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Microplastic contamination in the San Francisco Bay, California, USA
... A study of Lake Michigan that analyzed particles on the water surface found surface concentrations of around 17,000 particles/km 2 , or 1 particle for every 630 square feet (Mason et al. 2016a). In a more populated area, it was reported that the average microplastic abundance in California's San Francisco Bay was 700,000 particles/km 2 , or 1 particle for every 15 square feet (Sutton et al. 2016). It was estimated in early 2017 that rivers transport an average of 1.1 to 2.4 million metric tons of plastic waste into the oceans every year (Lebreton et al. 2017). ...
... Although most wastewater treatment facilities can effectively remove microplastics, these facilities can still be a major source of microplastics because of the sheer volume of water they release. For example, a study of eight San Francisco Bay wastewater treatment plants found they discharged an average of 0.086 microplastic particles per liter (or 0.33 particles per gallon) and seven million microplastic particles per day (Sutton et al. 2016). A different study of 17 wastewater treatment plants found on average less than one particle per liter of effluent (Mason et al. 2016b). ...
Key Takeaways
Found in freshwater and ocean environments, microplastics may pose hazards through chemical transfer if they are made of harmful chemicals or they can adsorb pollutants.
Microplastics pollution sources include clothes washing, wastewater systems, biosolids, tire and road wear, and atmospheric particles that affect wildlife and humans.
Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis should more effectively remove microplastics than microfiltration and ultrafiltration, even if the membrane barriers are also made of plastics.
Analytical method progress on microplastics includes quantification (enumeration and mass concentration), size characterization, and minimum thresholds for detection (size and mass).
... Comparison of studies of microplastics in the Pacific Ocean were done selecting studies that sampled using manta nets of the same mesh size used in the present study (333 μm). The average areal concentration of microplastic in the surface water of San Pedro Bay (8.64 × 10 5 ± 7.60 × 10 5 particles/km 2 ) is the highest reported to date, albeit similar to concentrations in San Francisco Bay (7 × 10 5 particles/km 2 ; Sutton et al., 2016). Lower values were reported in the North Pacific Central Gyre (3.34 × 10 5 particles/km 2 ; Moore et al., 2001), the North Pacific Ocean (1.05 × 10 5 particles/km 2 ; Eriksen et al., 2014)), the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre (3.31 × 10 4 particles/km 2 ; Law et al., 2014) and the South Pacific Subtropical Gyre (2.69 × 10 4 particles/km 2 ; Eriksen et al., 2013). ...
... Furthermore, MPs have the ability to adsorb a variety of harmful materials, including heavy metals, infections, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). These materials can have a negative effect on aquatic species by causing oxidative stress and ebbing of nutrient intake (Sutton et al., 2016). Additionally, MPs have detrimental effects on aquatic animals, such as hunger, suffocation, abrasion injuries, and mobility restriction (Alimba and Faggio 2019). ...
Plastic pollution has become an escalating global concern, with plastic
waste accumulating in diverse environments, from populated urban areas to
remote natural spaces. The rapid rise in plastic production, nearing 350
million tons by 2017 (Plastics Europe, 2018), has prompted urgent warnings
from experts who predict that, at the current rate, plastics will outweigh fish
in oceans by 2050. Plastic waste exists in various size categories, ranging
from mega plastics (>50 cm) to nano plastics (<1 μm), and is now present
across all environmental compartments. Particularly concerning are
microplastics (MPs, <5 mm), which originate from large plastic debris,
industrial by-products, and the weathering of single-use plastics, an issue
exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic's surge in disposable protective
equipment (WEF, 2020). MPs are highly complex in composition and are
detected in ecosystems, drinking water, and consumer products, posing
unknown risks to human health and wildlife. In aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems, MPs are ingested by a range of species, from zooplankton to
crustaceans, leading to physical injuries, chemical toxicity, and disruptions
to uptake. MPs also serve as vectors for hazardous substances, including
heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), compounding
their environmental impact. Despite growing awareness, key issues-such as
the transport mechanisms of MPs, lack of standardized identification
protocols, the role of atmospheric MPs, and their relationship with climate
change-remain underexplored. Addressing these gaps is essential to
understand and mitigate the far-reaching impacts of plastic pollution on
ecosystems and human health.
Keywords: Microplastics, plastic pollution, environmental impact, human
health, ecosystem disruption
... 5 According to a 2016 report, microplastic contamination might have been higher in the San Francisco Bay area compared to other urban water bodies in North America. 6 In a subsequent news article, California became the first government in the world to mandate testing drinking water, owing to the presence of microplastics in water bodies. 7 Also, measures are being proposed by various researchers to remove microplastics from aquatic environments using biodegradable sponge materials, Mg/Zn magnetic biochar, micro-/nanomotors, hydrophobic catalysts, filtration systems, and other natural methods. ...
Non-exhaust emissions constitute vehicular emissions released from brakes, tyres, and road dust resuspension. Brake emissions are quantified using particulate matter (PM), and tyre emissions primarily represent the traffic-related microplastics. Road dust is an agglomerate of emissions released from traffic and non-traffic sources. Tyre abrasion has gained traction in the last two decades, owing to the large presence of tyre and road wear tracers in the microplastics sedimented in the soil or runoff to oceans (reaching 50% or above in several countries). The sampling methods or mitigation measures are at an early stage for both brakes and tyres. Research on brake emissions, however, is more concrete, and the test method will be standardized with the upcoming Euro 7 regulation limits set for PM10 (particles less than 10 um). Tyre abrasion depends on several factors external to the tyre design such as driving behavior, weather conditions, and vehicle mass. With the global uptake of electric vehicle (EV) adoption, it is important to investigate the existing widespread approach that the increased EV weight is the single determining factor to estimate the tyre-induced microplastics. This article, according to our research, provides a novel assessment on different influencing factors specific to EV applications that should be considered when determining the tyre-induced wear for an EV.
... Regarding the morphology of microfibers, their length ranges from 200 μm to 5000 μm. Microfibers within this range are found in the effluent from wastewater treatment plants (>300 μm), while those longer than 50 μm are commonly found in marine sediments and ingested by marine fauna [27,36,37]. μm [6]. ...
... Alguns microplásticos de diversas cores, como vermelho e amarelo, de tamanho reduzidos categorizados como grânulos foram encontrados, formas irregulares e bordas pontiagudas sugerindo, de acordo com Olivatto (2017), que essas partículas são resultado da fragmentação recente de peças maiores de material plástico ou também podem indicar que o material é de origem primária. Sabe-se que, as características do material podem variar de acordo com o local de estudo, de acordo com a pesquisa de Sutton et al. (2016), nas estações de tratamento de esgoto a maioria dos microplásticos são classificados como fibras e fragmentos. Mason et al. (2016) realizaram sua pesquisa em 17 (dezessete) estações de tratamento de esgoto, em diferentes regiões dos Estados Unidos, tendo como resultado uma média de 0,050 partículas de microplástico por litro, e uma média de 4 milhões de partículas por dia, sendo classificadas 59% como fibras e 33% como fragmentos, sendo estes resultados uma média das análises realizadas nas 17 estações de tratamento de esgoto pesquisadas (MASON et al., 2016). ...
A problemática da gestão de resíduos assola todo o ecossistema e o Brasil está entre os países que mais produz e descarta de forma irregular os resíduos sólidos. Nesse panorama o objetivo da pesquisa é mapear na literatura, tecnologias e etapas na gestão
de resíduos sólidos, que podem se intensificar ou contribuir para o aproveitamento e valorização energética dos resíduos sólidos e sua reinserção a partir da lógica circular para as áreas urbanas no Brasil, através da metodologia de caráter qualitativo, com foco
exploratório e descritivo, abordagem híbrida combinando revisão bibliográfica, com análise de estudo de caso existente. Assim, tem-se como resultado da análise duas tecnologias e práticas ascendentes principais: a gaseificação e a compostagem, no qual a última possui um destaque, pois além das propriedades corretivas do solo, auxilia em todo o processamento do resíduo orgânico, melhora o composto para produção de energia renovável e pode fornecer o composto próprio para produção de energia. Conclui-se que a abordagem integrada da economia circular, com o suporte dos conceitos de Lean Green e o incentivo às práticas de gestão tecnocêntricas são o caminho para uma transição eficiente, promovendo a economia de recursos e desenvolvimento sustentável no Brasil.
... The shape is an essential characteristic when identifying MPs, as it provides us with information on the origin of this material, i.e., whether the particle is of primary or secondary origin 62 . Fibers tend to predominate in most estuaries 16,[63][64][65][66] . Fibers were the dominant form of MPs, accounting for 89,8% of MPs on the Ajuruteua Peninsula, followed by fragments (6.3%), films (2.5%), and others (1.4%). ...
Microplastics (MPs) are widespread in oceans worldwide, posing a significant threat to aquatic ecosystems. The abundance of these particles in water is related to population density and urban development, functioning as a sink for MPs. However, the pollution levels due to the accumulation of MPs in the estuarine in Amazonian mangrove areas remain unknown. Here, we show that population density and fishing activities influence the distribution of MP pollution in these waters. We found the highest abundance of MPs in the inner (1.03 items/m³) and outer (0.82 items/m³) portions of the estuary, corresponding to the areas with the highest population density and fishing activity, respectively. The main morphological characteristics of MPs are fibers (89.8%), blue color (55.2%), and size of 1000–2000 μm (31.7%). The risk analysis showed a low level of danger, suggesting that the potential impact on the ecosystem is still small. Our results demonstrate that the presence of human populations and their fishing activities significantly influence the accumulation of MPs in the estuarine waters on the Amazon coast. Based on our findings, more sophisticated analysis using MPs’ spatial distribution models can be associated with hydrodynamic processes, aiming to define pollution hotspots and support the mitigation of their emerging negative effects. In addition, monitoring and generating valuable information are the main targets for developing comprehensive strategies to preserve biodiversity and sustainability in the Amazon coastal zone.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-024-80468-1.
