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Adult Missing Persons: Can an Investigative Framework be Generated Using Behavioural Themes?: Themes of adult missing persons
Abstract
There is a limited amount of research in the area of missing persons, especially adults. The aim of this research is to expand on the understanding of missing people, by examining adults' behaviours while missing and determining if distinct behavioural themes exist. Based on previous literature it was hypothesised that three behavioural themes will be present; dysfunctional, escape, and unintentional. Thirty-six behaviours were coded from 362 missing person police reports and analysed using smallest space analysis (SSA). This produced a spatial representation of the behaviours, showing three distinct behavioural themes. Seventy percent of the adult missing person reports were classified under one dominant theme, 41% were 'unintentional', 18% were 'dysfunctional', and 11% were 'escape'. The relationship between a missing person's dominant behavioural theme and their assigned risk level and demographic characteristics were also analysed. A significant association was found between the age, occupational status, whether they had any mental health issues, and the risk level assigned to the missing person; and their dominant behavioural theme. The findings are the first step in the development of a standardised checklist for a missing person investigation. This has implications on how practitioners prioritise missing adults, and interventions to prevent individuals from going missing.
... Therefore, identification of risk factors which can distinguish between homicide or suicide outcomes and good state of health (GSH) outcomes will favour the construction of effective and valid risk assessment instruments which will allow the early identification of high-risk and low-risk cases (Eales, 2017;García-Barceló et al., 2021b;Taylor et al., 2018). Despite an absence of research focussed on missing persons ending with homicide or suicide outcomes, over the past two decades, there has been a gradual increase in missing person research focused on the identification of causes and motives for going missing as well as risk factors for harm/fatal outcomes (Biehal et al., 2003;Bonny et al., 2016;Buckley, 2012;García-Barceló, et al., 2019;Huey & Ferguson, 2020). This research agrees that most disappearances do not involve foul play causes, criminal motives, or suicides attempts. ...
... Specifically, although some international research related to foul play in missing person cases is focused on missing abducted or kidnapped children as well as individuals who have experienced abuse or violence, little has been written about missing persons resulting in homicide (Biehal et al., 2003;Bonny et al., 2016;Cohen et al., 2008;Foy, 2006;García-Barceló et al., 2019;James et al., 2008;Salfati & Bateman, 2005). In the UK, Newiss (2004Newiss ( , 2005Newiss ( , 2006 explored the association between some socio-demographics such as gender and age and this kind of fatal outcome in missing person cases. ...
... The nature of these variables was diverse including open text, numeric, and polytomous variables. Consequently, the dataset was refined and variables related to potential risk factors (missing person characteristics and circumstances which surround the disappearance) were recoded using a dichotomous approach based on the presence/absence (0 = no/absence; 1 = yes/presence) of the variable of interest (Almond et al., 2006;Bonny et al., 2016;Dixon et al., 2008) which is appropriate to ensure maximum clarity and reliability when using records not collected research purposes. The polytomous dependant variable (state of health when located) was also recoded into two new dichotomous variables: homicide (0 = GSH, 1 = homicide) and suicide (0 = GSH, 1 = suicide). ...
The study explores in depth the relationship between missing persons’ psychosocial and criminological characteristics/circumstances and violent-fatal outcomes (suicide and homicide). A relational analytical explicative study of 929 cases and controls was designed using a retrospective and stratified design. Data gathering was conducted through the content analysis of judicial and police information, as well as the development of psychological autopsy techniques and semi-structured interviews with the persons involved in the missing person cases including offenders in prison. Bivariate and multivariate statistical techniques were utilised for analyses. The findings showed that there are different risk and protective factors which can distinguish between good state of health, suicide, and homicide outcomes. This research entails implications for prevention and police risk assessment system.
... International literature on missing persons has also uncovered several risk factors, risk markers, antecedents, or causes (different terms used interchangeably, albeit inconsistently, in the missing persons risk literature) that indicate which individuals are more likely to go missing. The focus in previous research has predominantly been on uncovering various demographic and psychopathological factors that place an individual at high risk for going missing to reduce and prevent these incidents through risk assessments and targeted interventions (e.g., Bonny et al., 2016;Hayden and Shalev-Greene, 2016;Hirschel and Lab, 1988;Muir-Cochrane et al., 2011;Sowerby and Thomas, 2017). Some scholarship has attempted to account for the social and environmental impacts, classified as 'push' and 'pull' factors, that may influence a missing event (e.g., Tarling and Burrows, 2004). ...
... Other investigators have revealed that, specific to missing episodes from mental health settings, younger, male patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia are at high risk for going missing (Dickens and Campbell, 2001;Gerace et al., 2015;Hearn et al., 2012;Nurjannah et al., 2009;Simpson and Bowers, 2004). Researchers have also established that existing mental health problems, both diagnosed and undiagnosed, and self-harm and suicidal ideation serve as risk factors for missingness (Bayliss and Quinton, 2013;Biehal et al., 2003;Blakemore et al., 2005;Bonny et al., 2016;Clarke, 1997;Cohen et al., 2008;Foy, 2006;Fyfe et al., 2015;Gibb and Woolnough, 2007;Henderson et al., 2000;Hirschel and Lab, 1988;Holmes et al., 2013;Huey et al., 2020;Payne, 1995;Perkins et al., 2011;Samways, 2006;Shalev Greene and Hayden, 2014;Stevenson et al., 2013;Sowerby and Thomas, 2017;Tarling and Burrows, 2004). Many studies have also highlighted drug and alcohol use and abuse as prominent factors associated with missingness (Blakemore et al., 2005;Bonny et al., 2016;Cohen et al., 2008Cohen et al., , 2009Ferguson and Huey, 2020;Foy, 2006;Fyfe et al., 2015;Hirschel and Lab, 1988;LePard et al., 2015;Payne, 1995;Perkins et al., 2011;Puzyreva and Loxley, 2017;Shalev Greene and Hayden, 2014;Stevenson et al., 2013;Welch, 2012;Wilkie et al., 2014;Yoder et al., 2001;Zerger et al., 2008). ...
