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Flow rate in composite liners including GCLs and a bituminous geomembrane
... Experiments were carried out in an apparatus specially designed to measure the flow rate in a composite liner or in multicomponent GCLs (see Figure 2and Barroso et al., 2006; Barroso et al., 2010; Barroso et al., 2008; Bannour, Barral, & Touze-Foltz, 2013a; Bannour, Touze-Foltz, Courté, & von Maubeuge, 2013b; Mendes et al., 2010; Touze-Foltz, 2002). GCL specimens were cut to the internal diameter of the cell using a cutting shoe and did not experience any special preparation. ...
... Water Figure 2. Apparatus for measuring interface transmissivity (after Bannour et al., 2013aBannour et al., , 2013b Barroso et al., 2006; Barroso et al., 2008; Barroso et al., 2010; Mendes et al., 2010; Touze Foltz, 2002). The flow rate through composite liners containing the exhumed and altered GCLs as well as the virgin GCLs exhibited two different trends: ...
... This result shows that, despite the fact that the exhumed GCLs no longer exhibited a low hydraulic conductivity and are no longer watertight as a single liner, the composite liner will maintain good hydraulic conductivity even if the GMB has a hole under a 50 kPa normal stress. Many published results have highlighted the high performance of composite liners made with a HDPE or bituminous GMB combined with a virgin GCL (containing calcium or sodium bentonite) (Bannour et al., 2013a; Mendes et al., 2010) or a GCL that has been subjected to cation exchange in laboratory conditions (Rowe & Abdellaty, 2013). In this study, experiments done on exhumed GCLs altered by their environment confirmed the performance of the composite liners in a more realistic situation when GCLs are effectively subjected to cation exchange and a physical alteration by thermal sollicitations. ...
This study evaluates how alteration of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) affects the hydraulic behaviour of a composite liner when the geomembrane presenting a hole is overlying a GCL. Interface transmissivity experiments were performed on GCL specimens that were exhumed from field sites. The results reveal different trends in the flow rates, which decrease differently to their steady state values. The steady state flow rates obtained and the calculated interface transmissivities are of the same order of magnitude as results obtained with a virgin GCL. The transient flow rate results are discussed in relation with the GCLs parameters. Based on these results, a new equation is derived that links interface transmissivity to the hydraulic conductivity of GCLs that have been altered by the environment. Considering large transient flow rates in calculations result in a greater leakage volume penetrating the liner when compared to calculations of infiltrated volumes considering only steady state leakage volume for a period of time of 1, 10 or 30 years. From a practical point of view, this suggests the introduction of a factor of safety of 1.67 when calculating the flow rate in composite liners in order to take into account the alteration by the environment of GCLs.
... The geotextile provides high mechanical properties while the bitumen provides waterproofing characteristics of the BGM. The glass fleece fibre is used to provide dimensional stability of the product during manufacturing and increase the strength and puncture resistance [10][11]. Stabilization with SBS reduces the bitumen's temperature sensitivity to make it suitable for various applications [12][13]. ...
A custom-designed apparatus is used to age a 4.8-mm thick bituminous geomembrane (BGM) under single-sided exposure to a synthetic mining solution (pH13.5) at 70oC over a 6-months period. These experiments involve exposing the BGM from the bitumen coat surface only to simulate the BGM’s chemical exposure conditions in the field. The degradation in the tensile and chemical properties of the BGM is compared to double-sided immersed coupons in which the BGM is exposed to the solution from both surfaces. The preliminary results show that the degradation rate of the mechanical properties of the BGM is higher in the double-sided immersion test than single-sided immersion test. However, the difference in the degradation rates of the chemical properties of the bitumen coat between the double-sided and single-sided immersed BGM samples was insignificant.
... The geotextile provides high mechanical properties while the bitumen provides waterproofing characteristics of the BGM. The glass fleece fibre is used to provide dimensional stability of the product during manufacturing and increase the strength and puncture resistance [10][11]. Stabilization with SBS reduces the bitumen's temperature sensitivity to make it suitable for various applications [12][13]. ...