... Fibers were also predominant in the study by Mao et al. [55], in the surface water samples in Lake Wuliangsuhai, a lentic environment, in China. Fibers and fragments, respectively, were also the predominant categories in the study by Sutton et al. [60], who investigated the occurrence of MPs in the discharge of treated effluents from eight wastewater treatment plants discharging their effluents into San Francisco Bay, California. In addition, other lotic environments have also reported the predominance of the fibre and fragment categories in their results [20,41]. ...
The contamination of surface waters by microplastics (MPs) is an emerging concern, due to their environmental impact and negative effects on biota. However, in recent years, although the occurrence of these pollutants has been widely reported in marine systems, studies on MPs in freshwater are still scarce in the literature, particularly in Southeastern Brazil. In this context, the current study aimed to provide unprecedented information on the abundance and spatial and temporal distribution of MPs in three sites located in the Atibaia river basin (Southeastern Brazil) - the main river, a tributary, and the discharge of effluent from a sewage treatment plant. Surface water was sampled in four sampling campaigns, two in wet season and two in dry season, between 2019 and 2020, at three sampling points. At each point, 200 L of water were collected with the aid of an aluminium bucket, followed by sieving in the field to isolate the particles between 100 μm and 5000 μm, using stainless steel sieves. Chemical identification of the polymer was performed by ATR-FTIR micro spectroscopy. The abundance of MPs in the water ranged from 188 to 533 items/m³. The water samples with the greatest MPs abundance corresponded to the sampling point that includes the receipt of domestic effluent treated by the local Sewage Treatment Station. The chemical identification of the polymers highlights polyester polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polypropylene (PP) as the most frequent, respectively. This study emphasizes the importance of discharged domestic effluents and rivers as MPs transport systems. Therefore, further studies should be carried out to identify the main sources and contribute to the gathering of information, aiming to mitigate the emission of this pollutant in aquatic systems.
... Various wastewaters originating mainly from the mainland have impurified/contaminated, if not polluted, in some places, the coastal waters with various substances that destabilize the ecosystems [3,4]. The microplastic issue ends up in the ocean due to the flow in the water cycle and adds to the already existing problems of the aquatic biota [5,6]. Due to the ocean currents, part of the thermohaline circulation, some man-made wastes are pushed away from the shores to the high seas where important dilution may occur or, on the contrary, higher concentrations build up-as is the case of microplastics in the subtropical gyres [7,8]. ...
With so many studies today on the water quality of the sea, one can hardly comprehend the multitude of topics that arise all over the world. This study provides a few graphic syntheses related to the most frequent words (including their clustering and links), trend topics, the spatial distribution of the researched areas, and the thematic evolution of the research directions over the decades. The most frequent authors’ keywords have a 50% similitude between the ocean studies and the studies related to the Mediterranean Sea; these keywords are part of a causal chain that dominates the marine studies on water quality: nutrients → eutrophication → phytoplankton → chlorophyll → seagrass. The most frequent words in the titles and abstracts of the selected papers from the Web of Science are “concentration” and “species”; in the Mediterranean studies, “chlorophyll” and “temperature” are the most frequent. In close connection with water quality, Zostera marina (eelgrass) and Crassotrea virginica (eastern oyster) prevail at the global scale, while Posidonia oceanica (Neptune grass) is relevant in the Mediterranean space. Some of the most studied water bodies are the South China Sea, San Francisco Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and, in the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic, Ionian, Aegean, and Marmara seas. “Climate change” and “remote sensing” are trend topics that shape the current studies on water quality; the increasing sea surface temperature enhances algal blooms—these need to be monitored using satellite imagery for the sustainable evolution of human activities, including aquaculture.
... In research done on nine sites in San Francisco Bay, California, USA, average microplastic abundance was found 700,000 particles/km 2 in Bay surface water which was higher compared to other urban waterbodies sampled in North America. The characteristics of the microplastics showed similarity with the microplastic found in discharged water from eight San Francisco Bay wastewater treatment plants from where nearly 90 million microplastic particles were discharged daily into San Francisco Bay (Sutton et al. 2016). ...
Small plastic particles like Microplastics have become a global environmental concern including in Bangladesh due to their persistence in the environment and potential harm to aquatic lives and human health. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the current scenario of microplastic pollution and explores the sources, distribution, and impacts of microplastic pollution on human health, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems as well as utilizes a systematic literature review method to identify and analyze the available research on microplastic pollution in Bangladeshi perspective. The results show plastic waste mismanagement, such as inadequate waste collection, disposal, and recycling as the origin of microplastic pollution. The article examines the distribution of microplastics in various environmental matrices such as water bodies, soil, and biota and discusses the potential ecological and human health impacts of microplastic pollution in Bangladesh. Moreover, the study highlights the potential risks of microplastic ingestion by aquaticorganisms, such as shrimp, crabs, and fish which ultimately affect human health through the food chain. The study suggests several mitigation strategies including improving waste management practices, promoting public awareness, developing policies and regulations to reduce plastic use, and increasing recycling. Overall, this review contributes to the existing knowledge on microplastic pollution in Bangladesh and provides useful insights for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners to develop effective strategies for mitigating this environmental problem. However, the involvement of all stakeholders including policymakers, industries, and the general public is necessary to achieve a sustainable and healthy environment for the country.
... Since wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not specifically designed for MP removal, a significant number of these particles, especially those less than 150 μm, are released into the environment (Iyare et al., 2020;Sun et al., 2019). Studies have documented the release of approximately 10 million MPs daily in Mikkeli, Finland (Lares et al., 2018), and 56 million in San Francisco Bay, USA (Sutton et al., 2016), highlighting potential environmental risks to ecological systems and human health (Bosker et al., 2019;Guo et al., 2020;Marfella et al., 2024;Sussarellu et al., 2016;Tan et al., 2020). More importantly, MPs serve as carriers that facilitate the spread of contaminants, including antibiotics, through sorption mechanisms like electrostatic interaction and H-bonding (Koelmans et al. 2016;Wu et al. 2016;Yu et al. 2019), potentially facilitating the proliferation of antibiotic-resistant genes in municipal activated sludge (Pham et al., 2021). ...
Emerging contaminants, particularly antibiotics and microplastics (MPs), present significant challenges in wastewater treatment and pose large ecological risks. This study investigates the removal efficiency of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) using Fe-Mn modified biochar (BFM) in fixed bed filtration columns, emphasizing the effect of the presence of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) on SMX behavior in both water (pH ≈ 5.6) and selected wastewater
(pH ≈ 8) systems. Batch sorption results show that 10 mg/L SMX in 50 mL water can be completely removed by 100 mg BFM sorbent. The Bed Depth Service Time model indicated the BFM column is feasible for SMX removal in scaled-up continuous wastewater flow operations, while the Yan model best elucidates SMX filtration behavior and suggests the dominant adsorption mechanisms include external mass transfer and intraparticle diffusion. The present of both 20 mg/L and 100 mg/L PS-MPs (pH ≈ 5.6) significantly reduced SMX retention due to competitive sorption. However, at pH 3.2, competitive sorption became negligible due to electrostatic interactions driving the PS-MPs sorption, while neutral charged SMX bound through hydrogen-bonds or π-π EDA interactions. Elevated pH shifted both PS-MPs and SMX sorption to non-electrostatic thus intensifying sorption competition, highlighting the influence of pH on their interaction dynamics. In wastewater, SMX filtration was slightly inhibited by 100 mg/L PS-MPs in BFM columns, whereas PS-MPs removal remained unaffected due to the high ionic strength and alkaline pH. These findings highlight the impact of MPs on pollution removal efficiency in filtration system, essential for enhancing biochar-based wastewater treatment strategies.
... In both sampling stations, fibers were the most abundant morphotype in the groundwater samples, followed by fragments, films and the least was pellets (Figure 2). The predominance of fibers known as elongated filaments here is consistent with previous water studies (Sutton et al., 2016;Gies et al., 2018;Lares et al., 2018;Conley et al., 2019). The abundance of fiber in densely populated areas is expected to be higher. ...
The rapid urbanization and growth of the population have led to both the ever-increasing demand for water consumption and in tandem the levels of water pollution in Malaysia. Rapid development has produced great amounts of human waste including domestic and industrial which inevitably ends up in the water resources. Contamination of microplastic (MP) pollutants in groundwater has been a huge concern nowadays since groundwater often becomes a source of drinking water. Therefore, these MP (plastic particles < 5 mm) are concerned with having a negative health impact on human health through the consumption of drinking water that has been contaminated. While MPs in groundwater likely affect human health, only a handful of studies have examined the abundance and movement of MPs in groundwater. Because of that, this study was done in two different sampling stations of groundwater that were sources of drinking water. This study indicates a total of 182 microplastics were found in the sampled groundwater. Physical characterization has been done and they were divided into four categories according to their shapes. Fibers clearly prevailed in all water samples. Despite 10 different colors of the microplastics being identified, most of the MPs are comprised of transparent plastics. Moreover, polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE) were found to be predominant in the water samples. This study contributes to filling the knowledge gap in the field of emerging microplastic pollution in drinking water sources specifically groundwater, which is of concern due to the potential exposure of MPs to humans.