... Researchers have also established that existing mental health problems, both diagnosed and undiagnosed, and self-harm and suicidal ideation serve as risk factors for missingness (Bayliss and Quinton, 2013;Biehal et al., 2003;Blakemore et al., 2005;Bonny et al., 2016;Clarke, 1997;Cohen et al., 2008;Foy, 2006;Fyfe et al., 2015;Gibb and Woolnough, 2007;Henderson et al., 2000;Hirschel and Lab, 1988;Holmes et al., 2013;Huey et al., 2020;Payne, 1995;Perkins et al., 2011;Samways, 2006;Shalev Greene and Hayden, 2014;Stevenson et al., 2013;Sowerby and Thomas, 2017;Tarling and Burrows, 2004). Many studies have also highlighted drug and alcohol use and abuse as prominent factors associated with missingness (Blakemore et al., 2005;Bonny et al., 2016;Cohen et al., 2008Cohen et al., , 2009Ferguson and Huey, 2020;Foy, 2006;Fyfe et al., 2015;Hirschel and Lab, 1988;LePard et al., 2015;Payne, 1995;Perkins et al., 2011;Puzyreva and Loxley, 2017;Shalev Greene and Hayden, 2014;Stevenson et al., 2013;Welch, 2012;Wilkie et al., 2014;Yoder et al., 2001;Zerger et al., 2008). Given the abundance of research on these associations, it can be said that the presence of mental illness and/ or addiction is an established pattern in that this factor renders an individual at a high risk of going missing. ...
This study seeks to advance an understanding of ‘risk’ for persons going missing—a phenomenon also known as missingness. There is a need to clarify terms used to describe correlations or statistical associations between variables that are identified as risk factors for missing person incidents to understand the mechanisms influencing this phenomenon. Without such research, policies and preventative strategies cannot be adequately offered to begin to reduce missingness. To do so, a review is first provided of the current risk factors identified internationally for missing persons. Then, the Kraemer and colleagues (Arch Gen Psychiatry 54:337–343, 1997; Kraemer et al., Am J Psychiatry 158:848–856, 2001) risk factor classification system and MacArthur framework are applied to the risk factors to identify the ways in which these may be overlapping, proxy, mediating, and/or moderating factors. This clarification on risk terminology attempts to offer a common language for communicating about risk factors associated with missing persons. Suggestions are then provided for how these factors may overlap and/or work together to form risk pathways. The application of this framework highlights that ‘going missing’ may have multiple risk pathways that transgress the current risk factor categorical boundaries. The article then concludes that consistent use of terms and additional research on risk factors will enhance investigations of missing persons and understandings of low- and high-risk groups.
... The research has mainly focused on five different facets: explanation of the phenomenon (causes and motives); description of missing people and disappearances; study of the effectiveness of missing person appeals; building empirical missing person's typologies; and identification of risk factors of harm/fatal outcomes (e.g. Baker et al., 2002;Biehal et al., 2003;Lampinen et al., 2009;Bonny et al., 2016;Buckley, 2012;Sarkin, 2019;Woolnough et al., 2019;García-Barceló et al., 2020a, b, c;Huey & Ferguson, 2020;Woolnough & Cunningham, 2020). ...
... There are just two studies that have contributed empirical knowledge in the form of multivariate-based typologies of missing person cases (Bonny et al., 2016;García-Barceló et al., 2020a, b, c). Bonny et al. (2016) used smallest space analysis (SSA) to study the relations between thirty-six behaviours displayed by missing persons which were content analysed from 362 UK police reports. ...
... There are just two studies that have contributed empirical knowledge in the form of multivariate-based typologies of missing person cases (Bonny et al., 2016;García-Barceló et al., 2020a, b, c). Bonny et al. (2016) used smallest space analysis (SSA) to study the relations between thirty-six behaviours displayed by missing persons which were content analysed from 362 UK police reports. They found that missing person reports in the UK could be classified under three different dominant themes ('unintentional', 'dysfunctional' or 'escape'). ...
... The research has mainly focused on five different facets: explanation of the phenomenon (causes and motives); description of missing people and disappearances; study of the effectiveness of missing person appeals; building empirical missing person's typologies; and identification of risk factors of harm/fatal outcomes (e.g. Baker et al., 2002;Biehal et al., 2003;Lampinen et al., 2009;Bonny et al., 2016;Buckley, 2012;Sarkin, 2019;Woolnough et al., 2019;García-Barceló et al., 2020a, b, c;Huey & Ferguson, 2020;Woolnough & Cunningham, 2020). ...
... There are just two studies that have contributed empirical knowledge in the form of multivariate-based typologies of missing person cases (Bonny et al., 2016;García-Barceló et al., 2020a, b, c). Bonny et al. (2016) used smallest space analysis (SSA) to study the relations between thirty-six behaviours displayed by missing persons which were content analysed from 362 UK police reports. ...
... There are just two studies that have contributed empirical knowledge in the form of multivariate-based typologies of missing person cases (Bonny et al., 2016;García-Barceló et al., 2020a, b, c). Bonny et al. (2016) used smallest space analysis (SSA) to study the relations between thirty-six behaviours displayed by missing persons which were content analysed from 362 UK police reports. They found that missing person reports in the UK could be classified under three different dominant themes ('unintentional', 'dysfunctional' or 'escape'). ...
Although research on missing persons has globally increased during the past few years, most of the studies conducted have focused on the description of socio-demographic and situational factors associated with this phenomenon. The aim of this study is to explore in-depth the relation between missing person's socio-demographic factors and missing person's typology and outcomes. A full 1-year sample of police recorded missing persons (n = 24,284) was extracted from the Spanish 'Missing Persons and Unidentified Human Remains (PDyRH)' system and a multivariate statistical approach was used. The findings of this research show that, although nationality and gender are mainly important from a descriptive level, age is the socio-demographic variable that better classifies the typology and outcome of missing person cases. These findings suggest that age is a modulating variable of this phenomenon. Thus, there is a need for the conduction of research for each specific age group focused on identifying psychosocial, criminological and geographical risk factors which could explain missing person case outcomes from a multifaceted approach. Considering previous research in the field, the findings of this research are mostly consistent with these previous studies and entail different implications, both at prevention level and in the scope of police investigations.
