francisco Alvares, Clara Espirito-Santo, Clara Grilo,

Pedro Primavera, Francisco Petrucci-Fonesca,

Helena Rio-Maior, Silvia Ribeiro, Sara Roque,

Design Team: Phil Dee Tel: 01788 546565

Stephania Balbo, Paul Swainson

Patrons

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Erich Klinghammer

Christoph Promberger

The UK Wolf Conservation Trust Directors

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Charles Hicks

Tsa Palmer

Denise Taylor

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Welcome to a special themed edition of Wolf Print, focusing on the Iberian

wolf (Canis lupus signatus) in Portugal.

Five articles give an insight into how the Iberian wolf has fared historically, and what

work is now being done to help secure the wolves’ future survival. Livestock guarding

dogs (LGDs) are increasingly becoming one of the main methods used to help prevent

livestock depredation. Interestingly, this seems to a more accepted practice in

countries where wolf populations have never been totally eradicated, and where LGDs

are now enjoying a renaissance themselves.

Grupo Lobo is an NGO (non-governmental organisation) working for the conservation

of wolves in Portugal by providing scientific research and education, as well as a wolf

centre that homes captive wolves. Visit their website for further information. Details

can be found on page 6. Our thanks to Grupo Lobo for helping to co-ordinate this

special issue of Wolf Print.

Our apologies for Wolves of the World being a much-shortened version in this issue.

We wanted to present the different aspects of wolf conservation Portugal, which has

led to some space constraints. We have, therefore, only managed to include three

reports from France, Switzerland and an interesting little piece from Japan, which we

wanted to include following on from the report on wolves in China and Japan in the

last issue (No. 19).

It would seem that wolves in Italy should be very wary of crossing political boundaries.

Migration into France and Switzerland has led to protests from sheep farmers in both

countries, and in turn this has led to wolves being culled following livestock

depredation. Dealing with such conflict situations is one of the biggest challenges that

wolf conservationists face. The problems have been exacerbated due to farmers in

these countries not having had experience of large carnivores preying on their

livestock. Animal husbandry has been adapted to this, with sheep being able to roam

more freely, with very little protection. This raises lots of issues and challenges for both

wolf conservation advocates and opponents. But one thing remains clear. Wolves may

be culled to alleviate problems in the short term, but as a protected species they are

here to stay.

UKWCT AUTUMN SEMINAR – SUNDAY 24 OCTOBER 2004

For further details visit the Trust’s website at www.ukwolf.org or contact the

Admin Office on 44 (0) 118 971 3330, email – ukwct@ukwolf.org.

Status and Conservation of the Iberian

Wolf in Portugal

Human Dimensions in Iberian Wolf

Management in Portugal

The Wolf in Rural Communities' Culture

in the North of Portugal

Inside this issue... The Isolated Wolf Population South

of the Douro River: Status and

action priorities for its recovery

Recovering the use of Livestock

Guarding Dogs to Protect the

Iberian Wolf in Portugal

Wolves of the World

Status and Conservation of the Iberian Wolf in Portugal

Status and Conservation

of the

Iberian Wolf

in Portugal

by Francisco Álvares

Figure 1 – Trends in wolf distribution in the Iberian Peninsula

(Adapted from Grande del Brio,1984; Blanco et al., 1990;Petrucci-Fonseca,1990; ICN, 1997)

Photo: Francisco Álvares

Figure 2 – Trends in wolf distribution in Portugal

(Adapted from Petrucci-Fonseca,1990; ICN, 1997;Petrucci-Fonseca & Álvares, 1997)

In Portugal there is a subspecies of grey wolf

that is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula

(Portugal and Spain), the Iberian wolf (Canis

lupus signatus, Cabrera 1907). This

subspecies is slightly smaller than northern

wolves. On average, an adult is 140cm from

nose to tail tip, is 70-80cm tall and has a

weight of 35-55kg.

In the early 20th century, the Iberian wolf

occurred in almost the whole area of the

Iberian Peninsula. In that period, wolf

distribution started to decrease due to

human persecution, with wolves disappearing

from east to west and from south to north

of the Peninsula (Figure 1). Today, Iberian

wolves only occupy northwest Iberia and a

small isolated area in southern Spain, in

Andalucia’s Sierra Morena Oriental

(Figure 1). Iberian wolves were still present

across Portugal in the 1930s, occurring on

coastlands and near Lisbon (Figure 2).

However, in the middle 20th century an

alarming regression of wolf distribution

started to occur mainly due to a ferocious

direct persecution and major habitat changes

particularly in forest cover and prey

availability (Figure 2).

CURRENT STATUS OF IBERIAN WOLF

IN PORTUGAL

In Portugal, specific legislation has fully

protected wolves since the 1990s. This law

forbids wolf capture or killing, habitat

destruction and disturbance of wolves, mainly

during the breeding season and includes

a wolf damage compensation programme.

In addition, the Iberian wolf is listed

as “Endangered” in the Portuguese Red

Data Book.

According to the first national wolf census,

conducted in 1994-1996 (ICN, 1997), the

Portuguese wolf population occupied an area

of 18,000km2 which represented about 20%

of the original distribution area.At that time,

the estimate corresponded to approximately

300 wolves (about 55-60 packs) in Portugal.

A new national wolf census was conducted

between 2002 and 2003, and although the

results are not fully analysed, it seems that

wolf population status and distribution are

similar to the ones obtained in the middle

1990s; however, unstable wolf nuclei were

Status and Conservation of the Iberian Wolf in Portugal 5

Figure 3 – Ecological features in different regions of the Portuguese wolf population

(density,main prey and most frequent non-natural death causes)

Photo: Francisco Álvares

localized in some marginal and humanised

areas (Grupo Lobo/ICN, unpublished data).

Currently, wolves survive mainly in the

mountainous regions of north and central

Portugal which have a low human population

density and an important agricultural and

husbandry industry (Figure 3).

The main and more stable wolf nuclei are

located in Peneda-Gerês National Park (NW

Portugal), Montesinho Natural Park (NE

Portugal) and Alvão Natural Park (central

North Portugal).These three wolf nuclei are a

regular source of dispersing animals due to

their reproductive stability.These regions thus

have a strong influence in maintaining wolf

packs in the more unstable surrounding areas.

Wolf distribution area in Portugal is not

continuous, because there are two

populations divided by the Douro river. The

population in the north shows stability and is

contiguous with the Spanish wolf population,

while the small and isolated population in the

south, shows a high degree of fragmentation

and faces a danger of extinction.

THE ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IN

PORTUGUESE WOLVES

In spite of the reduced wolf range in Portugal,

this carnivore shows a wide ecological

diversity, which is a reflection of diverse

habitat conditions and wolf high adaptability

(Figure 3). In the rough mountains of NW

Portugal (Peneda-Gerês National Park), the

wolf feeds mainly on free ranging horses and

cattle (almost 50% of wolf diet) and on goats

(37% of wolf diet), which leads this region to

have the highest values of economic damage

due to wolf predation in Portugal. This fact

generates a huge conflict between man and

wolf, which results in high illegal persecution

mainly through poisoning (15% of known

mortality) and shooting (32% of known

mortality). Nevertheless, this wolf nucleus

reaches high densities (with pack size up

to 15 wolves), only possible due to the

reduced humanization of habitat and to high

prey availability.

In NE Portugal (east region of Montesinho

Natural Park) there is a high density of wild

ungulates (roe deer, red deer and wild boar)

that represents the wolf's main prey (around

70% of the diet). Consequently, this wolf

nucleus does not suffer from an evident direct

persecution by man,allowing wolf densities to

be high.

The region of Alvão mountains represents

an intermediate situation, where wolves feed

mainly on the two most common ungulates in

the area: goats (constituting 70% of wolf diet)

and wild boar (15% of wolf diet). South of the

Douro River wolves show a similar ecological

behaviour, although they frequently feed on

carrion and garbage dumps. The wolf

ecological features in these two Portuguese

regions reflect the ecology of the majority of

the Iberian wolf population, and across the

whole of southern Europe. Wolves surviving

in humanised areas occur in median and low

densities. They take advantage of the

availability of food due to human proximity,

but pay a high price by suffering a significant

non-natural mortality. Wolves living in such

conditions are in a precarious balance, and

can be threatened by growing habitat

deterioration and fragmentation.

THREATS AND PERSPECTIVES TO WOLF

CONSERVATION

The present critical situation of the Iberian

wolf in Portugal and the regression that this

species has been facing during the last

decades are due to direct or indirect human

causes. Today, the main threats that the wolf

faces in Portugal are scarcity of wild prey

(red deer and roe deer),habitat deterioration

due to forest fires and human incursion,

and habitat fragmentation due to the

proliferation of barriers to wolf movements

(such as dams and highways).The existence of

high numbers of feral and stray dogs also

represents a problem to wolf conservation

because these dogs often produce livestock

damages that are mistakenly attributed to

wolves by farmers. For those reasons wolf

conservation measures in Portugal should

ensure the minimisation of the economic

impact of wolf damage, habitat improvement

and educational campaigns.

Currently, several research studies and

conservation measures regarding wolves are

being conducted in Portugal. The Nature

Conservation Institute (ICN) is the

governmental institution responsible for wolf

conservation and management in Portugal. It

has been ensuring and improving wolf

legislation (namely the damage compensation

Status and Conservation of the Iberian Wolf in Portugal

GRUPO LOBO

Grupo Lobo is an independent and non-profit association that was founded in

1985 to work on Wolf Conservation and its habitat in Portugal. In 1987,Grupo

Lobo started the Signatus Project – A Strategy for Wolf Conservation in

Portugal, which operates on two levels. For the first one, focused on

developing an educational campaign, Grupo Lobo has a large collection of

pamphlets, newspaper articles, movies, photographs, CDs and also a travelling

exhibition, which is available for anyone interested in learning about wolves.