... This trend of high fibre presence mirrors findings from various locations around the world, as observed in studies by Rochman et al. (2015), Güven et al. (2017), Halstead et al. (2018), Koongolla et al. (2020), andJaafar et al. (2021). In aquatic environments, as highlighted by Sutton et al. (2016), fibres are frequently identified as the most prevalent type of MPs. This higher abundance of fibres compared to other types can be attributed to their tendency to easily fragment into smaller pieces, given their one-dimensional structure Koongolla et al., 2020). ...
... Natural phenomena such as ocean currents and ocean gyres play a significant role in conveying micro-plastics to enclosed basins in the aquatic ecosystem (Collignon et al., 2012). The distribution of micro-plastics in rivers, estuaries, and open water areas mirrors the patterns of sediment deposition (Sutton et al., 2016;Wessel et al., 2016). ...
The occurrence of micro-plastics in aquatic ecosystems significantly impact the structure, organism functions, and aesthetic values of the ecosystem. Here, an extensive search of databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and African Journals Online was conducted to gather relevant research reports on microplastics. Microplastics are typically classified into primary and secondary microplastics originating from microbeads used in cosmetics, the ship-breaking industry, fertilizers, and indiscriminate plastics waste disposal. Plastic pollution in aquatic ecosystems poses a serious threat to aquatic organisms through entanglement, ingestion, and exposure to toxic plastic additives. The toxic effect Plastic additives can lead to oxidative stress, gastrointestinal obstruction, translocation, and trophic transfer. Bisphenol-A and phthalates, critical components of plastic, have serious endocrine-disrupting effects on organisms. Mitigation strategies to reduce plastic and microplastic pollution require interventions from governments at all levels to establish effective waste management programs, policies, and regulations. Designing eco-friendly and biodegradable plastic products is crucial for effective plastic waste management. Furthermore, remediating contaminated environments using eco-friendly methods is essential to address microplastic pollution in the aquatic ecosystem without imposing severe ecological risks.
... It has been established that microplastic pollution can affect both ecosystem food chains and human health [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]. Большинство научных обзоров были посвящены микропластику в пресноводных, океанических и наземных природных средах [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32]. ...
A general growth in the polymers production and consumption leads to an increase in the new types of wastes. In conjunction with the lack of secondary recycling power this fact is being a reason for appearance of a new processes that is potentially destructive for the environment. In particular, plastic wastes that is being stored in the wastewater of a large cities under a combination of aggressive factors action such as humidity, mechanical and UV-erosion degrades into a small-size particles, famously known as microplastics (MP). The study presented is devoted to the methodology development for acquisition, quantitative and qualitative analysis of wastewater derived microplastics. An experimental part deals with real wastewater samples collected at different infrastructurally-important objects of Rostov-on-Don and Aksai cities. For all the sampling locations the presence of urban-generated MP particles is approved. The results show that the research methods used are able to satisfy the output data quality conditions. However, the significant time and cost consumption of the research chain developed limits its wide practical application.
... According to Barrows et al. (2018) and Dehm et al. (2020), Pollution of coastal waters of South Pacific Island countries with MP is generally low. Nevertheless, the MP content in the water was higher than in some countries such as South Korea (0.77 ± 0.88 MPs/L), Indonesia (0.49 MPs/L) (Cordova et al. 2019) and USA (0.05 MPs/L) (Sutton et al. 2016). The low abundance of microplastics (MPs) within Vutia is likely explained by the near non-existence of human population and activities directly within the vicinity. ...
This study was the first to identify and quantify microplastics contamination in edible oysters and their environment in the Fiji Islands and was conducted at the only mangrove oyster farm located at Vutia, Laucala Bay. Results showed that farmed oysters contained no microplastics, while wild oysters averaged 1.78 ± 1.04 microplastics/100 g wet weight. No microplastics were detected in sediments, although average microplastics in the water was 0.803 ± 0.2 microplastics/L. The predominant microplastics type was fibers (73%), while the most common size was in the class range of 0.5–< 1.6 mm. The most common colors of microplastics were black (42%) and white (26%), while nylon (30%) and latex (25%) were the most common polymer types. The current results are expected to assist in the development of coastal aquaculture, provide food safety standards, and baseline data for future Pacific mariculture research, particularly in Fiji.
... Micro-and nanoplastic particles enter the human body via inhalation and absorption [1], permeate biological membranes [7], and bioaccumulate in organs. Nanoplastic particles have been found in human lungs, livers, spleens, kidneys, and the placentas of newborn babies [1,[11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]. Consequently, micro-been considered one of the major approaches for removing microplastics [43]. ...
The rapid increase in soil and water pollution is primarily attributed to anthropogenic factors, notably the mismanagement of post-consumer plastics on a global scale. This exploratory research design evaluated the effectiveness of natural hydrophobic cattail (Typha Latifolia) fibres (CFs) as bio-adsorbents of microplastic particles (MPPs) from wastewater. The study investigates how the composition of the adsorption environment affects the adsorption rate. Straightforward batch adsorption tests were conducted to evaluate the “spontaneous” sorption of MPPs onto CFs. Five MPP materials (PVC, PP, LDPE, HDPE, and Nylon 6) were evaluated. Industrial wastewater (PW) and Type II Distilled Water (DW) were employed as adsorption environments. The batch test results show that CFs are effective in removing five MPP materials from DW and PW. However, a higher removal percentage of MPPs was observed in PW, ranging from 89% to 100% for PVC, PP, LDPE, and HDPE, while the adsorption of Nylon 6 increased to 29.9%, a removal increase of 50%. These findings indicate that hydrophobic interactions drive the “spontaneous and instantaneous” adsorption process and that adjusting the adsorption environment can effectively enhance the MPP removal rate. This research highlights the significant role that bio-substrates can play in mitigating environmental pollution, serving as efficient, sustainable, non-toxic, biodegradable, low-cost, and reliable adsorbents for the removal of MPPs from wastewaters.
... Microplastic richness in the water column was also found to vary greatly between the American and European continents. Microplastics have been documented by researchers in San Francisco Bay, California, USA (Sutton et al. 2016). The wastewater discharge sample predominantly contained fibers. ...
In addition to being an eyesore, microplastic pollution has serious ecological consequences for aquatic life, terrestrial life, and human beings. According to studies, microplastics can operate as vectors for pollutants, soaking up and storing them in marine habitats, species, and ultimately food webs. Given that people will inevitably be exposed to microplastics, it is important to take stock of what we know about their possible consequences, exposure pathways, and toxicity to human health. Therefore, the purpose of this review was to shed light on the human health risks associated with microplastic’s pollutant sorption and bioaccumulation, as well as to identify the most prevalent pollutant classes absorbed by microplastic and the classes of pollutants that are bioaccumulated by microplastic in marine ecosystem organisms. Potential factors affecting microplastic’s sorption and bioaccumulation of contaminants in marine habitats were also discussed. The review also shed light on the most common forms of microplastic, the overall amount of microplastic, and its geographic distribution throughout the world’s waterways. In the literature review, it was found that microplastic sorption of contaminants was influenced by microplastic properties, chemical interactions, and water parameters. There is still no proof that microplastics pose a direct medical harm to people, despite several studies documenting the risks of microplastic-associated subunits, additives, and contaminants.
... The extent to which WWTPs effectively block microfibers is a subject of an ongoing scholarly debate. A significant quantity of MFs was discovered in the effluents obtained from eight WWTPs in the San Francisco Bay Area, California, USA (Sutton et al., 2016). Moreover, MPs have been detected in the effluents of WWTPs located in Australia (Ziajahromi et al., 2017), and Finland (Talvitie et al., 2017), irrespective of whether these WWTPs use high-efficiency or advanced treatment procedures. ...
Aquatic environments are being polluted by microplastics primarily originating from the washing of synthetic textiles. Microfibers (MF), which are microplastics in synthetic fibers, are consistently introduced into the environment with each domestic laundry cycle. To address this issue, we developed a specialized MF capture “barbed filter” (BF) by transforming PET monofilaments of different diameters (0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 mm) into structures that closely resemble the characteristics of tarantula urticating hairs. BFs feature sharp barbs that effectively capture and retain microfibers of diverse lengths, surpassing the performance of conventional control filters. The BFs had a retention efficiency of 88–91 %, while the CFs had an efficiency of 79–86 %. Our findings revealed that the barbed filter significantly outperformed the conventional control filter in capturing microfibers due to its smaller pore size, shorter pore distance, and unique filter shape. This design not only enhances the surface area and friction, facilitating microfibril strong entrapment but also minimizes the probability of microfibril passage through the filter. This research offers a promising solution for reducing microfibril release from laundry and textile industrial wastewater. The implementation of BFs in real life has the potential to significantly reduce microplastic pollution and promote a cleaner and more sustainable environment.
... Previous studies have demonstrated that conventional Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) are pathways for the release of micro-and nanoplastic particles. Current WWTPs normally remove a maximum of 90% of the micro-and nanoplastic particles contained in municipal and industrial wastewaters [4,5,7,8,17,[22][23][24]27]. Furthermore, as stated by [4] (p. 2), "…around 50-85% of MPs [microplastics] could be retained in the sewage sludge, which is widely utilized as biofertilizer…" [4]. ...