... El incremento del número de publicaciones científicas sobre personas desaparecidas que se ha venido produciendo durante las últimas dos décadas se debe principalmente a la necesidad de estandarizar la respuesta inicial ante este fenómeno desde una perspectiva basada en la evidencia por parte de la Administración Pública (Taylor et al., 2018). En pos de abordar este objetivo, la mayoría de investigaciones científicas realizadas hasta la fecha se han centrado principalmente en cinco facetas diferentes: explicación del fenómeno (causas y motivos), descripción de las personas desaparecidas y las desapariciones, estudio de la efectividad de las alertas de desaparición, construcción de tipologías empíricas, e identificación de factores de riesgo de resultar dañado o fallecido (Bonny et al., 2016;Buckley, 2012;Huey y Ferguson, 2020;Newiss, 2004;Sarkin, 2019;Woolnough et al., 2019;Woolnough y Cunningham, 2020). Todo lo cual debe estar soportado por la suficiente investigación empírica. ...
... Aunque afortunadamente la mayoría de las desapariciones se esclarecen en las primeras horas y las personas desaparecidas son localizadas en buen estado de salud, existe un menor número de ocasiones en las que se producen lesiones, o en el peor de los casos el fallecimiento de la persona durante la desaparición. Lo que fundamenta otra de las preocupaciones que rodean la problemática de las personas desaparecidas: la necesidad de abordar la prevención de estos desenlaces y la estandarización de la investigación policial en función de la evidencia (Bonny et al., 2016;Buckley, 2012;Huey y Ferguson, 2020;Newiss, 2004;Sarkin, 2019;Woolnough et al., 2019;Woolnough y Cunningham, 2020). Especialmente en lo que respecta a las tareas relacionadas con el establecimiento de mecanismos eficaces de valoración del riesgo de sufrir una lesión, o el fallecimiento, durante la desaparición (Buckley, 2012;Eales, 2017;Fyfe, Stevenson y Woolnough, 2015). ...
... Los adultos desaparecidos en España son personas que tienen deudas económicas, no hablan el idioma del lugar donde han desaparecido, han abandonado voluntariamente la medicación que necesitan, se van a otros países o regiones, tienen antecedentes policiales y/o penales, manifiestan su intención de suicidarse, se encuentran tristes o afligidos, en un proceso de separación, bajo la influencia del alcohol/drogas y/o pueden haber tenido un accidente, tanto físico como de salud mental. Estas características podrían fundamentar la existencia de diferentes escenarios temáticos sobre desapariciones de adultos: aquellos que desaparecen como vía de escape, aquellos que lo hacen con intenciones disfuncionales como acometer el suicido, aquellos que tienen accidentes de salud, y aquellos que pudieran ser víctimas de delito (Biehal et al., 2003;Bonny et al., 2016;Henderson et al., 2000). ...
La investigación científica sobre personas desaparecidas a nivel internacional y nacional se ha incrementado durante los últimos años en pos de abordar los diferentes retos establecidos acerca de la estandarización de la respuesta inicial (prevención e intervención) ante el fenómeno por parte de la Administración Pública. Los objetivos de este trabajo se centran en la identificación de las características que componen los perfiles de adultos y menores desaparecidos en España así como las relaciones existentes entre éstas y los estados de salud en los que las personas desaparecidas son localizadas. Se ha estudiado una muestra de 1,140 desapariciones ocurridas y esclarecidas en España en el año 2019. Los resultados indicaron que existen características que discriminan entre los perfiles de adultos y menores desaparecidos, así como entre los diferentes tipos de desenlaces (buen estado de salud, lesión y fallecimiento). Estos hallazgos generan diversas implicaciones en función del grupo de edad de la persona desaparecida: a) en el ámbito de la prevención general de las desapariciones, y sobre los grupos específicos de riesgo de resultar dañados o fallecidos, así como b) en el ámbito de la investigación policial para la creación de herramientas de apoyo a la toma de decisiones.
... Three categories of missing persons were identified that reflect individuals who had gone missing unintentionally via accidents or miscommunications, intentionally as an act of rebellion or to gain independence, and those who sought to escape undesirable consequences (Henderson et al., 2000). Similarly, Bonny, Almond, and Woolnough (2016) analysed 362 missing adult reports within Scotland to also identify three categories. The first, dysfunctional, identified vulnerable adults who had gone missing due to mental health difficulties or ongoing addiction problems, whilst the second grouping, escape, identified adults who go missing to overcome current life stressors (Bonny et al., 2016). ...
... Similarly, Bonny, Almond, and Woolnough (2016) analysed 362 missing adult reports within Scotland to also identify three categories. The first, dysfunctional, identified vulnerable adults who had gone missing due to mental health difficulties or ongoing addiction problems, whilst the second grouping, escape, identified adults who go missing to overcome current life stressors (Bonny et al., 2016). The final category, unintentional, identified adults who had simply lost contact with other individuals around them (Bonny et al., 2016). ...
... The first, dysfunctional, identified vulnerable adults who had gone missing due to mental health difficulties or ongoing addiction problems, whilst the second grouping, escape, identified adults who go missing to overcome current life stressors (Bonny et al., 2016). The final category, unintentional, identified adults who had simply lost contact with other individuals around them (Bonny et al., 2016). Therefore, whilst these typologies begin to identify some of the factors associated with going missing, they focus solely on the circumstantial causes of the missing period for adults and thus fail to explore the deeper underlying psychological influences between those who go missing which drives these behaviours and subsequent decision-making. ...