Whenever asked Grupo Lobo gives talks to different groups: students,

hunters, livestock owners, etc.

The second level aims at scientific research employing a number of

strategies: monitoring wolf populations (distribution and census), ecological

studies involving radio-tracking programmes, ecological modelling to identify

suitable habitats for wolf conservation and to define reintroduction areas for

wild preys,genetics,parasitology,recovering traditional livestock guarding dogs

use, conducting human dimensions research and understanding the cultural

relationship between humans and wolves.

Grupo Lobo is also responsible for managing the Iberian Wolf

Recovery Centre (IWRC), where disabled/wounded wolves,or wolves kept in

deficient captivity conditions, are cared for and studied. The IWRC runs an

international voluntary programme and a wolf adoption programme for

anyone interested in wolf conservation. Contact: globo@fc.ul.pt ;

Website: http://www.lobo.fc.ul.pt

Photo: Francisco Álvares

Photo: Rui Vasco

system) and has been managing habitat for

wolf conservation mostly inside protected

areas (which compromises 30% of national

wolf range). ICN has recently assured

measures to support damage prevention

(mainly through a livestock guarding dog

distribution programme in NE Portugal) and

has implemented a Dead Wolf Monitoring

System. This system was devised to

systematically register wolf death

occurrences nationally, to obtain a better

knowledge of wolf death causes and to

provide biological material for the

development of relevant scientific studies.

Grupo Lobo, on the other hand, has been

conducting intense educational and

awareness campaigns for wolf conservation

and has developed several lines of scientific

research on wolves as well as practical

conservation measures (see text box about

Grupo Lobo on page xx).The continuous wolf

monitoring started almost a decade ago in

some wolf nuclei and the two wolf national

censuses (in 1994-1996 and in 2002-2003)

have been carried out by both ICN and

Grupo Lobo.

References

ALEXANDRE, A S.; CÂNDIDO, A. T. & F.

Petrucci-Fonseca, (2000). A população lupina

portuguesa a sul do rio Douro. Galemys, 12

(NE): 113-122.

Álvares, F., PEREIRA, E. & F. Petrucci-Fonseca,

(2000). O lobo no Parque Internacional

Gerês-Xurês: situação populacional, aspectos

ecológicos e perpectivas de conservação.

Galemys, 12 (NE): 223-239.

Blanco,J. C.; Cuesta L.& S.Reig (1990). El lobo

(Canis lupus) en España. Situacion,

problematica y apuntes sobre su ecología.

ICONA, Colección Técnica, Madrid, 118 pp.

CARREIRA, R. & F. Petrucci-Fonseca, (2000).

O lobo na região oeste de Trás-os-Montes

(Portugal). Galemys, 12 (NE): 123-134.

Grande del Brio, R., (1984). El lobo ibérico,

biología y mitología. Serie Ciencias de la

Naturaleza. Ed. Hermann Blume. Madrid.

344pp.

ICN (1997). Projecto Conservação do lobo

em Portugal. Program LIFE Final Report,

Instituto da Conservação da Natureza,

Lisboa.

MOREIRA, L. (1998). O lobo no nordeste de

Trás-os-Montes. Património Natural

Transmontano. João Azevedo Editor.

Mirandela. 85pp.

Petrucci-Fonseca, F. (1990). O lobo (Canis

lupus signatus Cabrera, 1907) em Portugal.

Problemática da sua conservação. PhD Thesis.

Sciences Faculty of Lisbon Univessity. Lisboa.

392 pp.

Petrucci-Fonseca, F. & F. Álvares, (1997).

Evolução histórica da distribuição e análise da

situação actual do lobo na metade sul de

Portugal. Abstracts of “II Jornadas sobre el

Lobo mediterrâneo”, Sevilha (Spain): 20-21

Human Dimensions in Iberian Wolf Management in Portugal

Human Dimensions in

Iberian Wolf Management

in Portugal by Clara Espirito-Santo and Francisco Petrucci-Fonseca

Figure 1 – Wolves hunted in Portugal in the 1970s (photo F.Álvares/Grupo Lobo)

The integration of human dimensions (HD)

research into wildlife management started in

the late 1970s in North America and in the

1990s in Europe. In Portugal, HD research

emerged in the mid 1990s with some

occasional studies focused on wolf

management, particularly because of the

historical conflicts with livestock owners,

hunters and locals (Figure 1). As in many

countries around the world, wolf

management in Portugal tends to be more

socio-political in nature than biological.

Biologists have examined several aspects of

wolf biology in Portugal, but the human

component has not received the same

attention from wildlife researchers. Wolf

management involves not only an

understanding of the biology of the species

and its habitat, but also an understanding of

public attitudes and knowledge of the species,

and opinions about possible management

approaches. Public involvement into wildlife

management decision-making is still at an

early stage in Portugal. Decision-making is still

a top-down approach with no input of the

public's views, concerns or needs.

HUMAN DIMENSIONS RESEARCH IN

PORTUGAL

In order to understand the human

component in the wolf management process

in Portugal, the Grupo Lobo started two main

projects.The first study,started in 1994, was a

quantitative analysis of attitudes, beliefs, and

fear toward wolves among the general public,

and various interest groups at a national level.

A self-administered questionnaire containing

four sections covering attitudes, beliefs, and

fear toward wolves, and socio-demographic

data was mailed to the general public,

environmental NGOs, livestock owners,

hunters and journalists randomly selected

from the national population. In 1999, a

similar questionnaire was mailed to 100

schools from the 1st to the 12th grade (6-18

years-old), using different wording according

to the age of the respondents.

Data was collected from 6556 respondents:

272 from the general public, 262 from

environmental NGOs, 229 livestock owners,

693 hunters, 240 journalists, and 4860

students. The results show that attitudes

toward wolves were neutral to moderately

positive among all interest groups.

Environmentalists and students expressed the

most positive opinions followed by journalists

and hunters. Livestock owners and the

general public showed the least positive

opinions. Hunters and environmentalists had

the highest knowledge about wolves, and

livestock owners and the general public

scored the lowest from all respondents, but

scores were consistently low among all

groups. In general, more than half of the

questions on wolf biology were answered

incorrectly. Students, the general public and

livestock owners showed more fear of wolves

than the media, hunters or environmentalists.

When we analysed the relationship between

the three variables, results were similar in all

groups. Positive attitudes were associated

with higher knowledge about wolves. Fear

was negatively related with both knowledge

and attitude. People with a less positive

attitude and a lower knowledge score

expressed a stronger fear of the wolf. This

study also showed that adults and elderly with

low scholar education, living in rural areas

were more negative toward wolves than

young respondents with high scholar

education, living in urban centres. Overall,

the positive feelings expressed by

environmentalists and hunters might be a

result, respectively, of an easy access to

information and a direct contact with nature.

On the other hand, it was surprising the lack

of knowledge registered among journalists.All

interest groups could benefit from more

information about the wolf. The fact that

attitude and fear were strongly associated to

knowledge about wolves led us to believe

that, among the Portuguese population,

outdoor activities of environmental education

would have real positive effects on the

Iberian-wolf conservation.

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE HD

RESEARCH

The second study developed by Grupo Lobo

from 2001 to 2003 was the first quantitative

and qualitative study on HD in wolf

management in Portugal. It was focused on a

specific region in Central Portugal (South of

the Douro River) where a wolf small

population lives, isolated from the main

population in the North (see C. Grilo et al.,in

this issue). The main goal of this quantitative

research was to understand attitudes and

beliefs toward wolves and wolf management

in Portugal, to test whether these attitudes

and beliefs vary between interest groups and

across space, and to identify factors affecting

Figure 2 – Interviewing a shepherd about wolves, in Castelo Branco - Portugal (photo C. Espirito-Santo)

Human Dimensions in Iberian Wolf Management in Portugal

them. Data was collected through 1753

personal interviews (Figure 2) with 1209

respondents from the general public, 111

livestock owners, 105 hunters, and 328 high

school students, in three different zones:

Aveiro/Viseu (n=573), Guarda (n=590), and

Castelo Branco (n=590).These regions were

divided according to the administrative

boundaries of the counties and to a gradient

of wolf density: a relatively stable wolf

subpopulation lives in Aveiro/Viseu, wolves

occur irregularly in Guarda, and wolves

disappeared from Castelo Branco in the

1970s. Interviews were conducted using a

questionnaire with 68 items covering

attitudes, beliefs, experiences with wolves,

importance of wolf management issues, and

socio-demographic data.

The qualitative HD research aimed for an

understanding of the key issues and solutions

regarding wolf management at a regional and

national scale, the key roles of each interest

group, and who should be involved in the

decision-making in the perspective of each

group. Unstructured interviews were

conducted usually with members of the

executive board level of 31 interest groups:

livestock owners associations, hunting

associations, wolf biologists, environmental

NGOs, and members from ICN (the

governmental Institute for Nature

Conservation, responsible for payment of

wolf caused damage on livestock).

ATTITUDES TOWARD WOLVES AND

WOLF MANAGEMENT

Results from the quantitative analyses show

that attitudes of the general public are not

homogeneous among all respondents. The

public splits in two main groups, one in each

extreme of the attitudinal spectrum. While

some interest groups like hunters, livestock

owners and students are close to a neutral

position in their opinions about wolves, the

general public either love or hate wolves.The

various interest groups have different

opinions regarding wolf management, but

although inter-group differences occur, intra-

group attitudes are in general homogeneous.