The rapid increasing rate of soil and water bodies pollution is the main anthropogenic effect caused by the mismanagement of post-consumer plastics. This research evaluated the effectiveness of cattail (Typha Latifolia) fibers (CFs) as bio-adsorbents of microplastic particles (MPPs) from wastewater. The effect of the adsorption environment composition on the adsorption rate was investigated. Batch tests were conducted to evaluate the “spontaneous” adsorption of MPs onto CFs. Five MPPs materials (PVC, PP, LDPE, HDPE, and Nylon 6) were evaluated. An industrial wastewater (PW) and Type II Distilled Water (DW) were employed as adsorption environments. The batch tests results show that CFs are effective in removing MPPs from DW and PW. However, higher removal percentage of MPPs were obtained in PW, ranging from 89% to 100% for PVC, PP, LDPE, and HDPE; while the adsorption of Nylon 6 increased to 29.9%, a removal increased of 50%. These observations indicate that hydrophobic interactions drive the “spontaneous and instantaneous” adsorption process and that adjusting the adsorption environment effectively enhances the MPPs removal rate. This research demonstrates the important role that bio-substrates can play in reducing the environmental pollution as efficient, sustainable, low cost, and reliable adsorbents for the removal of MPPs from wastewaters.
... Numerous investigations have documented the ecological impacts of MPs on the environment, aquatic ecosystems (Al-Thawadi, 2020), and human health (Al Mamun et al., 2023). MPs infiltrate aquatic environments through various routes, including wastewater discharge and the breakdown of discarded plastic materials, contaminating aquatic systems (Fred-Ahmadu et al., 2020;Sutton et al., 2016). MPs can absorb hydrophobic substances such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic chlorinated pesticides, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Vo & Pham, 2021). ...
The current study focuses on the sources and formations of microplastics (MPs) in receiving environments, addressing various analytical methods used for the detection and characterization of MPs in water and wastewater, including particle size distribution analysis, FTIR, Raman, SEM-EDS, thermo analytical methods (Pyro GC-MS, TGA-MS, TED-GC-MS, TGA-SPE/TDS-GC-MS) and combine techniques (Tagging method, Liquid chromatography, SEM dispersive X-ray spectrometer). The study fills a gap in the literature by evaluating the advantages and limitations of advanced analytical methods, in addition to commonly used methods like FTIR, Raman, and SEM, providing a perspective on other significant analytical approaches. By examining and comparing different analytical methods used to identify and detect MPs in water and wastewater environments, the research guides scientists in making informed choices when selecting a specific method. A better understanding of these methods will inform future research and facilitate more effective management of potential environmental impacts and human health risks. This study also contributes significantly to preserving water resources, human health, and establishing a sustainable environment by encouraging the generation of actionable information to assess the potential risks of MPs in water and wastewater sources and to develop strategies for reducing their presence.
... It is estimated that WWTPs annually discharge about 227 million tonnes of MPs into the ocean (Mishra et al., 2020). Sutton et al. (2016) found a substantial presence of MFs in the effluents of nine WWTPs, where MFs accounted for up to 48 % of the particles in the effluents, regardless of whether the WWTPs used advanced or highefficiency water treatment processes. In urban areas, the direct connection of domestic sewer channels to rivers leads to the entry of approximately 3 million tonnes of MFs into the ocean through adjacent rivers (Mishra et al., 2019). ...
... Lagrangian approaches follow the motion of particles, whereas Eulerian approaches describe the motion of particles over a spatially fixed volume. Most observationbased studies on plastic transport in tidal rivers and estuaries follow a Lagrangian approach in that they study the transport and accumulation dynamics of a finite number of items (Ledieu et al., 2022;Ryan and Perold, 2021;Sutton et al., 2016;Tramoy et al., 2020a, b). These studies all show that plastic trajectories are affected by both non-uniform advection (longitudinal) and diffusive (multi-directional) transfer processes. ...
Plastic is an emerging pollutant, and the quantities in rivers and oceans are expected to increase. Rivers are assumed to transport land-based plastic into the ocean, and the fluvial and marine transport processes have been relatively well studied to date. However, the processes controlling the transport in tidal rivers and estuaries, the interface between fluvial and marine systems, remain largely unresolved. For this reason, current estimates of riverine plastic pollution and export into the ocean remain highly uncertain. Hydrodynamics in tidal rivers and estuaries are influenced by tides and freshwater discharge. As a consequence, flow velocity direction and magnitude can change diurnally. In turn, this impacts the transport dynamics of solutes and pollutants, including plastics. Plastic transport dynamics in tidal rivers and estuaries remain understudied, yet the available observations suggest that plastics can be retained here for long time periods, especially during periods of low net discharge. Additional factors such as riparian vegetation and riverbank characteristics, in combination with bi-directional flows and varying water levels, can lead to an even higher likelihood of long-term retention. Here, we provide a first observation-based estimate of net plastic transport on a daily timescale in tidal rivers. For this purpose, we developed a simple Eulerian approach using sub-hourly observations of plastic transport and discharge during full tidal cycles. We applied our method to the highly polluted Saigon River, Vietnam, throughout six full tidal cycles in May 2022. We show that the net plastic transport is about 20 %–33 % of the total plastic transport. We found that plastic transport and river discharge are positively and significantly correlated (Pearson's R2 = 0.76). The net transport of plastic is higher than the net discharge (20 %–33 % and 16 %, respectively), suggesting that plastic transport is governed by factors other than water flow. Such factors include wind, varying plastic concentrations in the water, and entrapment of plastics downstream of the measurement site. The plastic net transport rates alternate between positive (seaward) net transport and negative (landward) net transport as a result of the diurnal inequality in the tidal cycles. We found that soft and neutrally buoyant items had considerably lower net transport rates than rigid and highly buoyant items (10 %–16 % vs. 30 %–38 %), suggesting that transport dynamics strongly depend on item characteristics. Our results demonstrate the crucial role of tidal dynamics and bi-directional flows in plastic transport dynamics. With this paper we emphasize the importance of understanding fundamental transport dynamics in tidal rivers and estuaries to ultimately reduce the uncertainties of plastic emission estimates into the ocean.
Microplastic (MP) pollution has become a significant global environmental hazard. Wastewater has become an essential channel for introducing and spreading MPs into the ecosystem. The current investigations are aimed at comprehensively examining current knowledge on the sources, presence, fate, and potential impacts of MP contamination in wastewater plants from 76 peer-reviewed articles published globally from 2015 to 2024. The data extraction was performed using MS Excel. The review delves into the various sources of MPs in wastewater, including domestic and industrial inputs, and the shedding of MPs from synthetic textiles during laundry. The current review has analyzed the concentration, physical, and chemical characterization of MPs in wastewater plants. MPs’ abundances in the influent and effluent varied from 0.28 particles L−1 to 31,400 particles L−1 and 0.01 particles L−1 to 297 particles L−1, respectively. Fibers are found dominantly, possibly revealing the textile as the primary source of MPs. Blue, red, and black colors have been recorded as having significant compositions. In the size-wise classification, MPs having a size between 100 and 500 μm were recorded predominantly. This chapter reveals the possible ecological and human consequences of MP pollution in wastewater and the understanding of how aquatic organisms consume and accumulate MPs and their subsequent transfer through the food web. The results are essential for understanding the impacts of MPs on ecosystems and for devising effective mitigation strategies to maintain water quality and protect public health.
Micro and nanoplastics (MNPs) are ubiquitous in the environment and have been detected in most ecosystems, including remote regions. The class of contaminants under the MNP umbrella is quite broad and encompasses variable polymer types, shapes, and sizes. Fibers are the most frequently detected in the environment, followed by fragments, but still represent only a small fraction of laboratory studies. Many toxicity studies have been done using polystyrene microbeads which represent neither the polymer nor shape most present in the environment. Additionally, most of these studies are done using virgin particles when the majority of MNP pollution is from secondary microplastics which have weathered and broken down over time. To address these data gaps, we exposed the model fish Inland Silverside, Menidia beryllina, for 21-days to micro and nano cryo-milled tire particles, micro and nano polylactic acid, and polyester microfibers, both weathered and unweathered treatments were tested. We evaluated the impacts of these particles on growth, behavior, and gene expression to compare the relative toxicities of the different particles. We found that overall, the nanoparticles and weathered fibers had the greatest effect on behavior and gene expression. Gene ontology analysis revealed strong evidence suggesting MNP exposure affected pathways involved in muscle contraction and function. Unweathered microfibers decreased growth which may be a result of food dilution. Our results also suggest that under weathering conditions polyester microfibers breakdown into smaller sizes and induce toxicity similar to nanoparticles. This study highlights the variable effects of MNPs in fish and emphasizes the importance of considering particle shape and size in toxicity studies.
Plastics are incredibly useful materials that have many benefits for both society and individual daily lives. However, the extensive utilization of plastic and plastic-derived products has led to plastic pollution in various environmental compartments across the world at alarming levels. Due to different biogeochemical processes, this plastic waste is broken down into tiny, omnipresent, and long-lasting fragments known as microplastics (<5mm), which are causing great concern among scientists. Microplastics tend to bioaccumulate, contain toxic chemicals, and have other pollutants and pathogens adsorbed on their surface, thus having adverse effects on
organisms. Globally dispersed, microplastics can now be found in almost every environmental niche. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to give an overview of the research that has been done on this topic, summarize the evidence of microplastic pollution in surface waters, and discuss the analytical summary of recent findings on the microbial degradation of microplastics and effects of various parameters on its degradation as well as the potential degradation mechanism of microplastics. A summary of the most recent and relevant literature is provided
on microplastic pollution and microorganisms that can break down various microplastics are classified according to their types including bacteria, fungi, and algae. The environmental factors influencing microplastic degradation and the associated degradation effects are therefore generalized. Additionally, a brief discussion of the mechanism underlying the microbial-mediated degradation of microplastics is provided. This review serves as a reference for upcoming research looking into efficient ways to reduce microplastic pollution.