Over 320,000 missing persons are estimated to go missing annually in United Kingdom due to a variety of intentional and unintentional factors. This article aims to investigate whether the criminal narrative experience framework can be applied to missing persons to acquire a deeper insight into the psychological differences between missing children. Sixty‐one previously missing persons completed a missing experience survey, narrative roles questionnaire, and emotions questionnaire. Data were content analysed and subjected to a non‐metric, multi‐dimensional scaling procedure in the form of smallest space analysis. The results identified four distinct behavioural themes as follows: depressed throwaway victim, distressed pushaway revenger, calm runaway professional and elated fallaway hero. Following a stringent criterion, 88.50% of the sample could be differentiated into one dominant behavioural theme with the remaining 11.50% identified as a hybrid theme. Due to the exploratory nature of the study, additional exploration of the applicability of the framework is required
... This may result in the initiation of a formal or informal search. Nevertheless, law enforcement is legally responsible for investigating what has happened and attempting to trace the person (Bonny, Almond, & Woolnough, 2016;James, Anderson, & Putt, 2008). ...
... In this regard, the investigation of missing persons is a daily task for law enforcement that involves a significant investment of time and resources, including specialist units Greene & Pakes, 2013). To meet this operational challenge, and despite the fact that, in most cases, the missing person returns quickly and unharmed (Greene, 2020;Tarling & Burrows, 2004), the police need to continuously assess the risk level of the person being harmed or deceased, as well as to allocate the necessary resources to each case (Bonny et al., 2016). ...
... Considering the volume and extremely diverse nature of missing persons cases, as well as the fact that most persons are traced safe and well in the first 48 hours, there is a need to develop accurate risk assessments that may allow the early estimation of the low-base high-risk cases that result in harm, a fatal outcome, or remain missing. Traditionally, these assessments have been conducted from a subjective perspective that has been focused on the police professional experience and judgement (Biehal, Mitchell, & Wade, 2003;Bonny et al., 2016;Fyfe et al., 2015;Newiss, 1999;Tarling & Burrows, 2004). ...
The high number of missing person reports that occur globally each year highlights the need for research in this academically neglected field. This research focuses on establishing whether there are different scenarios or behavioural themes that consistently appear in missing person cases in Spain, which could assist the police investigation process. A representative sample of 341 missing person police reports was collated and up to 27 behaviours , which occur during the disappearance, have been codified, as well as circumstances surrounding the case. Through multidimensional scaling four behav-ioural themes have been identified: intentional-escape, intentional-dysfunctional, unintentional-accidental, and forced-criminal. These findings entail implications, both in terms of prevention and in the scope of police investigations. Specifically, this research is considered a key step in the development of: (a) a predictive risk assessment system for harmed or deceased outcomes, and (b) in-depth review of forced-criminal disappearances that concur with homicide. K E Y W O R D S behavioural themes, missing persons, multidimensional scaling, typology
... GIBB y WOOLNOUGH (2007) las clasifican también en función del escenario base y hablan de desaparición involuntaria, desaparición voluntaria, persona que desaparece por estar bajo la influencia de un tercero y desaparición por accidente, lesión o enfermedad. BONNY, et al., (2016), proponen empíricamente tres temas de fondo en las desapariciones y las clasifican en disfuncional, con intención de escapar, y sin intención de escapar. En España, DOMÈNECH (2018) basa su propuesta en el tratamiento que ofrecen los cuerpos policiales a la persona desaparecida, y clasifica las desapariciones en voluntarias, no voluntarias, por causas criminales y sin causa aparente. ...
... Algunos autores señalan la necesidad de ir más allá de los procesos subjetivos de toma de decisiones durante la investigación policial, y, postulan la necesidad de establecer un sistema de valoración de riesgo ante hechos con resultado de daño para las personas desaparecidas, que sea fiable, eficiente, y de fácil manejo para los investigadores policiales (BLACKMORE, BOSSOMAIER, FOY y THOMPSON, 2005;BONNY et al., 2016;SMITH y SHALEV, 2014;FOY, 2006). Este aspecto lo indicaba NEWISS (2004), cuando afirmaba que existía una demanda de recoger y estudiar datos de casos de desaparición que permitan ofrecer un modelo actuarial de evaluación de riesgo. ...
... En definitiva, la comprensión de la vulnerabilidad de un individuo es crucial cuando se trata de asignar un nivel de riesgo a partir del conocimiento de una desaparición, mediante la interposición de la denuncia ante las FCS (BONNY et al., 2016;GIBB y WOOLNOUGH, 2007;NEWISS, 2011). Todo ello sin olvidar que los casos de desapariciones son extremadamente diversos, lo que dificulta en gran medida el desarrollo de evaluaciones precisas de riesgo (BIEHAL et al., 2003;BONNY et al., 2016). ...
The high number of missing persons reports, which is globally reported each year, explains the interest in conducting research in this field. The missing persons phenomenon is complex and multifaceted, and therefore it requires an appropriate response from the involved institutions. One of the main law enforcement challenges in the investigation of missing persons is to develop risk assessment tools for harm and fatal outcomes, which are effective, acceptable and easy to use.
Promoting research among multidisciplinary professionals is essential to accomplish in-depth research, allowing to address the phenomenon’s description and the identification of risk factors, as well as to
encourage the development of tools and the improvement of the current risk assessment system.
... As to avoid undue influence on the analysis, behaviors were only included if they were present in more than 5% and fewer than 80% of cases (Bonny, Almond & Woolnough, 2016). Where behaviors were conceptually similar, they were condensed into a single variable. ...
... Here, the Jaccard's association coefficient was used. This gives the proportion of co-occurrence between two dichotomous variables, the value of which does not increase in the presence of joint non-occurrences (Bonny et al, 2016). This was appropriate given that the data may have left the presence of some variables unmentioned (Santtila et al., 2001). ...
... Second, the procedure ranks the association coefficients and presents them in abstract space (Bonny et al., 2016). The resulting plot is configured to show that the closer points are on the plot, the greater the association between the variables that they represent (Guttman, 1968). ...
Body part removal (BPR) is a rare homicide phenomena, which emerges as a result of a variety of motives. Fifty-eight BPR U.K. homicide cases were analyzed. Findings indicated key characteristics within BPR murder offenses, with most offenders males; aged around 31 years; knew their victims; with presence of alcohol, drugs, and mental health issues; and more than two thirds of the sample had previous convictions, more than 50% for theft. Offense behaviors showed "multiple wounds" and "victim naked" as highest frequency, with the head as the most frequently removed body part. Smallest space analysis (SSA) identified two behavioral themes (expressive and instrumental) with 62.1% of cases classified as one of these. The study has provided the largest U.K. sample of BPR homicide, furthering understanding this type of offense and the offenders who commit it.