Overall, opinions toward wolf

management do not differ significantly

between regions. For example, wolves'

impact on small game species or wild

ungulate populations, like the roe deer or the

wild boar, is not an issue of concern among

surveyed hunters across the study area. In

terms of wolves' impact on livestock, all

interest groups strongly agree that wolves

feed primarily and cause abundant damage

on livestock.Although wolves take less than

1% of the available livestock inside the study

area (based on damage databases from ICN),

some villages have registered more than 300

wolf attacks in a five-year period (1997-

2001).The vast majority of the respondents

do not know the number of domestic

animals killed by wolves every year but still

believe that the impact of wolf predation is

very high. When people's tolerance toward

wolves is in question, it is the loss they

perceive, rather than the real loss that

influences public opinion toward the

predator. Actual damage is in general much

lower than perceived damage, also because

damage caused by feral dogs is often

attributed to wolves.However, if the public is

willing to discuss ways of dealing with wolf-

livestock problems and finding solutions to

address those issues then the stage for

human-wolf coexistence is set and managers

only have to work with the interest groups

toward finding the most appropriate

management measures.

Livestock owners are completely in favour

of a compensation system supported by the

government for damage caused by wolves.

Those living in wolf range think it is more

appropriate to pay compensation only to

those who make some effort in preventing

attacks from wolves. When the perceived

impact of wolves on livestock and wild prey

increases, there is higher agreement with

payment of compensations to livestock

owners, independently from the preventive

methods in use. Half of the general public

agree with money from taxes being used by

the government for compensation, but the

vast majority of the public thinks that the

government should help livestock owners in

implementing methods for preventing wolf

attacks on livestock like good guarding dogs

or electric fences. Involving various interest

groups, particularly livestock owners and

ICN in the discussion of compensation issues

is very important for proper management of

the wolf. Managers and the interest groups

should think whether compensation

mechanisms are a good approach for

minimizing conflicts and increasing tolerance,

and should evaluate the benefits and the

sustainability of such mechanisms on a

long term.

ATTITUDES AND KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge levels about wolves vary

between the various groups, with hunters

being the most knowledgeable and students

the less knowledgeable. Regional differences

do not occur among livestock owners and

hunters' knowledge levels, but do occur

among students and respondents from the

general public. Students from Castelo Branco

score the lowest from all the respondents

probably because they have never lived in

contact with wolves.

Attitudes and knowledge about wolves are

correlated in some cases, mostly among

respondents from the general public. While

some respondents have positive attitudes

associated with some knowledge about

wolves, others have a good knowledge but

their opinions are negative. These

respondents are mainly elderly, living in rural

areas, who consider wolf management issues

to be very important, and want to keep up to

date on these issues. The relationship

between attitudes and knowledge depends

on the issue. Knowledge reduces fear toward

wolves and fear is negatively associated with

attitudes, which means that "fear" is an

important variable when analysing the

association between knowledge and

attitudes. Although knowledge about wolves

does not generally have a clear relationship

with attitudes, high levels of scholar

education seem to play a major role on

improving attitudes. These and other

socio-economic factors, like gender, age,

residence and occupation, or the kind of

experiences with wolves and the interest on

wolf management issues, have a strong

association with opinions about wolves and

wolf management.

Human Dimensions in Iberian Wolf Management in Portugal 9

Clara Espirito-Santo is currently

pursuing a M.A. in Human Dimensions

in Natural Resource Management, at

Memorial University of Newfoundland –

Canada.In 1998, she completed a 5-year

programme in Biology at the Faculty

of Sciences – University of Lisbon.

Her professional interests include

endangered species conservation

(particularly large carnivores), conflict

resolution in wildlife management and

public involvement on decision-making.

In 1999, she started working at

Grupo Lobo (Wolf Group in Portugal)

in various research projects aimed at

understanding public attitudes toward

wolves. She has been participating in

national and international workshops

and conferences focused on large

carnivore conservation. Contact:

cesanto@hotmail.com

KEY ISSUES IN WOLF MANAGEMENT

The qualitative research allowed the

identification of many issues and solutions

around wolf management on the perspective

of each interest group.The groups identified a

wide range of issues covering agriculture and

livestock issues (e.g. abandonment of

agriculture; disappearance of traditional

husbandry methods), communication issues

(e.g. behavioural conflicts due to mistrust

between interest groups), biological issues

(e.g. lack of wild prey), legal and political

issues (e.g. Common Agricultural Policy

reform; ICN top-down approach for

managing wildlife), and cultural issues (e.g.

myths about captive wolves being released

into the wild; childhood stories). All groups

agreed that the abundance of feral dogs,

poaching, and lack of good habitat for wolves,

environmental education and biological data

are major key issues in wolf management.The

interest groups can see there are issues of

common concern and similar solutions to

address key issues.The interviews acted as a

means to open lines of communication and

allowed the opportunity to begin building

possible partners for future HD work and

discussion concerning wolf management.

Discussing issues of common concern to all

groups is a good starting point for a process

of conflict resolution.

The respondents do not only identify

issues and problems around wolf

management, but also come up with long lists

of solutions to address those issues and solve

the problems. The groups clearly recognise

the need to integrate other interest groups

and the local communities on the decision-

making. Besides the interest groups sampled

in this study,more than twenty other groups

were pointed out as important players on a

future debate.The Ministries of Environment

and Agriculture are given the highest number

of roles on wolf management,but the interest

groups always assume for themselves some

tasks to address wolf management issues.

The importance of this project and the

urgency of a joint work were recognized

by all respondents from the various

interest groups.

Successful management from a human

perspective largely rests on the ability to

listen to and incorporate differing interest

group values, attitudes, and beliefs in the

decision-making process, reaching consensus

and gaining public acceptance of the final

decision. Clearly, Portuguese wildlife

managers have to shift from a traditional top-

down to a bottom-up approach with a deep

process of public involvement from the early

stages of the decision-making. Wolf

management is, at its core, the management

of people, and if people are part of the

problem they must be part of the solution.

The Wolf in Rural

Communities' Culture in

the North of Portugal

by Francisco Álvares and Pedro Primavera

10 The Wolf in Rural Communities' Culture in the North of Portugal

The Wolf in Rural

Communities' Culture in

the North of Portugal

Figure 1: Livestock guarding dog with iron protective collar

(Photo: S. Ribeiro)

Photo: Francisco Álvares

In 1997 an anthropological study, co-

supported by Grupo Lobo, was initiated with

the goal of gathering information on different

cultural manifestations of the wolf in rural

communities in north Portugal. Data was

collected in around 90 rural villages through

personal interviews with inhabitants older

than 60 years old.The results show that the

complex cultural manifestations resulting

from wolf-rural communities interaction are

related with two distinct views of this

carnivore: one admits him as a real threat to

livestock; the other presents the wolf as a

mythic and supernatural beast, and which is

promoted by ancient and religious oral

traditions that associates the wolf with an

anti-Christ figure.The cultural manifestations

associated with wolves in North Portugal

have great affinities with the wolf in the

cultural tradition of several North Spanish

regions (Galiza,Asturias and North Castilla y

León), which demonstrate the ethnic and

cultural similarity between the people

inhabiting the mountains of NW Iberia.

THE WOLF AS A THREAT TO LIVESTOCK

There is no doubt that,for a long time, wolves

have represented a real threat to livestock,

causing important economic damage on the

weak rural economy.For that reason,over the

centuries, communities developed several

methods to prevent wolf predation on

livestock. One of them is the native breeds of

livestock-guarding dogs, which is

simultaneously a cultural and a biological

legacy.Traditionally, where wolves occur, the

shepherds protect the throats of these

massive dogs by using articulated iron collars

with sharp spikes or nails pointed outwards

(Figure 1). Less frequently dogs are provided

with articulated iron armour for the

protection of their abdomens and backs.

THE BYGONE ART OF TRAPPING

WOLVES IN PORTUGAL

Rural communities have used several

methods to capture and kill wolves.The most

impressive method are the fojos do lobo or

stone wall traps or pits. The structures built

for capturing wolves were of three distinct

types.The simple fojo was formed by a single

pit in the ground (with or without levelled

stone walls surrounding the hole) located

along a frequently-used wolf trail, into which

wolves fell after being attracted by dead or

living bait, or pursuit by a hunting party or by

means of a rotating trap-door mechanism.The

goat fojo was a 15-30 metres diameter

circular stone wall inside which living bait

(most frequently a goat) was placed.The walls

of this trap allowed wolves an easy entrance

but it was almost impossible for them to get

out, due to a last row of overhanging stones.

The convergent walls fojo was a V-shaped trap

formed by two long stone walls (each one up

The Wolf in Rural Communities' Culture in the North of Portugal 11

Figure 2 – A convergent

walls “Fojo” or wolf trap

and result of a hunt

party-with 2 dead

wolves - in one of these

traps in the 1950s

(Photos: F. Álvares)

to 1km long and 2m high) which converged

into a deep pit, where wolves were driven by

a hunting party made up of large numbers of

local people from one or more villages

(Figure 2).

Capturing a wolf in one of these wolf traps

was a cause of great satisfaction and joy to

the rural population.The captured wolf, alive

or dead, was shown in all the surrounding

villages, with hunters collecting rewards and

enhancing their reputations. The pelt of

captured wolves was offered to prominent

local personalities or, less frequently, used in

festivities. Due to their great durability, the

pelts could also be used in the manufacture of

agricultural clothing.