Plastic debris represents a significant environmental threat, with microplastics (MPs) posing a major risk to water quality. This research focuses on assessing MPs' presence in water and sediment samples from the River Soan during two distinct seasons: winter and summer. Analysis of the samples taken from seven locations showed that there were 318 microplastic particles per 0.25 m² in winter and 500 particles per 0.25 m² in summer. In the sediment samples, concentrations of 2,466 and 2,341 microplastic particles per 20 g of dry sediment were observed during the winter and summer seasons, respectively. A t-test revealed a statistically significant difference between the concentrations of MPs in both water and sediment samples. Furthermore, ATR-FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of various polymers, including PET, PVC, PS, nylon, Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene, Poly Methyl Methacrylate, Polycarbonate, and Urethane compounds. The findings can aid in enhancing waste management practices in the River Soan area and in modeling the transport dynamics of microplastics in other river systems by incorporating water quality parameters and basin characteristics.
Microplastics (MPs), particles under 5 mm, pervade water, soil, sediment, and air due to increased plastic production and improper disposal, posing global environmental and health risks. Examining their distribution, quantities, fate, and transport is crucial for effective management. Several studies have explored MPs' sources, distribution, transport, and biological impacts, primarily focusing on the marine environment. However, there is a need for a comprehensive review of all environmental systems together for enhanced pollution control. This review critically examines the occurrence, distribution, fate, and transport of MPs in the following environments: freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems. The concentration of MPs is highly variable in the environment, ranging from negligible to significant amounts (0.003–519.223 items/liter in water and 0–18,000 items/kg dry weight sediment, respectively). Predominantly, these MPs manifest as fibers and fragments, with primary polymer types including polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene, and polyethylene terephthalate. A complex interplay of natural and anthropogenic actions, including wastewater treatment plant discharges, precipitation, stormwater runoff, inadequate plastic waste management, and biosolid applications, influences MPs’ presence and distribution. Our critical synthesis of existing literature underscores the significance of factors such as wind, water flow rates, settling velocities, wave characteristics, plastic morphology, density, and size in determining MPs' transport dynamics in surface and subsurface waters. Furthermore, this review identifies research gaps, both in experimental and simulation, and outlines pivotal avenues for future exploration in the realm of MPs.
Two different feature selection (variable selection) methods in partial least square
regression (PLSR) have been introduced in this study. These methods can lead betterment
in the variable selection.
i. The first variable selection method has been proposed by (Johnson, 1966,
2000). Using Johnsen index based measure in partial least squares (PLS) for
predicting the ESR products with cube, polyhydra and rod morphologies.
ii. Secondly, the Johnsen Index (Johnson, 1966, 2000) has been used in
regularized variable selection in PLS (Mehmood et al. 2011) for predicting the
aging behavior of micro plastics. As a result, the current research presents a
statistical learning strategy for anticipating microplast aging behavior using
spectrum data.
The pervasive presence of microplastics in the environment has raised significant concerns regarding their impact on ecosystems and human health. This chapter begins by introducing the concept of microplastics, emphasizing their role as emerging pollutants and their detrimental effects on the environment. The core of this chapter focuses on the practical aspects of monitoring microplastics. It covers sampling and collection techniques, discussing considerations for different environmental matrices such as water, sediments, soils, and biological tissues. Furthermore, it investigates the various analytical methods, encompassing microscopy-based techniques, spectroscopy, and chemical methods. A thorough discussion of the strengths and limitations of these methods is provided, enabling readers to make informed choices for their specific monitoring needs. Data analysis and interpretation are crucial for drawing meaningful conclusions from monitoring efforts, and this chapter provides insights into best practices in data processing. It addresses the importance of data quality, statistical methods, and data visualization in understanding the extent of microplastic contamination. In addition, it offers a compilation of real-world case studies showcasing the application of monitoring and assessment techniques in diverse environmental settings, illustrating the relevance of these techniques in addressing the challenges of microplastic contamination. The chapter concludes by addressing current challenges and limitations in microplastic monitoring, presenting emerging trends and innovations in the field, and suggesting future research directions. Overall, this chapter underscores the paramount significance of monitoring and assessment techniques in understanding and mitigating the effects of microplastics on our environment, thereby contributing to a more sustainable and less polluted future.
Transient or recurring blooms of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) have been reported in several estuarine and coastal environments, including recent observations of AOA blooms in South San Francisco Bay (SFB). Here, we measured nitrification rates, quantified AOA abundance, and analyzed both metagenomic and metatranscriptomic data to examine the dynamics and activity of nitrifying microorganisms over the course of an AOA bloom in South SFB during the autumn of 2018 and seasonally throughout 2019. Nitrification rates were correlated with AOA abundance in qPCR data and both increased several orders of magnitude between the autumn AOA bloom and spring and summer seasons. From bloom samples, we recovered an extremely abundant, high-quality Ca. Nitrosomarinus catalina-like AOA metagenome-assembled genome (MAG) that had high transcript abundance during the bloom and expressed >80% of genes in its genome. We also recovered a putative nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB) MAG from within the Nitrospinaceae that was of much lower abundance and had lower transcript abundance than AOA. During the AOA bloom, we observed increased transcript abundance for nitrogen uptake and oxidative stress genes in non-nitrifier MAGs. This study confirms AOA are not only abundant, but also highly active during blooms oxidizing large amounts of ammonia to nitrite - a key intermediate in the microbial nitrogen cycle - and producing reactive compounds that may impact other members of the microbial community.
This systematic review aimed to evaluate the current scenario of research on microplastics (MPs) in Brazilian coastal environments, considering beaches and also environments not yet reported in previous reviews, such as estuaries, mangroves, and reefs. Five databases were consulted, and 102 articles on the subject published between 2018 and 2023 were selected. The universities and research institutions that most published in this period were from the Southeast region (37.3% of the articles), followed by the Northeast region (34.3%). Universities in the states of Rio de Janeiro (15.7%) and Pernambuco (15.7%) lead the number of publications, followed by São Paulo (11.8%), Rio Grande do Sul (11.8%), and Espírito Santo (7.8%). About the coastal environments studied, 70% of the studies evaluated the presence of MPs on beaches, 26% on mangroves, 2% on estuaries, and 2% on coral reefs. Studies that evaluated its presence in marine biota corresponded to 43% of the articles, sediment (42%), and water (14%). The most studied organisms were bony fish (42%), bivalves (17%), crustaceans (7%), seabirds (7%), turtles (7%), and microfauna (5%). Despite growing, the distribution of study locations is still uneven and not related to the length of the coastline of each state. As for the origin, the works compiled in this study infer that the main sources of PMs are tourism, fishing, and river discharge, while the action of waves and winds contributes to the dispersion of these particles to less urbanized beaches and remote locations.
The landfill is one of the most important sources of microplastics (MPs). The pretreatment method is a precondition of microplastics study for the presence of complex substances in landfills. Therefore, it is essential to examine the impact of different pretreatment methods on the microplastics detection. A literature review and a comparison experiment on digestion solutions were performed to establish a comprehensive identification method for MPs in landfills. When exposed to of 30 % H2O2, minimal mass reduction of PE, PP and PET were 4.00 %, 3.00 % and 3.00 % respectively, and the least surface damage was observed in MPs, while exhibiting the most optimal peak value for infrared spectral characteristics. It is demonstrated that the effect of 30 % H2O2
dissolution was superior compared to 10 % KOH and 65 % HNO3. The method was subsequently utilized to investigate the distribution of MPs in a landfill. The dominant MPs were polyethylene (PE, 18.56–23.91 %), polyethylene terephthalate (PET, 8.80–18.66 %), polystyrene (PS, 10.31–18.09 %), and polypropylene (PP, 11.60–14.91 %). The comprehensive identification method of “NaCl density separation + 30 % H2O2 digestion +NaI density separation + sampling microscope + Mirco-FTIR” is suitable for the detection of MPs in landfills.
San Francisco Bay’s sediment is currently monitored for a variety of contaminants; however, data regarding the microplastics (MPs) in the area are still scarce. MPs’ occurrence in sediment samples has gained recognition as a reservoir for MP accumulation. Moreover, Bay sediment is also an important matrix for monitoring because sediment tends to accumulate certain contaminants and act as a source of contaminants in the Bay food web. This study analyzed MPs ranging from 25 µm to 5 mm in surface sediment grab samples (n = 8) and two sediment core samples (n = 2 cores analyzed with 11 samples from different depths). Our findings provide an evaluation of MP levels in different regions of the bay. The MP levels detected in Bay surface grab samples ranged from 2.1 to 11.9 MPs/g dry weight (n = 8), with a mean value of 6.2 MPs/g. The most abundant morphology was fibers, followed by fragments and films.