... Proposed typologies (Biehal et al., 2003;Bonny, Almond, & Woolnough, 2016;Henderson, Henderson, & Kiernan, 2000;Payne, 1995) comprising three to five main categories are all, at face value, parsimonious. Payne's (1995) five-category typology included runaways who made an impulsive decision to leave. ...
... Payne's pushaways felt forced to leave due to a negative home environment involving violence and abuse. Henderson et al. (2000) and Bonny et al. (2016) both posited an escape category covering similar ground; however, in the former case, escape could be from financial problems in addition to physical danger. Payne's (1995) takeaways were missing due to abduction, also categorised as forced (Biehal et al., 2003), and as safety concerns (Henderson et al., 2000). ...
... Payne's (1995) throwaways, those thrown out of home, were not addressed in other typologies. Bonny et al. (2016) proposed a dysfunctional category who had gone missing due to involvement with alcohol and/or drugs, or suicidal intent, equivalent to the safety concern type in Henderson et al.'s (2000) typology. ...
Missing persons incidents incur considerable societal costs but research has overwhelmingly concentrated on missing children. Understanding of the phenomenon among adults is underdeveloped as a result. We conducted an evolutionary concept analysis of the ‘missing person’ in relation to adults. Evolutionary Concept Analysis provides a structured narrative review methodology which aims to clarify how a poorly defined phenomena have been discussed in the professional/academic literature in order to promote conceptual clarity and provide building blocks for future theoretical development. A systematic literature search identified k = 73 relevant papers from which surrogate terms for, and antecedents, consequences and attributes of the occurrence of adult missing persons were extracted and analysed. The core attributes of the adult missing person are: (i) actual or perceived unexpected or unwanted absence accompanied by an absence of information; and (ii) a potential adverse risk outcome as perceived by those left behind. The centrality of mental ill-health in actual adult missing persons cases is not reflected in theoretical development which largely comprises descriptive typologies of variable quality and questionable utility. There is a clear need to shift research emphasis towards clinical and psychological domains of inquiry in order to further advance the field of adult missing persons research.
... substance use disorder or mental health challenge may leave home without notifying family or friends (Bonny et al., 2016;Sowerby & Thomas, 2017), while a teen experiencing abuse in the home may runaway to escape the maltreatment (James et al., 2008;Sowerby & Thomas, 2017). In some instances, a missing person case may stem from an abuser killing their intimate partner or abducting their child (James et al., 2008). ...
... In fact, doing so is a right established by the 1995 U.S. Supreme Court decision McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission, whereby adults can remain anonymous by "going missing," and this right extends from the freedom of the press right which allows an individual to remain anonymous when writing (Chakraborty, 2019). By extension, not all missing persons are missing unintentionally, and not all missing person cases are related to criminal activity (Bonny et al., 2016). In fact, Chakraborty (2019) notes that persons can go missing due to fatal accidents or dementia, among other things: while these missing persons are missing unintentionally, they are not missing because of their involvement in nefarious activities, such as kidnapping, trafficking, and so forth. ...
This project proposed a new partnership between the Nebraska Commission on Indian Affairs, the four tribes of Nebraska: Omaha Tribe, Ponca Tribe, Santee Sioux Tribe, and Winnebago Tribe; and researchers at the University of Nebraska, Omaha. It was responsive to NIJ funding opportunity 2019-15203 titled Tribal-Researcher Capacity Building Grant, under the priority area of conducting pilot studies involving collecting preliminary data and secondary data analysis on the topics of murdered and missing Native women and children.1 This proposal also aligned with the goals of Nebraska Legislative Bill (LB) 154, which called for a statewide study to determine how to increase state criminal justice protective and investigative resources for reporting and identifying missing Native women and children in Nebraska.
... Social disparities and experiences with violence may contribute to an environment where individuals either intentionally or unintentionally "go missing". For example, someone with an untreated substance use disorder or mental health challenge may leave home without notifying family or friends (Bonny et al., 2016;Sowerby & Thomas, 2017). A teen experiencing abuse in the home may runaway to escape the maltreatment (James et al., 2008;Sowerby & Thomas, 2017) or a youth in state care might leave their foster care placement (Hayden & Shalev-Greene, 2018). ...
... In fact, doing so is a right established by the 1995 U.S. Supreme Court decision McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission, whereby adults can remain anonymous by going missing (Chakraborty, 2019). By extension, not all missing persons are missing unintentionally and not all missing persons cases are related to criminal activity (Bonny et al., 2016). At the same time, law enforcement officers are responsible for responding to reports of missing persons, and so the data on missing persons is largely collected by law enforcement agencies. ...
... decided (e.g., commit suicide, mental health, runaway, escape for multiple problems), drifted (e.g., lost contact, etc.), unintentional (e.g., following parental divorce, dementia, accident, miscommunication), and forced (e.g., victim of crime, parental abduction, etc.). Bonny et al. (2016) also proposed an empirical classification based on the behavioural analysis of 2992 missing persons in Scotland. Using multidimensional scaling, their findings highlighted three dimensions. ...
... Moreover, some studies noted that lifestyle risk factors such as being homeless, sex-trade workers, transient, and socially isolated, could also be associated with missing person cases suspected of homicide (Horan & Beauregard, 2016;LePard et al., 2015;Quinet, 2007). It is important to note, however, that in previous studies several cases involving marginalised missing persons were not associated with a criminal context (Bonny et al., 2016;Huey & Ferguson, 2020). According to the study by Quinet et al. (2016), deceased persons with no known next of kin could be reported missing in the official databases in cases where no one has come to identify and claim their body. ...