The first references in Portugal to the use

of these wolf traps go back to the 10th

century,and these were regularly used among

rural communities until the end of the 19th

century.In certain Iberian regions, the “Fojos”

were still used until the late 1970s. Although

similar structures for capturing wolves are

known in other European regions (such as

Scandinavia,Alps, Romania and Hungary) and

in North India, it was in the NW Iberian

mountains that these stone-made traps

attained their most elaborate development.

However, most of these monuments of high

ethnological value and great touristic

potential have fallen into ruin, mainly due to

negligence and apathy. Fortunately, in the last

few years several restoration projects have

been implemented, many of them with the

scientific support of Grupo Lobo.

TALES OF A MYTHIC AND

SUPERNATURAL BEAST

The fascination, hate and fear that the wolf

provokes, has produced over the centuries a

great number of tales and superstitions which

present the animal in a villainous light.There

are several folk tales and proverbs that

demonstrate a certain admiration for wolves

and some knowledge of wolf biology and

ecology. However the majority manifest a

distorted view of the wolf, investing the

animal with supernatural powers.This cultural

vision of the wolf reflects human desires and

fears and has nothing to do with the real wolf.

Among the rural communities very often the

wolf is spoken of as a mythical figure.

In north Portugal, in spite of the fact that

there are no authenticated cases of humans

being attacked by healthy wolves, tales of

wolves carrying out long-term persecutions

of farmers, and devouring isolated travellers

have persisted up to the present day. Such

stories form an oral tradition which is

common to the entire Iberian Peninsula.We

found several superstitions associated with

wolves, for example that simply being in the

presence of a wolf makes people’s hair stand

on end and renders them speechless for

several days. Other beliefs suggest an

association between the wolf and Satan, such

as the one which maintains that wolves never

eat the right arm of their victims, because it is

the arm used to make the sign of the Cross.

We also find that ancient prayers intended to

ward off the evil influences of the wolf or to

prevent wolf attacks on livestock, are still

recited today by many shepherds.

One of the most striking beliefs still

present in the mind of rural inhabitants in the

north of Portugal is the werewolf. It is

strongly believed that a curse placed on a

normal person can turn him into a wolf-beast

which attacks humans and animals.This may

be due to a paternal curse, the fact of being

an illegitimate child or by being the seventh

same-sex consecutive born child of a family,

unless his/her older brother is made his/her

godfather. Among rural people, it is believed

that if anyone wounds the werewolf, the

moment he sheds blood he will regain his

human shape.

In the far north of Portugal and in Galiza

(Spain) there survives the belief in the Fada

dos lobos or Peeira dos lobos which means

wolf’s fairy. It is a woman (usually elderly)

who has the power to communicate with

and control wolf packs, wandering with a

pack through the woods during the night ,to

help lost travelers find their way home or to

attack those who have dared to harm the

wolf’s fairy.

THE WOLF AS A CREATURE WITH A

HEALING POWER

Apparently, a few centuries ago, the use of

the wolf’s throat was a common practice.

One of the most impressive cultural

manifestations connected to wolves is the

use of wolf’s body parts to cure human or

livestock illnesses. It is known that, in some

Iberian Peninsula regions, until the beginning

of the 20th century, a wolf’s teeth (mainly

canines),fur or blood was used to heal certain

human sickness. However, the perceived

magic properties of certain wolf parts is

implicitly recognized in the gola do lobo or

wolf’s throat, still in use in North Portugal.

The wolf’s throat is a piece of mummified

wolf’s trachea (or windpipe) used to cure a

illness called lobagueira, provoked by the

wolf’s ‘poisonous’breath. This breath is

believed to hover around the places where

the wolf walks or to come from wolf’s

excreta. It is believed that this disease is

commonly carried by the domestic pig, an

animal that still represents the main source of

meat for these rural populations. It is believed

that dogs and goats can also carry the illness

without showing any symptoms, and infect

pigs.To prevent lobagueira, farmers still recite

little prayers or charms, and throw salt and

fireplace ashes over vegetation used for cattle

bedding and food or over livestock recently

attacked by wolves. However, even with all

these precautions and conjurations, the

disease could infect the pigs’ corral, making

these animals apathetic, and

debilitating them with pain. The

only way of healing these pigs

would be to pour water

through the wolf’s throat and

immediately give it to the sick

pigs to drink (Figure 3).

A few centuries ago the

wolf’s throat was commonly

used in several regions of NW

Iberia. Its generalized use has

been lost since the beginning of

the 19th century, with the only

known exception of Barroso (a

small and remote area in North

Portugal), where several

shepherds still use theirs to heal

the lobagueira. Some of these

wolf’s throats are more than

150 years old and have been

passed down from generation

to generation as a precious

heirloom. However, in the near

future, there is no doubt that

the use of the wolf’s throat will

only exist in the memory of

these rural communities that

still coexist with the wolf.

1612 The Wolf in Rural Communities' Culture in the North of Portugal

Figure 3 – A “Wolf throat” and a

woman pouring water through it

(Photos: F. Álvares)

THE WOLF AS A CREATURE WITH A

RECENT MYTHS:ARE WOLVES BEING

RELEASED?

Though it may seem strange, there are

modern myths that can greatly obstruct wolf

field research and wolf conservation. In many

rural areas of north Portugal, asking or talking

about wolves can antagonise the villagers.This

is because the outsider (often a wolf

researcher) might be one of those who are

‘releasing’ wolves. In Portugal, as in many

European regions, there is a widespread

rumour – particularly among the rural

populations but also among the media

and even some “wildlife conservationists” –

that the government, researchers or

environmental associations are deliberately

releasing massive numbers of wolves into

the wild.

Rural populations believe that wolves are

only released and do not breed in the wild

anymore.They say that these released wolves

are different from the ‘old ones’or ‘the real

ones’, although the descriptions of the

differences between the two are quite

incoherent.This belief may have its origins in

the confusion of wolves with feral/stray dogs

and with the great ignorance among rural

people concerning true wolf biology and

population dynamics.

LESSONS FROM ANCIENT MYTHS STILL

SURVIVING IN RECENT TIMES

It is a matter of urgency to study and record

all these vanishing cultural manifestations that

exemplify the cultural importance of the wolf

to rural communities. Not only are there

anthropological reasons, because these

manifestations express the intimate bonds that

link the rural people to their natural

environment and combine pagan beliefs with

catholic religiosity, but they also provide us

with important information about rural

communities’ attitudes toward wolves, which

can help to reduce human-wolf conflict.

In addition, in NW Portugal (mainly in

Peneda-Gerês National Park), several wolf

conservation actions are being conducted to

take advantage of this rich cultural heritage

and hopefully make wolves more acceptable to

local communities. Education and awareness

campaigns focused on children and adults living

in wolf areas have been undertaken with the

aim of giving them greater knowledge of this

vanishing wolf-related cultural heritage and

replacing irrational wolf myths with proper

scientific knowledge. Because the Iberian wolf

distribution area coincides with economically

less-favoured mountainous regions, several

eco-tourism activities (especially stone wolf-

traps’ restoration and guided tours centred on

wolf ecology and wolf-related culture) have

been also implemented.

Information request: We kindly request

researchers who may have any information on

this subject (cultural relationships between

wolves and rural communities) in other

European or Asiatic regions, to contact us by

e-mail (to francisco_alvares@hotmail.com or

pedroprimavera@hotmail).

Francisco Álvares is a research

biologist of the Science Faculty of Lisbon

University. Since 1993 he has been

conducting several studies in Portugal

and Spain on wolf ecology and on

the cultural wolf-man relationship.

Currently he is finishing his PhD

focused on the ecological relations

between wolves and free ranging

horses and cattle in Northwest

Por tugal. He is author and co-author

of several papers on ecology and

conservation of endangered mammals,

birds and reptiles, which are his

main research interests. Contact:

francisco_alvares@hotmail.com

Pedro Primavera has graduated in

Anthropology in the Social and Political

Sciences Institute of Lisbon’s Technical

University. Since 1997 he has

participated in several projects

concerning the cultural human-wolf

relationship and the restoration of

stone-made wolf traps (“Fojos”). He

has been participating in national

and international workshops and

conferences on the cultural interaction

of wolves and rural communities.

Contact: pedroprimavera@hotmail.com

The Isolated Wolf Population South of the Douro River: Status and action priorities for its recovery 13

The Isolated Wolf Population South of

the Douro River: Status and action priorities

for its recovery

Figure 1 – Wolf South Douro River distribution.

by Clara Grilo, Sara Roque,

Helena Rio-Maior and Francisco Petrucci-Fonseca

Major habitat changes associated with the

construction of several dams along the

Douro River (one of the major Iberian

rivers) in the 1950s has bisected the

Portuguese wolf population. Meanwhile, the

decrease of the Iberian wolf population

from the South and Central Iberian

Peninsula has led to the progressive

isolation of a small population south of the

Douro River in Portugal. This population

seems to be the only viable one south of

this river, although controversy surrounds

the survival and status of a Spanish Wolf

population in Sierra Morena (south Spain in

Andalucia Province) (Llaneza et al. 1997,

Blanco & Cortés 2002). This fact gives

Portugal a heavy responsibility to provide

suitable conditions for the maintenance of

the Portuguese Wolf Population South of

Douro River and its future recovery in the

Central Iberian Peninsula.