The widespread microplastic occurrence has invaded both marine and freshwater ecosystems. However, most studies are focused on marine microplastics and there is still insufficient knowledge and understanding of microplastics in freshwater ecosystems like small lakes. Known as one of the largest contributors of plastics to the aquatic environment, the Philippines has begun ventures on studying microplastic pollution, although, still, there are no accurate figures on the extent of the microplastic problem in the country, especially in its freshwater environment. In this study, a comparative assessment of microplastic concentration and characterization between Lake Yambo, an ecotourism and rural lake, and Lake Sampaloc, an aquaculture and urbanized lake, in San Pablo City, Laguna, Philippines was conducted through microplastic isolation and optical examination. Results revealed that the average microplastic concentration in Lake Sampaloc and Lake Yambo ranges from 483 to 989 n/m3 and 344 to 789 n/m3, respectively. Generally, the sampling sites in Lake Sampaloc had a higher mean concentration of microplastics than those in Lake Yambo. The key features of the microplastics detected in the surface waters of the studied lakes are fibrous, colored, and small-sized (<2 mm). In addition to proving the assumption that there are more microplastics observed in a highly-populated or urbanized freshwater ecosystem like Lake Sampaloc, this study also contributed to the meager evidence that microplastics are present even around scarcely-populated lakes like Lake Yambo. The outcome of this study is relevant for the local government unit (LGU) of San Pablo to make sustainable environmental policies regarding plastic waste management and disposal.
Synthetic microfibers (SMFs) are a class of non-biodegradable polymers having a length of less than 5 mm and diameter of less than 10 µm. They consist of nylon, polyester, rayon, polyethylene terephthalate, polypropylene, acrylic, spandex and other synthetic materials, mostly manufactured from petroleum derivatives They can enter the environment from both primary sources: during the manufacturing of textiles, or secondary sources: due to usage of textiles and disintegration of larger plastic items. Like plastics in general, they display resistance to natural breakdown, and their minuscule dimensions make them challenging to identify and study, resulting in their prolonged existence in the environment. The water ecosystem is most affected by this microscopic threat, where they can be ingested by various marine life forms, affect their metabolism, movement, and digestion, and eventually deteriorate them to death. They also pose an underlying harm to humans since they can reach the tissues via diet. This chapter explores the origin of SMFs from various sources—air, sea, and land-based sources, their fate in the ecosystem, and their toxic effects on life forms.
Plastics are becoming a pervasive pollutant in every environmental matrix, particularly in the aquatic environment. Due to increased plastic usage and its impact on human and aquatic life, microplastic (MP) pollution has been studied extensively as a global issue. The production of MP has been linked to both consumer and commercial practices. There is a significant amount of MP's that must be removed by wastewater treatment plants before they can be bioaccumulated. Many researchers have recently become interested in the possibility of eliminating MPs in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). Many studies have analyzed MP's environmental effects, including its emission sources, distribution, and impact on the surrounding environment. The effectiveness of their removal by various wastewater treatment technologies requires a critical review that accounts for all these methods. In this review, we have covered the most useful technologies for the removal of MP during WWTP. The findings of this review should help scientists and policymakers move forward with studies, prototypes, and proposals for significant remediation impact on water quality.
Municipal wastewater effluent has been proposed as one pathway for microplastics to enter the aquatic environment. Here we present a broad study of municipal wastewater treatment plant effluent as a pathway for microplastic pollution to enter receiving waters. A total of 90 samples were analyzed from 17 different facilities across the United States. Averaging all facilities and sampling dates, 0.05 ± 0.024 microparticles were found per liter of effluent. Though a small value on a per liter basis, even minor municipal wastewater treatment facilities process millions of liters of wastewater each day, yielding daily discharges that ranged from ∼50,000 up to nearly 15 million particles. Averaging across the 17 facilities tested, our results indicate that wastewater treatment facilities are releasing over 4 million microparticles per facility per day. Fibers and fragments were found to be the most common type of particle within the effluent; however, some fibers may be derived from non-plastic sources. Considerable inter- and intra-facility variation in discharge concentrations, as well as the relative proportions of particle types, was observed. Statistical analysis suggested facilities serving larger populations discharged more particles. Results did not suggest tertiary filtration treatments were an effective means of reducing discharge. Assuming that fragments and pellets found in the effluent arise from the 'microbeads' found in many cosmetics and personal care products, it is estimated that between 3 and 23 billion (with an average of 13 billion) of these microplastic particles are being released into US waterways every day via municipal wastewater. This estimate can be used to evaluate the contribution of microbeads to microplastic pollution relative to other sources (e.g., plastic litter and debris) and pathways (e.g., stormwater) of discharge.
The accumulation of litter in marine and coastal environments is a major threat to marine life. Data on marine litter in the gastrointestinal tract of stranded loggerhead turtles, Caretta caretta, found along the Portuguese continental coastwas presented. Out of the 95 analysed loggerheads, litter was present in 56 individuals (59.0%) and most had less than 10 litter items (76.8%) and less than 5 g (dm) (96.8%). Plastic was the main litter category (frequency of occurrence = 56.8%), while sheet (45.3%) was the most relevant plastic sub-category. There was no influence of loggerhead stranding season, cause of stranding or size on the amount of litter ingested (mean number and dry mass of litter items per turtle). The high ingested litter occurrence frequency in this study supports the use of the loggerhead turtle as a suitable tool to monitor marine litter trends, as required by the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive.
Municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are frequently suspected as significant point sources or conduits of microplastics to the environment. To directly investigate these suspicions, effluent discharges from seven tertiary plants and one secondary plant in Southern California were studied. The study also looked at influent loads, particle size/type, conveyance, and removal at these wastewater treatment facilities. Over 0.189 million liters of effluent at each of the seven tertiary plants were filtered using an assembled stack of sieves with mesh sizes between 400 and 45 μm. Additionally, the surface of 28.4 million liters of final effluent at three tertiary plants was skimmed using a 125 μm filtering assembly. The results suggest that tertiary effluent is not a significant source of microplastics and that these plastic pollutants are effectively removed during the skimming and settling treatment processes. However, at a downstream secondary plant, an average of one micro-particle in every 1.14 thousand liters of final effluent was counted. The majority of microplastics identified in this study had a profile (color, shape, and size) similar to the blue polyethylene particles present in toothpaste formulations. Existing treatment processes were determined to be very effective for removal of microplastic contaminants entering typical municipal WWTPs.
The ubiquity of anthropogenic debris in hundreds of species of wildlife and the toxicity of chemicals associated with it has begun to raise concerns regarding the presence of anthropogenic debris in seafood. We assessed the presence of anthropogenic debris in fishes and shellfish on sale for human consumption. We sampled from markets in Makassar, Indonesia, and from California, USA. All fish and shellfish were identified to species where possible. Anthropogenic debris was extracted from the digestive tracts of fish and whole shellfish using a 10% KOH solution and quantified under a dissecting microscope. In Indonesia, anthropogenic debris was found in 28% of individual fish and in 55% of all species. Similarly, in the USA, anthropogenic debris was found in 25% of individual fish and in 67% of all species. Anthropogenic debris was also found in 33% of individual shellfish sampled. All of the anthropogenic debris recovered from fish in Indonesia was plastic, whereas anthropogenic debris recovered from fish in the USA was primarily fibers. Variations in debris types likely reflect different sources and waste management strategies between countries. We report some of the first findings of plastic debris in fishes directly sold for human consumption raising concerns regarding human health.
Dead leaves of the Neptune grass, Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile, in the Mediterranean coastal zone, are colonized by an abundant " detritivorous " invertebrate community that is heavily predated by fishes. This community was sampled in August 2011, November 2011, and March 2012 at two different sites in the Calvi Bay (Corsica). Ingested artificial fibers (AFs) of various sizes and colors were found in 27.6% of the digestive tracts of the nine dominant species regardless of their trophic level or taxon. No seasonal, spatial, size, or species-specific significant differences were revealed; suggesting that invertebrates ingest AFs at constant rates. Results showed that, in the gut contents of invertebrates, varying by trophic level, and across trophic levels, the overall ingestion of AFs was low (approximately 1 fiber per organism). Raman spectroscopy revealed that the ingested AFs were composed of viscose, an artificial, cellulose-based polymer. Most of these AFs also appeared to have been colored by industrial dyes. Two dyes were identified: Direct Blue 22 and Direct Red 28. The latter is known for being carcinogenic for vertebrates, potentially causing environmental problems for the P. oceanica litter community. Techniques such as Raman spectroscopy are necessary to investigate the particles composition, instead of relying on fragment size or color to identify the particles ingested by animals.
Fulmars are effective biological indicators of the abundance of floating plastic marine debris. Long-term data reveal high plastic abundance in the southern North Sea, gradually decreasing to the north at increasing distance from population centres, with lowest levels in high-arctic waters. Since the 1980s, pre-production plastic pellets in North Sea fulmars have decreased by ∼75%, while user plastics varied without a strong overall change. Similar trends were found in net-collected floating plastic debris in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre, with a ∼75% decrease in plastic pellets and no obvious trend in user plastic. The decreases in pellets suggest that changes in litter input are rapidly visible in the environment not only close to presumed sources, but also far from land. Floating plastic debris is rapidly "lost" from the ocean surface to other as-yet undetermined sinks in the marine environment.
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Although widely detected in marine ecosystems, microplastic pollution has only recently been documented in freshwater environments, almost exclusively in surface waters. Here, we report microplastics (polyethylene microbeads, 0.40–2.16 mm diameter) in the sediments of the St. Lawrence River. We sampled 10 freshwater sites along a 320 km section from Lake St. Francis to Québec City by passing sediment collected from a benthic grab through a 500 μm sieve. Microbeads were discovered throughout this section, and their abundances varied by four orders of magnitude across sites. Median and mean (±1 SE) densities across sites were 52 microbeads·m⁻² and 13 832 (±13 677) microbeads·m⁻², respectively. The highest site density was 1.4 × 10⁵ microbeads·m⁻² (or 10³ microbeads·L⁻¹), which is similar in magnitude to microplastic concentrations found in the world’s most contaminated marine sediments. Mean diameter of microbeads was smaller at sites receiving municipal or industrial effluent (0.70 ± 0.01 mm) than at non-effluent sites (0.98 ± 0.01 mm), perhaps suggesting differential origins. Given the prevalence and locally high densities of microplastics in St. Lawrence River sediments, their ingestion by benthivorous fishes and macroinvertebrates warrants investigation.