The purpose of this study is to explore cases of missing persons suspected of being criminal. Specifically, this research aims to empirically describe the circumstances surrounding criminal disappearances and examine whether there are different subcategories within these cases using a victimological framework. The data used in this study come from an operational police database. The sample includes 155 unsolved missing person cases whose thorough investigation by the police concluded that a criminal motive remained the most likely hypothesis. These cases occurred on the entire territory of metropolitan France and overseas. Multidimensional scale analysis was used to explore the context of disappearance according to missing person characteristics, lifestyle, everyday activities, and situational exposure at the time of the disappearance. Results show that the distribution of variables in a two‐dimensional space reveals four distinct different categories related to lifestyle and situational exposure: riskier lifestyle, riskier situation, safer situation, and safer lifestyle. This study is the first to empirically explore unsolved missing person cases suspected of a criminal outcome. Moreover, the framework used in this study demonstrates the importance of victimology in an investigative context.
... Three dimensions of behavior can typify a missing adult person: dysfunctional (i.e., mental problems including dementia [7]), escape (i.e., people who decide or are driven to go missing to gain independence or flee from difficulties), and unintentional (i.e., under the influence of others or as a result of an accident or communication problem with those close to them) [42]. The typologies that most characterize older adults (i.e., age above 60 years) are dysfunctional and escape [42]. ...
... Three dimensions of behavior can typify a missing adult person: dysfunctional (i.e., mental problems including dementia [7]), escape (i.e., people who decide or are driven to go missing to gain independence or flee from difficulties), and unintentional (i.e., under the influence of others or as a result of an accident or communication problem with those close to them) [42]. The typologies that most characterize older adults (i.e., age above 60 years) are dysfunctional and escape [42]. This particularity, coupled with the multiplicity of environmental circumstances associated with the missingness, implies that the consequences of missingness can impact not only the missing person but also those directly or indirectly related to them [43]. ...
Person missingness is an enigmatic and frequent phenomenon that can bring about negative consequences for the missing person, their family, and society in general. Age-related cognitive changes and a higher vulnerability to dementia can increase the propensity of older adults to go missing. Thus, it is necessary to better understand the phenomenon of missingness in older adults. The present study sought to identify individual and environmental factors that might predict whether an older adult reported missing will be found. Supervised machine learning models were used based on the missing person cases open data of Colombia between 1930 and June 2021 ( n = 7855). Classification algorithms were trained to predict whether an older adult who went missing would eventually be found. The classification models with the best performance in the test data were those based on gradient boosting. Particularly, the Gradient Boosting Classifier and the Light Gradient Boosting Machine algorithms showed, respectively, 10% and 9% greater area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve than a data-driven, reference model based on the mean of the reported time elapsed since the missingness observed in the training data. The features with the greatest contribution to the classification were the time since the missingness, the place where it occurred, and the age and sex of the missing person. The present results shed light on the societal phenomenon of person missingness while setting the ground for the application of machine learning models in cases of missing older persons.
... Social disparities and experiences with violence may contribute to an environment where individuals either intentionally or unintentionally "go missing". For example, someone with an untreated substance use disorder or mental health challenge may leave home without notifying family or friends (Bonny et al., 2016;Sowerby & Thomas, 2017). A teen experiencing abuse in the home may runaway to escape the maltreatment (James et al., 2008;Sowerby & Thomas, 2017) or a youth in state care might leave their foster care placement (Hayden & Shalev-Greene, 2018). ...
... In fact, doing so is a right established by the 1995 U.S. Supreme Court decision McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission, whereby adults can remain anonymous by going missing (Chakraborty, 2019). By extension, not all missing persons are missing unintentionally and not all missing persons cases are related to criminal activity (Bonny et al., 2016). At the same time, law enforcement officers are responsible for responding to reports of missing persons, and so the data on missing persons is largely collected by law enforcement agencies. ...
Recent legislation in multiple states has called for studies on the scope of missing Native American persons. Here we report on one such study from Nebraska by first describing the practical and methodological issues for researchers to consider when examining data on missing Native persons. Then, using data from four point-in-time-counts in 2020, rates of Native American missing persons as well as case contexts over the study period are reported. Findings show that Native Americans are disproportionately represented among Nebraska's missing persons, that reports often involve minor boys, and that cases are dynamic and most are resolved quickly. Relatedly, most Native missing persons cases are only listed on the state clearinghouse, not the national missing persons lists. The paper is concluded with a discussion of specific directions for future research and policy regarding missing Native Americans.
... Missingness may, therefore, be reduced not only through developing interventions for or preventing those that have been identified as at risk, as recognized through risk factors, but also by educating individuals on the impact of 'going missing,' both at the individual-and social-level, and on other adaptive ways to cope. For example, Bonny, Almond, and Woolnough (2016) suggests that educational work on how "going missing" can escalate family worry and stress and the importance of communication in personal relationships may potentially reduce the number of missing adult reports. ...
... Therefore, those who were not located (i.e., remain missing) or were found deceased are not included in our analysis. This limitation was also outlined by Bonny, Almond, and Woolnough (2016), who notes that, while this could present bias toward less severe missing person cases, it is a broader issue that has previously been identified when using police data for research purpose (Canter, Laurence, and Alison 2003). Third, some themes in this study were developed through self-reports and others' perceptions of the negative stress and emotion experienced by those reported as missing, which suggests the results may be less accurate than if we only included selfreported measures for negative stress and emotion. ...
This study applied the Threat Appraisal and Coping Theory to explore the mechanisms influencing a person to go missing. We examined the negative emotions and stressors – proximate stressors/stressful events, underlying life stressors, emotional states, and other dysfunctional behaviors – of adults who were reported as missing from 2014-2018. Our results indicate that missing persons experience significant underlying life stressors, stressful situations, and proximate stressors that can ‘trigger’ a missing episode. We also found that most missing adults are described as facing negative emotions, such as anger, and engaging in maladaptive behaviors, such as drug and alcohol use, that are related to these events. These findings, we suggest, highlight that affectual and individual-level mechanisms are influential factors contributing to why adults go missing. Lastly, it was revealed that missing adults are commonly reported as experiencing strains and stressors in their personal relationships, indicating that this phenomenon may be attenuated through social support as an adaptive coping resource. Through these results, we can begin to understand missingness as driven by a negative event, stressor, or emotion in which the person engages in the maladaptive coping behavior of ‘going missing’ as a way to escape the situation and achieve some level of emotional or cognitive distance.