MAIN THREATS AND MAJOR

CONSERVATION PROBLEMS

Besides the lack of prey, human persecution,

habitat loss, and reduction of genetic

variability, new threats have increased the

danger of extinction of this small Iberian

wolf population. Extensive logging and the

clearing of forests by fire (destroying

every year 250km2 on average) has been

reducing wolf shelter areas. The

construction of new roads and other

infrastructures can jeopardise the future of

this predator in the region due to road

casualties and population fragmentation.

Over the last ten years wolf road kills

amount to about 10% of the total

population (Rio-Maior et al. 2003).

Moreover, a highway (IP3) has been

constructed on the west limit of the wolf

range and crosses a pack territory dividing

the wolf distribution area (Figure 1). This

new highway may be acting as a barrier

and/or filter to animal movements, thus

increasing wolf population fragmentation.

The construction in the near future of Wind

Turbine Parks comprising an area of 20% of

the wolf’s range is being planned. These

infrastructures are associated with the

opening of new paved and forest roads,

increasing human access to natural areas

unspoiled until now. Most of them are

located in Natura 2000 sites that were

proposed in order to contribute to the

recovery of the Iberian wolf population.The

necessary minimisation measures of all

infrastructures proposed for Natura 2000

sites (including the mentioned highway) that

could reduce the threat of wolf extinction in

the area are being neglected.

Current wolf legal protection does not

seem to be sufficient to avoid local wolf

extinction. A management plan for Iberian

Wolf conservation and recovery that

considers the dispersal of individuals and

natural range expansion is needed.

Management measures should be applied to

promote wolf expansion to areas outside the

current distribution that still offer suitable

habitat for the wolf. A long-term study was

initiated in 1991 aiming to increase

knowledge of wolf ecology, to monitor

population evolution and to look at potential

area expansion. The study area was defined

taking into consideration wolf distribution

in the South Douro River area since the

1970s (Petrucci-Fonseca 1990) and the

results obtained so far allow the pointing out

of some guidelines for wolf conservation in

the area.

CURRENT POPULATION STATUS AND

FEEDING HABITS

Wolf monitoring shows the existence, in

2003, of seven packs distributed across an

area of approximately 5000 km2 (Figure 1),

split into two nuclei.The West Nucleus is the

most viable one in the medium/long term,

since there is evidence to suggest that

reproduction has taken place in half of the

packs that are part of this group. The East

Nucleus has only one confirmed pack with no

evidence of reproduction and appears to be

in a very precarious situation. Further, in the

area along the Spanish border, wolf presence

was confirmed but it seems that there are no

established packs. This presence is probably

due to dispersers, solitary wolves or

members of very unstable packs (Roque et al.

2003a). The results demonstrate the danger

of extinction that this wolf population is

facing. Furthermore, although data are not

sufficient to reach a final conclusion,

exchanges of individuals between both nuclei,

which is fundamental for the survival of this

population, seems to be very difficult.

The feeding habits studies reveal a large

dependence on livestock, which represents

75% of frequency of occurrence (F.O.) in scats

(n=506). Cattle and goats are the main

domestic prey and wild boar the most

important wild prey (F.O.=7%). The presence

of cattle does not represent a predatory

selection, but results from the availability of

cattle carcasses – dumped on the field

inside wolf range (an illegal action according

to European Union legislation). In these

sites wolves can find an important amount of

“easy food” resulting from carcasses dumped

by the cattle industry, pig farms and poultries.

In fact, approximately half of the wolf’s

biomass intake results from its scavenging

habits. Nevertheless, damages to livestock

are still frequent. The highest values for

predatory impact were recorded for goats

and sheep - respectively 2.1% and 1.7%.

Each pack shows a different impact on

livestock depending on the availability of

livestock and husbandry methods in each

territory (Roque et al. 2003b).

crossing points on the

main unfenced roads and

all highway IP3 passages

in the wolf range

(Rio-Maior et al. 2003).

By comparing wolf

road kill spots and

crossing points, one can

conclude that the main

factor associated with

wolf road casualties

was traffic volume.

The implementation of

adequate traffic calming

measures, like bumpers,

near cross and kill spots

could reduce wolf road

kills. For a seven-

month period wolf

signs were registered

only in one passageway

of IP3. This is an

overpass characterized

by abundant vegetation

cover on both sides,

promoting habitat

contiguity. This result

indicates, on the one

hand, that IP3 acts as a

barrier to wolf movements and, on the other

hand, that wolves can use those passages with

adequate habitat management in surrounding

areas. This management can be achieved by

using the same vegetation included in the

surrounding habitats and a soil cover

depending on the type of vegetation to be

favoured, and by screening the area in order

to minimise the disturbance of animals by

light or noise. Thus, adaptation of existing

engineering works that have been

designed for other purposes can be an

adequate solution.

NATURA 2000 – INSUFFICIENT TO

SUSTAIN WOLF CONSERVATION

To conserve the Iberian wolf in this region,

the wolf suitable habitat must be managed in

order to maintain quality and avoid practices

unfriendly to wolf survival. The current

Natura 2000 Sites list proposed by the

Portuguese government is insufficient to

sustain wolves in the short/medium term

period. In the region there are only two

Natura 2000 sites suitable for the wolf:“Sierra

Montemuro” and “Sierra Freita-Arada”,

comprising 40% of the Wolf Population South

of Douro River range. For this reason, Grupo

Lobo and WWF/Adena proposed a new site -

“Lapa” - to the European Commission to be

included in the Natura 2000 network. This

site comprises the territories of three wolf

packs with regular reproduction over the last

few years (Figure 4). Efforts on wolf habitat

protection will allow the expansion of this

isolated wolf population; moreover, it will act

as a stimulus for regional wolf recovery,

thereby promoting Iberian wolf viability and

accomplishing the goals of the Habitats

Directive scientific criteria (Art. 6º)2.

CONCLUSION

The results point out some clear actions

needed to accomplish the goals of Iberian

authorities would appear extremely

important to establish a regional

conservation strategy focused on connecting

the two wolf populations from these

countries to improve their viability.

More reintroductions of the wolf’s wild

prey species, such as roe deer are still

needed in order to provide alternative

food resources for the predator. Based on

roe deer ecological requirements the

suitability of the South Douro River region

for the reintroduction of this prey was

assessed. Although roe deer are currently

nearly absent, this region still has significant

areas with suitable

habitat for the species

(Grilo & Petrucci-Fonseca

2003). New roe deer

reintroduction areas were

identified overlapping

areas of suitable roe deer

habitat and areas of high

wolf damage (Figure 3).

Nevertheless, further

research is needed to

evaluate the currentroe

deer density and to assess

habitat carrying capacity

to assure the success

of future reintroduction

plans.

HIGH WOLF ROAD

CASUALTIES AND

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

FOR HIGHWAY IP3

PROBLEM

Analysis of the road

network’s impact on this

wolf population was

assessed through a

monitoring programme,

including a survey of wolf

road casualty spots and

The Isolated Wolf Population South of the Douro River: Status and action priorities for its recovery

Figure 2 – Habitat suitability model for Wolf population South Douro River.

Figure 3 – Proposed areas for future roe deer reintroduction programmes.

In order to overcome the lack of wild prey,

occasional roe deer reintroductions were

made in the last few years by the local

governmental department of the Ministry of

Agriculture and the Institute of Nature

Conservation (ICN). Nevertheless, the impact

on the wolf diet is still far less than was

expected. At present, the very low

occurrence of roe deer (F.O.=0.2%) in the

wolf’s diet reveals that this species is an

insignificant prey item. However, recent data

seems to show an increase in the

consumption of this wild prey. The large

dependence on domestic prey and carcasses

at dumping sites reflects the threat that this

population is currently facing.This situation is

clearly distinct from the one found in the

Iberian wolf population living north of the

Douro River, where packs cause widespread

damage to livestock, mainly cattle and horses

(ICN 1997, Álvares et al 2000) or feed almost

exclusively on wild prey (Llaneza et al. 1996,

Moreira 1998).

POTENTIAL OF THE SOUTH DOURO

RIVER REGION FOR WOLF

POPULATION RECOVERY

A habitat suitability model was built in order

to evaluate the factors that seem to affect

wolf distribution and to assess the potential

of the South Douro River region for wolf

conservation and recovery. The model

underlies the importance of two factors in

determining wolf habitat: high prey availability

and reduced human pressure (Grilo et al.

2003).Wolf presence was confirmed in highly

suitable habitat areas, though strong

fragmentation lines exist (Figure 2). In spite of

a discontinued wolf presence near the

Spanish border, this area seems to have

potential for wolf recovery. Moreover, the

Spanish wolf population is only 50km away

from the East Wolf Nucleus. Improved

cooperation between Portuguese and Spanish

Llaneza, L., M. Rico,

G. Alonso, P. Alonso,

A. Abad, F. Hurtado &

F. Palacios (1997).

Situación del lobo

(Canis lupus signatus)

en Sierra Morena.

Pp. 26 in Situación y

conservación de las

poblaciones de lobo en

la Península Ibérica.

SECEM-Grupo Lobo,

Soria.

Moreira, L. (1998).

O lobo. J. Azevedo (ed.),

Património Natural

Transmontano,

Mirandela, 85pp.

Petrucci-Fonseca, F.

(1990). O lobo (Canis

lupus signatus Cabrera,

1907) em Portugal.

Problemática da sua

conservação. PhD

Thesis. Faculdade

de Ciências da

Universidade de Lisboa,

Lisboa, 392pp.

Rio-Maior H., S. Roque,C.Grilo & F.Petrucci-

Fonseca (2003). Monitoring roads impact on

south Douro river Iberian wolf population.