Suspended microplastic and black carbon (BC) particles were determined in surface waters of the Jade system, southern North Sea, including freshwater sources. On average, 64 ± 194 granular particles, 88 ± 82 fibres and 30 ± 41 BC particles/L were recorded. Maximum numbers reached 1,770/L for granules, 650/L for fibres and 330/L for black carbon particles. The distribution along a transect from the inner to the outer part of the Jade system indicates granular particles to be dominant in the inner part, while fibres occur more prominently in the outer part. The distribution of BC particles was more uniform. All freshwater sources including sewage treatment plant effluents discharged microplastics, while BC was encountered only at two of nine discharge points.
Small plastic detritus, termed 'microplastics', are a widespread and ubiquitous contaminant of marine ecosystems across the globe. Ingestion of microplastics by marine biota, including mussels, worms, fish and seabirds, has been widely reported, but despite their vital ecological role in marine food-webs, the impact of microplastics on zooplankton remains under-researched. Here, we show that microplastics are ingested by, and may impact upon, zooplankton. We used bio-imaging techniques to document ingestion, egestion and adherence of microplastics in a range of zooplankton common to the northeast Atlantic, and employed feeding rate studies to determine the impact of plastic detritus on algal ingestion rates in copepods. Using fluorescence and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy we identified that thirteen zooplankton taxa had the capacity to ingest 1.7 - 30.6 µm polystyrene beads, with uptake varying by taxa, life-stage and bead-size. Post-ingestion, copepods egested faecal pellets laden with microplastics. We further observed microplastics adhered to the external carapace and appendages of exposed zooplankton. Exposure of the copepod Centropages typicus to natural assemblages of algae with and without microplastics showed that 7.3 µm microplastics (>4000 ml-1) significantly decreased algal feeding. Our findings imply that marine microplastic debris can negatively impact upon zooplankton function and health.
This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, volume-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: density separation, filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degradation stage, and color as criteria). Chemical and physical characteristics (e.g., specific density) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chemical composition of microplastics is by infrared spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance estimates are "items per m(2)" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m(3)" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance estimates. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
Plastics have transformed everyday life; usage is increasing and annual production is likely to exceed 300 million tonnes by 2010. In this concluding paper to the Theme Issue on Plastics, the Environment and Human Health, we synthesize current understanding of the benefits and concerns surrounding the use of plastics and look to future priorities, challenges and opportunities. It is evident that plastics bring many societal benefits and offer future technological and medical advances. However, concerns about usage and disposal are diverse and include accumulation of waste in landfills and in natural habitats, physical problems for wildlife resulting from ingestion or entanglement in plastic, the leaching of chemicals from plastic products and the potential for plastics to transfer chemicals to wildlife and humans. However, perhaps the most important overriding concern, which is implicit throughout this volume, is that our current usage is not sustainable. Around 4 per cent of world oil production is used as a feedstock to make plastics and a similar amount is used as energy in the process. Yet over a third of current production is used to make items of packaging, which are then rapidly discarded. Given our declining reserves of fossil fuels, and finite capacity for disposal of waste to landfill, this linear use of hydrocarbons, via packaging and other short-lived applications of plastic, is simply not sustainable. There are solutions, including material reduction, design for end-of-life recyclability, increased recycling capacity, development of bio-based feedstocks, strategies to reduce littering, the application of green chemistry life-cycle analyses and revised risk assessment approaches. Such measures will be most effective through the combined actions of the public, industry, scientists and policymakers. There is some urgency, as the quantity of plastics produced in the first 10 years of the current century is likely to approach the quantity produced in the entire century that preceded.
Plastics debris is accumulating in the environment and is fragmenting into smaller pieces; as it does, the potential for ingestion by animals increases. The consequences of macroplastic debris for wildlife are well documented, however the impacts of microplastic (< 1 mm) are poorly understood. The mussel, Mytilus edulis, was used to investigate ingestion, translocation, and accumulation of this debris. Initial experiments showed that upon ingestion, microplastic accumulated in the gut. Mussels were subsequently exposed to treatments containing seawater and microplastic (3.0 or 9.6 microm). After transfer to clean conditions, microplastic was tracked in the hemolymph. Particles translocated from the gut to the circulatory system within 3 days and persisted for over 48 days. Abundance of microplastic was greatest after 12 days and declined thereafter. Smaller particles were more abundant than larger particles and our data indicate as plastic fragments into smaller particles, the potential for accumulation in the tissues of an organism increases. The short-term pulse exposure used here did not result in significant biological effects. However, plastics are exceedingly durable and so further work using a wider range of organisms, polymers, and periods of exposure will be required to establish the biological consequences of this debris.
Yes, we are eating plastic-ingesting fish. A baseline assessment of plastic pellet ingestion by two species of important edible fish caught along the eastern coast of Brazil is described. The rate of plastic ingestion by king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) was quite high (62.5%), followed by the Brazilian sharpnose shark (Rhizoprionodon lalandii, 33%). From 2 to 6 plastic resin pellets were encountered in the stomachs of each fish, with sizes of from 1 to 5 mm, and with colors ranging from clear to white and yellowish. Ecological and health-related implications are discussed and the potential for transferring these materials through the food-chain are addressed. Further research will be needed of other species harvested for human consumption.
Microplastics, degraded and weathered polymer-based particles, and manufactured products ranging between 50 and 5000 μm in size, are found within marine, freshwater, and estuarine environments. While numerous peer-reviewed papers have quantified the ingestion of microplastics by marine vertebrates, relatively few studies have focused on microplastic ingestion by freshwater organisms. This study documents microplastic and manufactured fiber ingestion by bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and longear (Lepomis megalotis) sunfish (Centrarchidae) from the Brazos River Basin, between Lake Whitney and Marlin, Texas, USA. Fourteen sample sites were studied and categorized into urban, downstream, and upstream areas. A total of 436 sunfish were collected, and 196 (45%) stomachs contained microplastics. Four percent (4%) of items sampled were debris on the macro size scale (i.e. >5 mm) and consisted of masses of plastic, metal, Styrofoam, or fishing material, while 96% of items sampled were in the form of microplastic threads. Fish length was statistically correlated to the number of microplastics detected (p = 0.019). Fish collected from urban sites displayed the highest mean number of microplastics ingested, followed by downstream and upstream sites. Microplastics were associated with the ingestion of other debris items (e.g. sand and wood) and correlated to the ingestion of fish eggs, earthworms, and mollusks, suggesting that sunfish incidentally ingest microplastics during their normal feeding methods. The high frequency of microplastic ingestion suggest that further research is needed to determine the residence time of microplastics within the stomach and gut, potential for food web transfer, and adverse effects on wildlife and ecosystemic health.
Yes, we are eating plastic-ingesting fish. A baseline assessment of plastic pellet ingestion by two species of important edible fish caught along the eastern coast of Brazil is described. The rate of plastic ingestion by king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) was quite high (62.5%), followed by the Brazilian sharpnose shark (Rhizoprionodon lalandii, 33%). From 2 to 6 plastic resin pellets were encountered in the stomachs of each fish, with sizes of from 1 to 5 mm, and with colors ranging from clear to white and yellowish. Ecological and health-related implications are discussed and the potential for transferring these materials through the food-chain are addressed. Further research will be needed of other species harvested for human consumption.
Plastic is a common item in marine environments. Studies assessing seabird ingestion of plastics have focused on species that ingest plastics mistaken for prey items. Few studies have examined a scavenger and predatory species that are likely to ingest plastics indirectly through their prey items, such as the great skua (Stercorarius skua). We examined 1034 regurgitated pellets from a great skua colony in the Faroe Islands for plastics and found approximately 6% contained plastics. Pellets containing remains of Northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) had the highest prevalence of plastic. Our findings support previous work showing that Northern fulmars have higher loads of plastics than other sympatric species. This study demonstrates that marine plastic debris is transferred from surface feeding seabird species to predatory great skuas. Examination of plastic ingestion in species that do not ingest plastics directly can provide insights into how plastic particles transfer vertically within the food web.
Dead leaves of the Neptune grass, Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile, in the Mediterranean coastal zone, are colonized by an abundant " detritivorous " invertebrate community that is heavily predated by fishes. This community was sampled in August 2011, November 2011, and March 2012 at two different sites in the Calvi Bay (Corsica). Ingested artificial fibers (AFs) of various sizes and colors were found in 27.6% of the digestive tracts of the nine dominant species regardless of their trophic level or taxon. No seasonal, spatial, size, or species-specific significant differences were revealed; suggesting that invertebrates ingest AFs at constant rates. Results showed that, in the gut contents of invertebrates, varying by trophic level, and across trophic levels, the overall ingestion of AFs was low (approximately 1 fiber per organism). Raman spectroscopy revealed that the ingested AFs were composed of viscose, an artificial, cellulose-based polymer. Most of these AFs also appeared to have been colored by industrial dyes. Two dyes were identified: Direct Blue 22 and Direct Red 28. The latter is known for being carcinogenic for vertebrates, potentially causing environmental problems for the P. oceanica litter community. Techniques such as Raman spectroscopy are necessary to investigate the particles composition, instead of relying on fragment size or color to identify the particles ingested by animals.