A custom-designed apparatus is used to age a 4.8-mm thick
bituminous geomembrane (BGM) under single-sided exposure to a synthetic
mining solution (pH13.5) at 70oC over a 6-months period. These
experiments involve exposing the BGM from the bitumen coat surface only
to simulate the BGM’s chemical exposure conditions in the field. The
degradation in the tensile and chemical properties of the BGM is compared
to double-sided immersed coupons in which the BGM is exposed to the
solution from both surfaces. The preliminary results show that the
degradation rate of the mechanical properties of the BGM is higher in the
double-sided immersion test than single-sided immersion test. However, the
difference in the degradation rates of the chemical properties of the bitumen
coat between the double-sided and single-sided immersed BGM samples
was insignificant.
... However, with time, the sodium bentonite in the GCL swells, resulting in a better contact between the GM and the GCL. Bannour et al. (2013a) studied the effect of bituminous GMs in contact with a GCL instead of a HDPE GM. This practice is not recommended for environmental applications because doubts exist about the chemical compatibility of the bituminous GM with leachate for example; however, it works fine for hydraulic applications or landfill covers where no environmental stakes are involved. ...
This paper, which is based on an Invited Lecture for the 7th International Conference on Environmental Geotechnics, gives an updated overview of the properties of transfer of geosynthetic liner materials used in environmental applications. To begin, the water-retention curves of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) are discussed, with the focus being on the high temperatures that can be encountered and the concomitant risk of desiccation. Next, an overview is given of quantifying advective transfer through intact geomembranes (virgin or after exposure on site) and through multicomponent GCLs. Experimental quantification of advective transfer through composite liners is also addressed, whereby geomembranes or the film or coating of a multicomponent GCL is damaged. Finally, based on a literature review including the most recent data, the discussion turns to the diffusion of organic and inorganic species through virgin and aged geomembranes and GCLs. The synopsis of the most recent data presented here in terms of elementary transfer mechanisms, either advective or diffusive, should contribute to improving the quantification of transfer through barrier systems. These four topics were selected as they correspond to the fields of expertise of the co-authors in which they have been publishing in the past 20 years.
Geoenvironmental engineered barriers, such as geotechnical and hydraulic layered structures called liners, are essential for protecting the environment from pollution. Liners are usually compacted clay liners (CCL), geomembranes (GM), geosynthetic clay liners (GCL), or a combination of these liners (composite liners), which require significant attention concerning materials, techniques, and procedures to perform adequately. This work reviews the function of geotechnical and hydraulic barriers as liners and highlights the lack of investigation and problematic aspects of them. In addition, the work provides an overview of the literature around earthworks which are liners’ specific configurations, such as landfills, dams, ponds, wastewater lagoons, and vertical barriers. Furthermore, the main investigations, issues, and perspectives are demonstrated, and are discussed alongside the trending research areas and sustainable new materials. This work highlights different directives in several countries for liner construction standards and testing program specifications, analyzing their economic aspects. The main studies on the subject have been compiled, and a bibliometric analysis was performed. Thus, this paper concludes by pointing out gaps in the research regarding alternative materials and structures within geoenvironmental investigations on liners, and signposts future scientific threads related to sustainable development.
Diffusion of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) through a 4.1 mm elastomeric bituminous geomembrane (BGM) is investigated using a dilute aqueous solution of four aromatic hydrocarbons: benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX). Due to the very different diffusion characteristics of the BGM components, double-compartment diffusion experiments are separately conducted on the bituminous and non-bituminous components of the BGM to assess their diffusion parameters. A two-layer computer model is developed to obtain the diffusion parameters of the BGM that correlates with the 890-day laboratory diffusion test data obtained for the multicomponent BGM and allows the modelling of transient diffusion. Using contaminant transport modelling, the BGMs performance as a diffusive barrier for different applications is evaluated and compared to different polymeric geomembranes (GMBs). It is shown that using BGM as part of the cover system for a hydrocarbon-contaminated soil landfill or as a vapour barrier below concrete building foundations can decrease the BTEX mass flux through the cover system and the peak concentration of contaminant in the indoor air compared to monolayer polymeric GMBs. It is also predicted to reduce the impact on the aquifer when modelled as a part of the composite liner without holes for a hypothetical solid waste landfill.