Abstract in International Conference on

habitat Fragmentation due to transportation

Infrastructure. IENE, Brussels.

Roque S., C. Grilo,S. Quaresma,H. Oliveira &

F. Petrucci-Fonseca (2003a). Conservation

problems and solutions for an isolated

Iberian wolf population in Portugal. Pp 61 in

World Wolf Congress 2003 - Bridging

Science and Community. The Central

Rockies Wolf Project, Banff.

Roque S., S. Quaresma & F. Petrucci-Fonseca

(2003b). Food habits and livestock

depredation in the Portuguese south river

Douro wolf population. Pp 204 in 4th

European Congress of Mammalogy. Brno.

The Isolated Wolf Population South of the Douro River: Status and action priorities for its recovery 15

Figure 4 – Proposal of Lapa site to be included in Natura 2000 network.

wolf conservation efforts. Their application

depends on the involvement of local

populations in decision-making and on the

availability of governmental or private funds.

Due to the complex relations between man

and wolf the recovery of Iberian wolf in the

South Douro River region is a big challenge

for those involved in it. Nevertheless, if

everyone fulfils all their duties and obligations,

Iberian wolf recovery in Portugal can be a

reality in the future.

References

Álvares F., E. Pereira & F. Petrucci-Fonseca

(2000). O lobo no Parque Internacional

Gerês-Xurés. Situação populacional, aspectos

ecológicos e perspectivas de conservação.

Galemys 12 (n.e.): 223-239.

Blanco, J. C. & Y. Cortés (2002). Ecología,

censos, percepción y evolución del lobo en

España: análisis de un conflicto. Sociedad

Española para la Conservación y Estudio de

los Mamíferos, Málaga, 176pp.

Grilo C., S. Roque & F. Petrucci-Fonseca

(2003). GIS and modeling in conservation: a

study case of the highly endangered Iberian

wolf population. Pp 105 in 4th Congress

Mammalogy. Brno.

Grilo C. & F. Petrucci-Fonseca (2003).

Modeling habitat suitability for roe deer

reintroduction in south Douro river iberian

wolf range. Abstract in VIth European Roe

Deer Meeting. Caldas do Gerês, Portugal.

ICN (1997). Conservação do lobo em

Portugal. LIFE Programme B4-3200/94/. Final

report. Instituto de Conservação da

Natureza, Lisboa, 231 pp.

Llaneza, L., A. Fernández & C. Nores (1996).

Dieta del lobo en dos zonas de Asturias

(España) que difieren en carga ganadera.

Doñana, Acta Vertebrata 23(2): 201-213.

Clara Grilo is a research biologist at

Faculty of Sciences - University of

Lisbon. She participated in two projects

associated with conservation of the

Iberian wolf South Douro River

population conservation giving support

in GIS and modelling. She is currently

working on her PhD which deals with

spatial modelling and impact of roads

network on carnivores. Her main

research interests are GIS and remote

sensing applied to nature conservation

and impact of linear infrastructures to

wildlife. Contact: cbgrilo@fc.ul.pt

Sara Roque is a research biologist at

Faculty of Sciences - University of

Lisbon. She worked on wolf trapping

and radio-tracking since 1997 when she

finished her 5-year-programme in

Biology. She has participated in a

project concerning population

monitoring, feeding habits and

predatory impact analysis of the

endangered Wolf Population South of

Douro River, in Central Portugal. She is

starting a PhD focused on the role of

dispersal in wolf population dynamics,

viability and expansion of endangered

wolf populations. Contact:

roquesara@hotmail.com

Francisco Petrucci-Fonseca is an

associated professor of Biology at

Faculty of Sciences - University of

Lisbon. He has been developing

scientific research in wolf conservation

since 1979. In 1985 he founded the Wolf

Group in Portugal (Grupo Lobo) and

started the Signatus Project -

Conservation strategy for the wolf in

Por tugal.The first results obtained with

this project were published in his PhD

thesis in 1990, and since then he has

been coordinating several research

projects, from wolf ecology and

distribution to anthropology and social-

cultural human-wolf relationships.

Contact: fpfonseca@fc.ul.pt

Recovering the use of Livestock

Guarding Dogs to Protect the

Iberian Wolf in Portugal

Recovering the use of Livestock Guarding Dogs to Protect the Iberian Wolf in Portugal

Recovering the use of Livestock

Guarding Dogs to Protect the

Iberian Wolf in Portugal by Silvia Ribeiro and

Francisco Petrucci-Fonseca

Photo: Rui Vasco

Since 1997, Grupo Lobo, in collaboration with

other agencies, has been responsible for

integrating and monitoring more than 80 pups

from Portuguese livestock guarding dog

(LGD) breeds in goat and sheep flocks from

the north and central Portugal. With this

action we expect to reduce wolf damages

and the resulting conflicts with livestock

producers, thus contributing to the Iberian

wolf conservation. At the same time we are

also contributing to increase the economic

viability of the traditional livestock

production based on the extensive

grazing system.

PUTTING CONFLICTS IN PERSPECTIVE

It is well known that one of the major causes

for the human/wolf conflict is the damage this

predator causes to livestock. Nevertheless,

this same argument may have different

regional significance since it can depend on

cultural, social and economic factors. In most

of the Portuguese wolf distribution area,

livestock production is the main subsistence

activity of human rural communities. Flocks

are grazed under the extensive traditional

grazing system, being led everyday to the

mountain by one or two shepherds.This is a

hard way of life with a very low income,

where any loss can be significant. Although

wolf damages are compensated by the

Institute for Nature Conservation (ICN)

(based on weekly market value), animals that

disappear or indirect losses from the future

production of the animals attacked are not

compensated. Also, delays in payments are

common and can sometimes take up to a

year.All these factors can have a big influence

on the rural household economy and

consequently on the tolerance towards

the wolf.

Wolf damages are usually perceived as

being higher than real damages and as having

a larger economic impact than other

accepted losses. In some regions there is

some indifference regarding livestock

mortality due to disease. In some flocks this

mortality can reach half of the yearly kid goat

production. Therefore, we must take into

consideration the limited effectiveness of the

compensation measures commonly used to

reduce conflicts and implement the use of

alternative tools that minimise potential

conflicts. One alternative is the

implementation of livestock protection

measures that can actively prevent damages.

Today, with the efforts on nature

conservation and the increasing incentives

from the European Union for maintaining

livestock production in the traditional way,

there is once again the need to implement the

use of effective methods of livestock

protection and management that take into

consideration the conservation of large

carnivores. One of the most effective and

widespread protection methods is the use of

LGDs. The recent subsidies from the

European Union for traditional livestock

production have, nonetheless, caused other

problems, by promoting an increase in the

number of young and inexperienced livestock

producers and in the number of animals per

flock not accompanied by the necessary

reinforcement in protection.

THE RETURN OF LIVESTOCK

GUARDING DOGS

The use of livestock guarding dogs is part of

the grazing system traditionally used

throughout Eurasia, where several breeds of

LGDs were selected to protect domestic

animals from predators, like the wolf or the

bear. In Portugal there are four recognised

breeds of LGDs: Cão de Castro Laboreiro,

the smaller one, with its origin in the

northwest mountains of the country; Cão da

Serra da Estrela, with its origin in the highest

mountain in central Portugal, from where it

borrowed its name and has two varieties -

short and long-hair; Rafeiro do Alentejo, that

comes from the southern plains; and Cão de

Gado Transmontano, the fourth and larger

breed that was recently recognised and exists

in the northeast mountains of Portugal.

Despite their importance and effectiveness

in reducing damages, the use of LGDs has

decreased in the last century mainly due to

the decline of the traditional grazing activity

and the general reduction of wolf populations

(see F. Álvares in this issue), thus rendering

useless those larger and more expensive

dogs. This situation has lead to the general

loss of knowledge regarding LGDs’ adequate

raising and education, and their replacement

with smaller hunting dogs, thus increasing

flocks’ vulnerability to predation. It has also

put at serious risk the Portuguese breeds of

LGDs, by drastically reducing their numbers

and consequently promoting inbreeding and

crossbreeding which could ultimately lead to

their degeneration.

STEP BY STEP

The action initiated by Grupo Lobo to

recover and implement the use of LGDs in

Portugal has been developed in four phases.

The first phase consists of the global analysis

of wolf damages and the selection of priority

areas.A subsequent selection of the livestock

producers from those areas that have higher

damages is made based on an interview.

During this interview the existence of

adequate conditions for integrating an LGD

and the motivation of the livestock producer

to participate are assessed.

In the second phase the selection of the

pups is carried out,based on the quality of the

parents (e.g., absence of diseases, typical

morphology and good working behaviour).

Before receiving the pup, the livestock

producer signs a collaboration contract

accepting to comply with some basic

conditions concerned with the pup’s raising,

welfare and adequate socialisation. This

contract enables the exclusion of livestock

producers that are not following the

conditions considered necessary for raising a

LGD and the transference of his dog to

another flock.

After weaning, usually around 6-8 weeks of

age, the pup is integrated into the selected

flock. In this third phase the pup is confined to

the corral/stable and kept in strict contact

with the animals of its flock during 2-4 weeks

before starting to accompany the flock during

grazing. In those first weeks of socialisation

with the flock the pup should be kept with

Recovering the use of Livestock Guarding Dogs to Protect the Iberian Wolf in Portugal

Figure 1.A long-haired Cão da Serra da Estrela male pup perfectly socialized with the livestock.

(Photo: Raquel Simões)

Figure 2.A juvenile Cão de Castro Laboreiro male following its flock during the grazing period.