... Gibb y Woolnough (2007) las clasifican también en función del escenario base y hablan de desaparición involuntaria, desaparición voluntaria, persona que desaparece por estar bajo la influencia de un tercero y desaparición por accidente, lesión o enfermedad. Finalmente, Bonny, et al. (2016), proponen empíricamente tres temas de fondo en las desapariciones y las clasifican en disfuncional, con intención de escapar, y sin intención de escapar. ...
... de valorar las circunstancias personales que rodean la desaparición en el momento de establecer un posible daño o lesión de la persona implicada. Específicamente, se ha puesto el foco de interés en el estudio de los problemas en el entorno familiar, así como del ámbito laboral, los relacionados con las emociones, los relacionados con motivos económicos, la delincuencia, las drogas, o la nacionalidad(Biehal et al., 2003;Bonny, et al., 2016;Newiss, 2006; Stevenson y Thomas, 2018). Hasta el momento, los postulados relacionados con este tipo de variables han sido expuestos de manera meramente teórica, estableciéndose la necesidad de abordarlos desde la perspectiva empírica (exploración y descripción de estas, así como la posible relación con otras variables de interés).En lo que respecta al hecho o desaparición en sí misma, el estudio de la duración de la desaparición se considera de interés en tanto que cuanto más tiempo desaparecida está una persona, mayores son las posibilidades de obtener un resultado de tipo negativo: lesivo o mortal(Newiss, 2011). ...
En España, cualquier tipo de desaparición con independencia de la motivación subyacente, es objeto de atención policial, por lo que se considera muy importante ayudar a las FCS a priorizar sus actuaciones sobre aquellos casos más graves: aquellas en las que la persona resulta lesionada o herida y, en la peor de las situaciones, fallecida.
Para abordar estos retos, desde el Ministerio del Interior, se están llevando a cabo diferentes iniciativas. Una de éstas ha consistido en la contratación del Instituto de Ciencias Forenses y de la Seguridad (ICFS) de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, como entidad académica y científica, para la recopilación de la documentación policial (atestados) de una muestra numerosa de casos reales, a nivel nacional, esclarecidos, y el posterior vaciado y análisis estadístico univariante, bivariante, y multivariante de los datos, en una iniciativa pionera hasta el momento en España.
... Payne (1995), for example, distinguishes between 'runaways,' 'pushaways,' 'throwaways,' 'fallaways,' and 'takeaways.' Others have suggested we should see disappearance as a continuum ranging from intentional to unintentional missingness (Biehal, Mitchell, & Wade, 2003; see also Bonny, Almond, & Woolnough, 2016). We also have to factor in both precipitating and underlying causes, of which there are many (Hirschel & Lab, 1988;Tarling & Burrows, 2004;. ...
... A wealth of literature exists across England and Wales to support the understanding of various aspects of missing persons, including the prevalence and demographics of missing persons (Bonny et al., 2016;Hayden & Shalev-Greene, 2018;Malloch & Burgess, 2011;Newiss, 2006), the "geographies" of missing persons (Fyfe et al., 2015;Gibb & Woolnough, 2007;Shalev et al., 2009;Shalev Greene & Hayden, 2014), the impact on families (Boss, 2002(Boss, , 2006Parr & Stevenson, 2013a, 2013bParr et al., 2016;Jones et al., 2007;Wyland et al., 2016), and the outcomes for individuals going missing (Biehal et al., 2003;Newiss, 2006;Tarling & Burrows, 2004). In Canada, there has been an uptick in studies exploring missing persons (e.g., Ferguson & Koziarski, 2021;Ferguson & Picknell, 2021;Giwa & Jackman, 2020;;Kowalski, 2020;Neubauer et al., 2021) with some replicating much the same subjects as the UK to build a base of understanding. ...
Cold/long-term missing person cases continue to be a matter of great concern for the public and police. Scholars have attempted to study the issue of missing persons more broadly, using research from across regions to understand this phenomenon. However, there has been little study of how relevant research from different regions is to other areas and little examination of cold/long-term missing person cases. Given these two considerations – these cases being of great concern but understudied and the blending of research findings from different regions – this study presents first insights on cold/long-term missing person cases from England and Wales versus Canada through a comparative examination. From this, we offer key recommendations that either region may benefit from for enhancing police response. We also highlight the applicability of research from each region, discussing the implications of different police systems, processes, and challenges.
... The next steps for progressing this research would be to develop and test more nuanced multivariate models that establish how an interplay between variables influences spatial behaviours and sub-groups that display distinct characteristics and behaviours, and to consider the role risk categorisations may have in relation to these groupings. So far, such analysis has focused predominately on determining sub-groups of missing adults who share characteristics and/or circumstances (Biehal et al., 2003;Bonny et al., 2016;Henderson et al., 2000) using relatively small sample sizes and without exploring these within the context of risk. Future research should consider whether sub-groups exist within child samples, as we have proposed earlier, and whether children and adults who share characteristics also share similar spatial patterns when missing. ...
To date, limited systematic focus has been directed to examining factors that influence the spatial behaviour of missing people. Accordingly, this study examined whether demographic and behavioural factors were related to distance between missing and found locations in 16,454 archival cases of missing reports from two UK police forces. Findings from ordinal regressions showed that children were more likely to be found at further distances if they were deemed to be at high or medium risk of coming to harm but less likely to be located further away when victims of a violent attack. Adults were more likely to be found at further distances if planning behaviours were present (e.g. had taken their passport), but less likely to if they were above the age of 65 years or suffering from abuse. Findings indicate the role of age, planning and vulnerability on travel when missing. Implications for search strategies and directions for future research are considered.