The effect of thickness (4.8 and 4.1 mm) on the degradation of two bituminous geomembranes (BGMs), when immersed in a synthetic leachate is investigated over a period of 33 months. Based on the data collected at four different temperatures (20, 40, 55, 70 • C), it is shown that the 4.1 mm has slightly faster degradation than the 4.8 mm thick BGM. Due to the reduced conditions of the examined leachate, the degradation in the chemical and rheological properties of the bitumen coat was relatively lower than in air and water immersion. However, the presence of a surfactant in the leachate increased the degradation of the polymeric back film and the reinforcement layer responsible for the mechanical properties of the BGM. The time to nominal failure of the two BGMs is predicted at a typical range of landfill liner temperatures using Arrhenius modelling. The predictions at temperatures >20 • C suggest that the examined BGMs may not be suitable for the containment of solid wastes containing surfactants due to the fast degradation in their mechanical properties.
The effect of elevated temperatures on the degradation of an elastomeric bituminous geomembrane (BGM) when exposed to air and deionized (DI) water at temperatures between 22 and 85 °C is investigated using immersion tests. The changes in the mechanical, chemical and rheological properties of the BGM are examined over approximately two years under different ageing conditions. It is shown that the BGM exhibited different degradation rates in its different components when exposed to elevated temperatures that are dependent on the incubation media. In air, the BGM exhibited thermo-oxidative degradation in the elastomeric bituminous coat that changed the bitumen glass transition temperature and increased its rigidity. Further degradation led to the brittleness of the bitumen coat before any degradation in the tensile and puncture strengths of the BGM. In contrast, exposure to DI water resulted in faster degradation of the mechanical properties of the BGM, while the bitumen coat exhibited substantially less degradation than in air. Arrhenius modelling is used to estimate the degradation times of the BGM at a range of field temperatures for both media.
A laboratory investigation was conducted on two different conventional GCLs (one with fine granular and another one with powdered bentonite) to explore the effect of prehydration and permeant fluid; GCL desiccation on the interface transmissivity, θ, between the interfaces of a 1.5 mm-thick high-density polyethylene (HDPE) geomembrane (GMB) and a GCL. The study also aimed to assess the self-healing capacity of desiccated GCLs for three different permeant solutions under a range of applied stresses (10–150 kPa). It was found that at stresses less than 70 kPa, θ was dominated by variability in the initial contact condition between the GMB-GCL interfaces. The effect of other factors was largely masked by the contact variability. At 100–150 kPa, the effects of initial variability were largely eliminated, but there was no notable effect of other factors on θ in the absence of desiccation. GCL desiccation increased θ by up to three orders of magnitude than an intact specimen at 10–100 kPa. Even at 150 kPa, desiccated specimens had a θ ≤ 8.0 × 10⁻⁹ m²/s for all specimens tested. The chemical composition of the permeant solutions, crack width, and nature of bentonite could play an important role in healing the cracks of desiccated GCLs.
Geomembranes are used worldwide as basin liners in tailings ponds to decrease the permeability of the foundation and prevent further transportation of harmful contaminants and contaminated water. However, leakage into the environment and damage to the geomembrane have been reported. This paper reviews available literature and recommendations on geomembrane structures for use as a basal liner in tailings ponds, and presents a framework to achieve early involvement and an integrated approach to geomembrane structure design. Cohesive planning guidelines or legislative directions for such structures are currently lacking in many countries, which often means that the structure guidelines for groundwater protection or landfill are applied when designing tailings storage facilities (TSF). Basin structure is generally unique to each mine but, based on the literature, in the majority of cases the structure has a single-composite liner. The type of liner system used depends mainly on the material to be used on top of the structure, local hydraulic pressure gradient, and climate conditions. More practical information and scientific knowledge on the use of base liners in various cases are needed. A sustainable approach could be risk-based design, where the life cycle of the basin is taken into consideration. To this end, this paper proposes geomembrane-lined tailings pond to be assessed as a stakeholder. Emphasis on this, early enough, can ensure critical factors for tailings ponds to be considered from the outset in the design of mines and reduces the environmental footprint of the mining industry. More holistic project management and early involvement and integration are recommended to improve construction quality during the entire life cycle of the pond. In the long term, use of dry stacking or other alternative methods should be encouraged, despite the higher costs for operators.