(Photo: Raquel Simões)

the existing lambs or kid goats while the flock

is out grazing. However, caution is needed and

younger lambs/goats should be promptly

isolated in case of excessive play/biting from

the pup. These initial weeks are also

important for the flock to become familiar

with the presence of the new pup in their

midst and decrease the fear/aggressiveness

towards him. Since some livestock breeds are

particularly aggressive, a shelter for the pup

should be prepared. Usually the pup learns

quickly to avoid the aggressive blows and will

prefer to stay among the livestock. After

those initial weeks of socialisation the pup is

ready to start accompanying the flock during

the grazing period. This initiates the fourth

phase during which the monitoring of the

pup’s physical and behavioural development is

conducted. Dogs are accompanied regularly

(at least every 1-2 months) during the entire

grazing period of the flock until reaching 12-

18 months of age. The pup’s behaviour

towards the animals in the flock, the

shepherd(s) and the other dog(s) from the

flock, as well as toward strange

animals/persons is registered (Fig.1).

The data are later analysed to evaluate the

dog’s efficiency. This monitoring also enables

the timely correction of undesirable

behaviours exhibited by the dog or by the

shepherd and the control of the dog’s sanitary

condition. This was considered to be very

important since most livestock producers

have a considerable lack of knowledge in what

comprises basic veterinary care.

The dogs are provided with appropriate

dog food until they reached adulthood and

with the necessary veterinary care.

Nevertheless, a mortality rate of 24% was

registered with most dogs dying of disease

(n=8), while two were poisoned, four

disappeared and the remaining four died of

other causes (run over by car, shot by

hunters, killed by wolves).

THE KEY TO SUCCESS AND HOW TO

ANALYSE IT

The secret to have a good working LGD is

adequate socialisation with animals in the

flock. This means placing the pup with the

flock during the socialisation period (at 6-8

weeks of age) and to limit the contact with

other dogs, animals or persons. This will

ensure that the pup will direct all its social

behaviour towards the animals in its flock

enabling the establishment of strong social

bonds that are the basis for the emergence of

adequate attentive, trustworthy and

protective behaviours.These are the essential

behaviour components defined by Raymond

Coppinger and collaborators (Coppinger &

Coppinger, 1978) for this type of dogs. An

attentive dog should follow the flock in its

daily movements during grazing thus

maintaining its proximity with it (Fig.2). A

trustworthy dog should not disrupt the flock

activity nor should actively chase,injure or kill

livestock.A protective dog should be alert to

the flock and to any strange situation and

protect it from potential threats (Fig.3).The

correct identification and analysis of these

behaviours is very useful when evaluating the

dogs’ efficiency,given that damages’ reduction

is not always a good index. Therefore the

efficiency of the adult dogs has been

evaluated according to three different

criteria: damages’ reduction, dog’s behaviour

and owners’ satisfaction.

A comparison of the average number of

damages per flock in the three years before

and one year after the integration of the dog

(i.e., when it reached adulthood) was

performed. The results show a general

reduction in the number of damages, from

33% to 100%.When analysing the number of

damages from each flock in relation to the

damages in nearby flocks, there was a

reduction from 10 to 40% in 60% of the cases.

Nevertheless, the results also show a

considerable variability in the annual number

of damages, demonstrating that other factors,

apart from the dog’s presence, like the density

of predators or the type and availability of

wild and domestic prey, could also be

responsible for the observed reduction.Apart

from fluctuations in prey density we should

also take into consideration that some

species have more effective anti-predator

behaviour than others.The level of protection

in neighbouring flocks can also change rapidly

if we consider the death and substitution

rates of LGDs. Furthermore, illegal mortality

of wolves by poison is not infrequent and can

cause the sudden extermination of entire

packs thus decreasing predation.The fact that

the number of damages could be misleading

regarding dog’s efficiency is exemplified by

some flocks that maintained or slightly

reduced the number of damages although

they have experienced a significant increase in

the number of attacks that were being

efficiently deterred by the dogs (Petrucci-

Fonseca et al., 2000).

Nearly 90% of adult dogs were exhibiting

attentive behaviour towards the flock (Fig.4).

Nevertheless, seven juvenile dogs were

identified as not behaving correctly. This

situation resulted mainly from inadequate

behaviour by the shepherd that was

reinforcing its bond with the dog or limiting

the contact with livestock. In two cases the

shepherds did not change their behaviour

and the dogs were transferred to other

Recovering the use of Livestock Guarding Dogs to Protect the Iberian Wolf in Portugal

Figure 3.A juvenile Cão de Castro Laboreiro male stays alert to any potential threat.

(Photo: Raquel Simões)

Figure 4.An adult short-haired Cão da Serra da Estrela male displaying adequate attentive

behaviour. (Photo:Raquel Simões)

flocks and in another case the dog was

definitely removed.

Only one adult dog was not trustworthy

and was immediately removed after killing

two sheep. Excessive play behaviour in

juvenile dogs can become a real problem and

was thus immediately corrected to prevent it

from being reinforced.All adult dogs exhibit

protective behaviours (alert to the flock

activity and movements, barking in strange

situations, placing themselves between

intruders and the flock, chasing and

occasionally fighting intruders) and actively

prevent wolf attacks. Shepherds are generally

satisfied with their dogs: 95% consider them

very effective and 60% say the dogs

were responsible for the observed

damages’ reduction.

ACCEPTANCE AND IMPACT OF THE

ACTION

Despite the initial suspicion about these dogs,

there has been an increasing acceptance.The

number of requests for dogs has also been

increasing exponentially mainly from

shepherds that have heard about their

efficiency or have seen them working.

Presently we have more requests than we can

satisfy.An effort will be made to associate all

interested livestock producers in order to

establish contact among them, facilitating the

exchange of pups and experiences. The

knowledge of participating livestock

producers about Portuguese LGD breeds,

raising LGDs and recognising good working

dogs has improved significantly. Training

actions are also scheduled for the end of this

year to overcome the lack of knowledge of

the livestock producers concerning dog

behaviour, welfare and basic veterinary care.

LIMITS TO SUCCESS

Although LGDs can be a very good help

they can be powerless in some situations,

namely when they are insufficient in numbers

or the management of livestock is not

adequate. Big flocks with few or no

shepherds, livestock that spreads during

grazing, pastures with dense vegetation or

high predatory impact, all demand a higher

number of LGDs. Even in well-protected

flocks, it is common for some animals to stray,

thus becoming an easy prey for the wolves.

Although dogs in the same flock can

accompany different groups of livestock, when

the number of stray animals is very small they

usually stay with the larger group. In this case,

the work of the shepherd in gathering the

flock is very important. The presence of the

shepherd is also useful because any

undesirable behaviour or situation can be

corrected and thus increase the efficiency of

LGDs. Furthermore, raising a LGD requires

an extra commitment by an inexperienced

shepherd and more than a year is necessary

before the dog may be fully effective.

Taking this into account, alternative or

complimentary methods to LGDs, namely

electric fences and fladry and other

traditional protection methods, are being

tested.The success of these actions requires

the implementation of the methods that best

complement and adapt to each situation.

References

Coppinger, R. & L. Coppinger (1978).

Livestock guarding dogs for U.S.Agriculture.

Hampshire College,Amherst, MA.

Petrucci-Fonseca, F., S. Ribeiro, A.E. Pires & C.

Cruz (2000). Contributo para a minimização

do impacto económico dos predadores sobre

os animais domésticos. Technical Report,

Programme PAMAF-IED. Lisbon: Faculty of

Sciences of Lisbon University.

Silvia Ribeiro completed a M.S. in

Ethology, at Superior Institute of

Applied Psychology, in 2003, where she

studied dog socialization and the

ontogeny of social preferences,

particularly in livestock guarding dogs.

In 1996, she completed a 5-year

programme in Biology at the Faculty of

Sciences ˆ University of Lisbon. Her

professional interests include

endangered species conservation

(particularly the Iberian wolf), animal

behaviour and animal welfare. Since

1996, she has been involved in wolf

conservation projects developed by

Grupo Lobo (Wolf Group in Portugal)

and initiated an action line aimed to

implement the use of livestock

protection measures in Portugal,

namely livestock guarding dogs, that

has continued until the present.She has

been invited to present the obtained

results in several scientific meetings in

Europe and North America. Contact:

ribeiro_silvia@hotmail.com

EUROPE

France

PARIS, July 19 (AFP) - France on

Monday authorised its first wolf

cull since the 1930s in order to

reduce a colony of some 50

animals which sheep-farmers say

are wreaking havoc in the

southern Alps.

Ecology Minister Serge

Lepeltier told a news conference

in Paris that up to four wolves

can be shot by the end of the year

if attacks on sheep flocks

continue.

Lepeltier said the four

authorised kills represent 10

percent of the officially

established population,which is of

39 animals, rather than of the

widely accepted figure of 55. He

also said that if the first three

animals to be shot are female,

there will be no further kill.

The government had initially

planned to authorise the killing of

between five and seven animals,

but was forced to reduce the

number under pressure from

environmentalists who want to

see the wolf move beyond its

enclave in southeast France.

Source:

http://www.ttc.org/20040719130

6.i6jd6ke01632.htm

Switzerland

New law puts wolf in the

firing line

The government in Switzerland

has introduced a new law making

it easier to kill wolves that prey

on livestock, even though the

endangered animal is a protected

species. The legislation is a

compromise demanded by

parliament to take into account

the concerns of sheep farmers.