This study assessed the capability of Crangon crangon (L.), an ecologically and commercially important crustacean, of consuming plastics as an opportunistic feeder. We therefore determined the microplastic content of shrimp in shallow water habitats of the Channel area and Southern part of the North Sea. Synthetic fibers ranging from 200 µm up to 1000 µm size were detected in 63 % of the assessed shrimp and an average value of 0.68 ± 0.55 microplastics/ g w. w. (1.23 ± 0.99 microplastics/ shrimp) was obtained for shrimp in the sampled area. The assessment revealed no spatial patterns in plastic ingestion, but temporal differences were reported. The microplastic uptake was significantly higher in October compared to March. The results suggest that microplastics > 20 µm are not able to translocate into the tissues.
This study assessed the capability of Crangon crangon (L.), an ecologically and commercially important crustacean, of consuming plastics as an opportunistic feeder. We therefore determined the microplastic content of shrimp in shallow water habitats of the Channel area and Southern part of the North Sea. Synthetic fibers ranging from 200 μm up to 1000 μm size were detected in 63% of the assessed shrimp and an average value of 0.68 ± 0.55 microplastics/g w. w. (1.23 ± 0.99 microplastics/shrimp) was obtained for shrimp in the sampled area. The assessment revealed no spatial patterns in plastic ingestion, but temporal differences were reported. The microplastic uptake was significantly higher in October compared to March. The results suggest that microplastics >20 μm are not able to translocate into the tissues.
This study focuses, for the first time, on the presence of plastic debris in the stomach contents of large pelagic fish (Xiphias gladius, Thunnus thynnus and Thunnus alalunga) caught in the Mediterranean Sea between 2012 and 2013. Results highlighted the ingestion of plastics in the 18.2% of samples. The plastics ingested were microplastics (<5mm), mesoplastics (5-25mm) and macroplastics (>25mm). These preliminary results represent an important initial phase in exploring two main ecotoxicological aspects: (a) the assessment of the presence and impact of plastic debris on these large pelagic fish, and (b) the potential effects related to the transfer of contaminants on human health.
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Plastics can be found in food packaging, shopping bags, and household items, such as toothbrushes and pens, and facial cleansers. Due to the high disposability and low recovery of discharged materials, plastics materials have become debris accumulating in the environment. Microplastics have a dimension <5 mm and possess physico-chemical properties (e.g., size, density, color and chemical composition) that are key contributors to their bioavailability to organisms. This review addresses the analytical approaches to characterization and quantification of microplastics in the environment and discusses recent studies on their occurrence, fate, and behavior. This critical overview includes a general assessment of sampling and sample handling, and compares methods for morphological and physical classification, and methodologies for chemical characterization and quantification of the microplastics. Finally, this review addresses the advantages and the disadvantages of these techniques, and comments on future applications and potential research interest within this field.
Once believed to degrade into simple compounds, increasing evidence suggests plastics entering the environment are mechanically, photochemically and/or biologically degraded to the extent that they become imperceptible to the naked eye yet are not significantly reduced in total mass. Thus, more and smaller plastics particles, termed microplastics, reside in the environment and are now a contaminant category of concern. The current study tested the hypotheses that microplastics concentration would be higher in proximity to urban sources, and vary temporally in response to weather phenomena such as storm events. Triplicate surface water samples were collected approximately monthly between July and December 2011 from four estuarine tributaries within the Chesapeake Bay, USA using a manta net to capture appropriately sized microplastics (operationally defined as 0.3‒5.0 mm). Selected sites have watersheds with broadly divergent land use characteristics (e.g., proportion urban/suburban, agricultural and/or forested) and wide ranging population densities. Microplastics were found in all but one of 60 samples with concentrations ranging over three orders of magnitude (<1.0 to > 560 g/km(2)). Concentrations demonstrated statistically significant positive correlations with population density and proportion of urban/suburban development within watersheds. Greatest microplastics concentrations also occurred at three of four sites shortly after major rain events.
Recent research has documented microplastic particles (< 5 mm in diameter) in ocean habitats worldwide and in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Microplastic interacts with biota in these habitats, including microorganisms, raising concerns about its ecological effects. Rivers may transport microplastic to marine habitats and the Great Lakes, but data on microplastic in rivers is limited. In a highly urbanized river in Chicago, Illinois, USA, we measured concentrations of microplastic that met or exceeded those measured in oceans and the Great Lakes, and we demonstrated that wastewater treatment plant effluent was a point source of microplastic. Results from high-throughput sequencing showed that bacterial assemblages colonizing microplastic within the river were less diverse and were significantly different in taxonomic composition compared to those from the water column and suspended organic matter. Several taxa that include plastic decomposing organisms and pathogens were more abundant on microplastic. These results demonstrate that microplastic in rivers are a distinct microbial habitat and may be a novel vector for the downstream transport of unique bacterial assemblages. In addition, this study suggests that urban rivers are an overlooked and potentially significant component of the global microplastic life cycle.
Neuston samples were collected at 21 stations during an ∼700 nautical mile (∼1300 km) expedition in July 2012 in the Laurentian Great Lakes of the United States using a 333 μm mesh manta trawl and analyzed for plastic debris. Although the average abundance was approximately 43,000 microplastic particles/km2, station 20, downstream from two major cities, contained over 466,000 particles/km2, greater than all other stations combined. SEM analysis determined nearly 20% of particles less than 1 mm, which were initially identified as microplastic by visual observation, were aluminum silicate from coal ash. Many microplastic particles were multi-colored spheres, which were compared to, and are suspected to be, microbeads from consumer products containing microplastic particles of similar size, shape, texture and composition. The presence of microplastics and coal ash in these surface samples, which were most abundant where lake currents converge, are likely from nearby urban effluent and coal burning power plants.
Plastics pollution in the ocean is an area of growing concern, with research efforts focusing on both the macroplastic (>5 mm) and microplastic (<5 mm) fractions. In the 1990s it was recognized that a minor source of microplastic pollution was derived from liquid hand-cleansers that would have been rarely used by the average consumer. In 2009, however, the average consumer is likely to be using microplastic-containing products on a daily basis, as the majority of facial cleansers now contain polyethylene microplastics which are not captured by wastewater plants and will enter the oceans. Four microplastic-containing facial cleansers available in New Zealand supermarkets were used to quantify the size of the polythelene fragments. Three-quarters of the brands had a modal size of <100 microns and could be immediately ingested by planktonic organisms at the base of the food chain. Over time the microplastics will be subject to UV-degradation and absorb hydrophobic materials such as PCBs, making them smaller and more toxic in the long-term. Marine scientists need to educate the public to the dangers of using products that pose an immediate and long-term threat to the health of the oceans and the food we eat.
Plastic debris <1 mm (defined here as microplastic) is accumulating in marine habitats. Ingestion of microplastic provides a potential pathway for the transfer of pollutants, monomers, and plastic-additives to organisms with uncertain consequences for their health. Here, we show that microplastic contaminates the shorelines at 18 sites worldwide representing six continents from the poles to the equator, with more material in densely populated areas, but no clear relationship between the abundance of miocroplastics and the mean size-distribution of natural particulates. An important source of microplastic appears to be through sewage contaminated by fibers from washing clothes. Forensic evaluation of microplastic from sediments showed that the proportions of polyester and acrylic fibers used in clothing resembled those found in habitats that receive sewage-discharges and sewage-effluent itself. Experiments sampling wastewater from domestic washing machines demonstrated that a single garment can produce >1900 fibers per wash. This suggests that a large proportion of microplastic fibers found in the marine environment may be derived from sewage as a consequence of washing of clothes. As the human population grows and people use more synthetic textiles, contamination of habitats and animals by microplastic is likely to increase.
Plastic debris litters marine and terrestrial habitats worldwide. It is ingested by numerous species of animals, causing deleterious physical effects. High concentrations of hydrophobic organic contaminants have also been measured on plastic debris collected from the environment, but the fate of these contaminants is poorly understood. Here, we examine the uptake and subsequent release of phenanthrene by three plastics. Equilibrium distribution coefficients for sorption of phenanthrene from seawater onto the plastics varied by more than an order of magnitude (polyethylene > polypropylene > polyvinyl chloride (PVC)). In all cases, sorption to plastics greatly exceeded sorption to two natural sediments. Desorption rates of phenanthrene from the plastics or sediments back into solution spanned several orders of magnitude. As expected, desorption occurred more rapidly from the sediments than from the plastics. Using the equilibrium partitioning method, the effects of adding very small quantities of plastic with sorbed phenanthrene to sediment inhabited by the lugworm (Arenicola marina) were evaluated. We estimate that the addition of as little as 1 microg of contaminated polyethylene to a gram of sediment would give a significant increase in phenanthrene accumulation by A. marina. Thus, plastics may be important agents in the transport of hydrophobic contaminants to sediment-dwelling organisms.
Stormwater: beyond the bag ban. Estuary News
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Laboratory methods for the analysis of microplastics in the marine environment: recommendations for quantifying synthetic particles in waters and sediments. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R-48. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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analysis of microplastics in the marine environment: recommendations for quantifying synthetic particles in waters and sediments. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R-48. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Springs, MD.
Discharging Microbeads to our Waters: An Examination of Wastewater Treatment Plants
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