The equivalence of composite liners involving a geomembrane (GMB) and a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) to regulatory composite liners with a GMB and a compacted clay liner (CCL) can offer greater environmental protection to the underlying aquifer. It is suggested that GCLs and GMBs can play a very beneficial role in providing environmental protection even though GCLs are altered by their environment due to cation exchange and wet-dry cycles or there are defects in the GMB. The performance of GMB-GCL composite liners is accessed in terms of diffusion of contaminants and in terms of advective transfer due to the presence of defects in GMBs. Experimental, numerical and empirical quantification of advective transfers are examined through single GMBs and GCLs and are compared to GMB-CCL composite liners included in the case of aged GCLs.
To quantify the flow rate through multicomponent geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs), three different meter-sized specimens from different manufacturers were characterized in a dedicated experimental column. This study allows quantification of the interface transmissivity of multicomponent GCLs when the coating or attached film is damaged over an area large enough to make edge effects negligible. For all multicomponent GCLs characterized, the coating or attached film was less than 0.7 mm thick. Steady-state results indicated flow rates ranging from 4.61 × 10−12 to 3.01 × 10−11 m3/s with interface transmissivities ranging from 1.20 × 10−11 to 7.59 × 10−11 m2/s, which are broadly in line with flow rates obtained from conventional geomembrane (GM)–GCL composite liners. Consequently, when the coating or attached film is damaged, the thickness and rigidity of the coating or attached film appears not to affect the steady-state flow rate and interface transmissivity, which leads to a good contact at the interface.
A general framework for calculating the rate of liquid flow through a composite liner (geomembrane plus soil liner) with holes is presented. Solutions given for a circular hole and a damaged wrinkle can be used for interpreting data from laboratory tests, modelling expected field conditions, and interpreting field leakage data. A number of existing solutions arise from the general solution as special cases. Finally, the paper is extended to consider the potential interaction between damaged wrinkles, and it is theoretically shown that while this may be an important issue for composite liners incorporating a compacted clay liner, it is far less likely to be significant for those incorporating a geosynthetic clay liner.
Composite liners comprising a geomembrane (GM) with a circular hole, a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) and a compacted clay liner were studied in tests conducted at three scales to measure the flow rates at the interface between the GM and the GCL and in the composite liners. The tests conducted aimed at studying the influence of the prehydration of the GCLs, the influence of the confining stress, and the influence of the hydraulic head on flow rates through composite liners due to defects in the GM. Another goal of these tests was to check the feasibility of an extrapolation of results obtained from small-scale tests to field conditions. The results indicate that the prehydration affected flow rate in a different way according to the confining stress applied and the GCL used. These also indicate that the flow rate decreases with the increase in confining stress and that this effect is higher for prehydrated GCLs than for non-prehydrated GCLs. These results show as well that the flow rate increases when the hydraulic head increases. Finally, small-scale tests overestimate the flow as compared to intermediate and large-scale tests and thus flow obtained in small-scale tests represent an upper bound of flow that would be obtained in field conditions.
The flow rates along the interface between damaged geomembranes (GM) and geosynthetic clay liners (GCL) placed on top of a compacted clay liner (CCL) were measured by means of laboratory tests performed with an apparatus especially designed for this purpose. The tests performed were aimed at verifying the influence of the structural and material properties of the GCL on the transmissivity along the GM–GCL interface and flow rates through composite liners. Four types of GCLs with two different bonding processes (stitch-bonded or needle-punched) and different bentonites (natural sodium or natural calcium) were tested. The results obtained showed no significant differences among flow rate versus time in most of the tests performed, especially after the steady-state conditions of flow were reached. An analytical solution was employed to estimate the transmissivity of the GM–GCL interfaces. This solution also allowed predictions of flow rates and radius of wetted areas for typical configurations of composite liners in the field. The results obtained showed little influence of the nature of the bentonite and the predominance of the presence of preferential flow paths between the geomembrane and the GCL surface on the transmissivity of GM–GCL interfaces and flow rates through composite liners.
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