There has been a small wolf

population in Switzerland since

1995, but sheep farmers have not

welcomed the predator's

reappearance. Wolves have killed

dozens of sheep since they

crossed over into the Swiss Alps

from Italy.

Regulations were introduced in

2001 permitting the shooting of

any wolf believed to have killed at

least 50 sheep over a four-month

period, or 25 in a single month.

The minimum has now been

lowered to 35 sheep over a four-

month time frame, but the

cantons will be allowed to lower

the number to 15 within a year if

wolf attacks continue.

The government has also

agreed to compensate sheep

farmers for lost livestock, footing

80 per cent of the bill, with the

rest coming from the cantons. It

will also continue to subsidise a

pilot project, which employs

shepherds and sheepdogs to look

after herds grazing in areas where

wolves have been spotted.

Two environmental groups, the

World Wide Fund for Nature and

Pro Natura have now handed in a

70,000-signature petition

demanding that the wolf's

"protected status" remains. The

campaigners are urging

parliamentarians not to follow

the lead of the Senate, which

voted in favour of taking the wolf

off the protected animals' list.

They argue that there is enough

space for the animal in

Switzerland and say they are

fighting against the

"extermination of the wolf with

the authorities' blessing".

It is believed that keeping the

status quo would work to both

the wolf and farmer's advantage.

If the House of Representatives

decides this autumn to no longer

protect the wolf, farmers would

no longer receive government

compensation for any losses.

Pro Natura and the WWF say

they are offering to help farmers

improve the protection of their

flock, using guard dogs and

shepherds. But they continue to

face opposition from farmers.

Source:

http://www.swissinfo.org/sen/Swi

ssinfo.html?siteSect=105&sid=12

76619

ASIA

Japan

Extinct wolf a symbol of

what Japan has lost

The Japanese wolf officially

became extinct 99 years ago.

More accurately, there has not

been a confirmed sighting since

the last of the species was

captured in the village of Higashi-

Yoshino,Nara Prefecture,in 1905.

But is the species really

extinct? My thoughts turned to

various extinct animals when the

Paleontological Society of Japan

last Sunday released a picture of a

wolf's skull, said to be the largest

ever discovered.

Two years ago, a forum titled

“Nihon Okami-no Sonogo”

(What's become of the Japanese

wolf?) was held in the village of

Otaki in Saitama Prefecture.

There had been reports of wolf

sightings and howls heard. In this

village, they once tried to lure

wolves by playing an audio tape of

howling Canadian forest wolves.

Folklorist Kunio Yanagita was

also interested in the Japanese

wolf. In the early Showa Era

(1926-1989),Yanagita wrote in his

book “Okami-no Yukue” (Wolf's

whereabouts):“I do not subscribe

to the theory that this species is

extinct.”

However, he was unable to

conclude the animals were still

around, either. With too little

evidence to go on, he noted,“My

sense tells me we may never

know the answer.”

In Australia, a cloning project is

under way to bring an extinct

species back to life. The project

team has taken a DNA sample

from the preserved specimen of a

Tasmanian tiger, and has

succeeded in partially duplicating

this sample.The Tasmanian tiger is

believed to have been extinct for

68 years.

The concept of “regeneration”

is the theme of “Warai Okami”

(Laughing wolf), a novel by Yuko

Tsushima published by

Shinchosha.

The author draws a parallel

between Japanese wolves and a

boy and a girl who are living in

the chaos of post-World War II

Japan. In the novelist's mind, the

Japanese wolf is a symbol of what

Japan is losing today, and the wolf

also stands for the vitality that

can “regenerate” contemporary

society. A monument inscribed

with a haiku was erected in the

village of Higashi-Yoshino five

years ago. The haiku by Toshio

Mihashi says: “I walk/ With that

wolf/ That is no more.”

The Asahi Shimbun, June

29(IHT/Asahi: June 30,2004)

(06/30)

Source:

http://www.asahi.com/english/vox

/TKY200406300120.html

Our thanks to Pat Morris

(Wolfseeker) for the regular

supply of wolf news from

around the world, and to

Andrew Matthews for his

sub-editing work. Articles

that are reprinted in full are

appropriately credited with

the author’s name and

details of where the article

was first published.

Wolves of the World

How far from the road should land cover be assessed? A case study on mesopredator mortality on roads

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2021
EUR J WILDLIFE RES

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Article

Full-text available

Sep 2018

Highly mobile mammalian carnivores are expected to have the capability to maintain high levels of gene flow across large geographic scales. Nonetheless, surprising levels of genetic structure have been found in many such populations. We combined genetic and spatial behavioural information from wolves (Canis lupus) in the Iberian Peninsula (Western Europe) during the last two decades to present a particular case of low dispersal levels in a large carnivore population persisting in human-dominated landscapes. We found an exceptionally reticulated pattern of cryptic population structure emerging at two hierarchical levels, in which four or eleven meaningful genetic clusters can be recognized, respectively. These clusters were characterized by moderate-high levels of differentiation (average pairwise FST = 0.09-0.19), low levels of admixture and varying degrees of genetic diversity. The number of dispersers identified among the 11 clusters was very low (<4% out of 218 wolves). Spatial information of tracked wolves further confirmed the geographical genetic patterns (only 2 out of 85 collared wolves overlapped with more than one genetic cluster). The high levels of genetic structure in this population may be determined by the recent demographic history of this population, among other factors. The identification of meaningful genetic clusters has implications for the delineation of conservation units and, consequently, on the conservation and management actions for Iberian wolves.

Occurrence of virulence genes in multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli isolates from Iberian wolves ( Canis lupus signatus ) in Portugal

Article

Aug 2012

While much evidence supports the view that the total consumption of antimicrobials is the critical factor in selecting resistance, the possibility of resistant isolates and/or genes encoding resistance being transferred among different living communities has raised serious concerns. In the present study, Escherichia coli isolates recovered from faecal samples (n = 34) of Iberian wolves (Canis lupus signatus) were characterized for their antimicrobial drug susceptibility. Nearly two thirds of the isolates carried resistance to one or more antimicrobial drugs (in a panel of 19 antibiotics), and resistance to tetracycline, ampicillin and streptomycin was most widespread. By screening a set of 20 multidrug-resistant E. coli for virulence genes, we found strains positive for cdt, chuA, cvaC, eaeA, paa and bfpA, which was the most common virulence trait. Phylogenetic analyses have shown that the majority of these E. coli strains fall into phylogenetic groups A and B1. In this study, the diversity of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing strains was expressed by both polymorphism of the pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns and the presence of various resistance and virulence genes profiles. Finding the specific implications of these multi-resistant bacteria (hosting several virulence factors) in wolf conservation is a challenging topic to be addressed in further investigations.

Spatial–temporal patterns in Mediterranean carnivore road casualties: Consequences for mitigation

Article

Feb 2009
BIOL CONSERV

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Cães de gado na conservação do lobo em Portugal

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2000

Em Portugal o lobo ibérico encontra-se em vias de extinção, devido essencialmente à perseguição directa que o homem lhe move. Este conflito deve-se aos elevados prejuízos económicos que o lobo provoca nos animais domésticos, actualmente a sua principal fonte de alimento. O projecto que se apresenta tem dois objectivos principais: Contribuir para a diminuição do impacto predatório nos animais domésticos, através da protecção dos rebanhos com cães de gado de raças autóctones - Cão de Castro Laboreiro e Cão da Serra da Estrela. Usar este modo de protecção dos rebanhos como um método inovador de conservação do lobo. O projecto teve início em 1997, tem a duração de três anos e compreende três fases. Na primeira faseproceder-se-á à recolha de informação que permita seleccionar os pastores participantes e os cães autilizar e será ainda realizada a análise da consanguinidade de exemplares das duas raças. Na segunda fase será feita a demonstração da eficácia dos cães na protecção de rebanhos piloto, em regiões do Nordeste e Centro de Portugal. Por fim, a divulgação e expansão da medida constituirá a terceira fase. Os resultados obtidos até ao momento, relativamente à análise da consanguinidade são preliminares.

Ecología, censos, percepción y evolución del lobo en España: Análisis de un conflicto

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O Lobo no Parque internacional Gerês-Xurés. Situação populacional, aspectos ecológicos e perspectivas de conservação

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O lobo (Canis lupus signatus Cabrera, 1907) em Portugal. Problemática da sua conservação

Jan 1990
pp

F Petrucci-Fonseca

Petrucci-Fonseca, F. (1990). O lobo (Canis lupus signatus Cabrera, 1907) em Portugal. Problemática da sua conservação. PhD Thesis. Sciences Faculty of Lisbon Univessity. Lisboa. 392 pp.

El lobo ibérico, biología y mitología. Serie Ciencias de la Naturaleza

Jan 1984
344

R Grande Del Brio

Grande del Brio, R., (1984). El lobo ibérico, biología y mitología. Serie Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Ed. Hermann Blume. Madrid. 344pp.

O lobo no nordeste de Trás-os-Montes. Património Natural Transmontano

Jan 1998
85

L Moreira

MOREIRA, L. (1998). O lobo no nordeste de Trás-os-Montes. Património Natural Transmontano. João Azevedo Editor. Mirandela. 85pp.

Modeling habitat suitability for roe deer reintroduction in south Douro river iberian wolf range Abstract in VIth European Roe Deer Meeting. Caldas do Gerês

Jan 1997
231

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Conservação do lobo em Portugal. LIFE Programme B4-3200/94/. Final report. Instituto de Conservação da Natureza

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The isolated wolf population south of the Douro river: status and action priorities for its recovery

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