... While youths do go missing from private residences (Hayden and Shalev-Greene, 2018), little is known about such occurrences beyond the difficult family lives they might experience (Hutchings et al., 2019). For adults, the locations frequently reported include hospital settings (Bonny et al., 2016) and mental health facilities (Hayden and Shalev Greene, 2018). As with most social problems, reasons for going missing do not occur in isolation, and as such, the reasons for adults going missing from ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to test the “power few” concept in relation to missing persons and the locations from which they are reported missing.
Design/methodology/approach
Data on missing persons’ cases ( n = 26,835) were extracted from the record management system of a municipal Canadian police service and used to create data sets of all of the reports associated with select repeat missing adults ( n = 1943) and repeat missing youth ( n = 6,576). From these sources, the five locations from which repeat missing adults and youth were most commonly reported missing were identified (“power few” locations). The overall frequency of reports generated by these locations was then assessed by examining all reports of both missing and repeat missing cases, and demographic and incident factors were also examined.
Findings
This study uncovers ten addresses (five for adults; five for youths) in the City from which this data was derived that account for 45 percent of all adults and 52 percent of all youth missing person reports. Even more striking, the study data suggest that targeting these top five locations for adults and youths could reduce the volume of repeat missing cases by 71 percent for adults and 68.6 percent for youths. In relation to the demographic characteristics of the study’s sample of adults and youths who repeatedly go missing, the authors find that female youth are two-thirds more likely to go missing than male youth. Additionally, the authors find that Aboriginal adults and youths are disproportionately represented among the repeat missing. Concerning the incident factors related to going missing repeatedly, the authors find that the repeat rate for going missing is 63.2 percent and that both adults and youths go missing 3–10 times on average.
Practical implications
The study results suggest that, just as crime concentrates in particular spaces among specific offenders, repeat missing cases also concentrate in particular spaces and among particular people. In thinking about repeat missing persons, the present research offers support for viewing these concerns as a behavior setting issue – that is, as a combination of demographic factors of individuals, as well as factors associated with particular types of places. Targeting “power few” locations for prevention efforts, as well as those most at risk within these spaces, may yield positive results.
Originality/value
Very little research has been conducted on missing persons and, more specifically, on how to more effectively target police initiatives to reduce case volumes. Further, this is the first paper to successfully apply the concept of the “power few” to missing persons’ cases.
... Parece que en la literatura científica y en los informes institucionales europeos disponibles en materia de desapariciones y homicidios, se señalan variables cuyo estudio puede resultar de interés en pos de describir los perfiles sociodemográficos, psicosociales, de estilo de vida y personalidad (modelo PEN; Eysenck, 1952) diferenciales de este tipo de víctimas y de agresores (sexo, edad, origen, familia de origen, nivel de estudios, situación laboral, presencia de discapacidad, antecedentes de salud mental, reincidencia o consumo de sustancias; Biehal et al., 2003;Bonny, et al., 2016;González, Sotoca y Garrido, 2015;Newiss, 2006;Stevenson y Thomas, 2018). Además, algunas de las investigaciones internacionales ponen el foco de interés en el estudio de las circunstancias en las que se encuentra la persona desaparecida y en las que rodean la desaparición, ya que, son los aspectos a valorar en el momento de realizar una evaluación policial del riesgo de que la persona resulte lesionada o fallecida durante la desaparición (James et al., 2008;Biehal et al., 2003;Newiss, 2011). ...
A pesar de su baja prevalencia, los casos de desapariciones con desenlace fatal por causa homicida despiertan una gran alarma social, lo que genera una necesidad y reclamo de estudio por parte de la sociedad en aras de que estos aspectos se aborden y se sitúen con prioridad en la agenda política. Para abordar estas necesidades y ayudar a las FCSE en la respuesta hacia este tipo de casos, cabe preguntarse si existen aspectos que los caractericen.
Para responder ante estas cuestiones y siguiendo los términos de cooperación CNDES-ICFS (UAM), se ha realizado un estudio pormenorizado y sobre el terreno de una muestra de casos de desapariciones en España en las que subyace un homicidio. Esta revisión pormenorizada ha consistido en a) la identificación, recopilación y estudio de la documentación policial (atestados) de una muestra de casos de desapariciones que hubieran terminado en homicidio de la persona desaparecida, y que hubieran sido esclarecidos; b) la entrevista personal con los agentes policiales que investigaron el caso, así como con los entornos de víctimas y agresores, y, en última instancia, con el agresor en prisión; y c) la elaboración de un informe técnico en el que se vaciaron los datos de los distintos casos y se mostraran los resultados de los análisis estadísticos de esos datos, a nivel descriptivo. Esta iniciativa se considera pionera en el ámbito europeo hasta el momento.
A pesar de ser un estudio descriptivo, los resultados han permitido describir profundamente variables antes no conocidas sobre el fenómeno de las desapariciones con desenlace fatal de etiología homicida en nuestro país, facilitando así una mayor capacitación de los integrantes de las FCS que trabajen en esta materia. Además, este trabajo sirve como punto de partida para el desarrollo de futuras investigaciones con valor predictivo que mejoren (si cabe) la respuesta policial basada en la evidencia ante la denuncia de un caso de desaparición en el que se advierta desde el primer momento que subyace un homicidio y que permitan estimar las características más probables que puede tener el autor o autores de este (perfilado inductivo).
Las desapariciones son un fenómeno global que generan una gran alarma social y suponen una repercusión psicológica grave para los implicados. La mayoría de personas desaparecidas son localizadas en menos de 24 horas en buen estado de salud. No obstante, un pequeño porcentaje se asocia con un desenlace fatal, siendo el suicidio la principal causa de muerte. El trabajo actual se centra en el estudio de las desapariciones con desenlace suicida en función del sexo y la edad de la persona desaparecida. Para ello, se ha realizado un análisis del método empleado, entorno utilizado y distancia recorrida por la persona, intentando establecer si existe una asociación entre las variables. Los resultados muestran que los hombres tienden a utilizar el ahorcamiento y los entornos boscosos, desplazándose mayores distancias, mientras que las mujeres recorren una menor distancia destacando la sobredosis como método predilecto. No se han encontrado resultados concluyentes en cuanto a método y entorno según la edad del individuo pero si se ha observado que la distancia recorrida es menor cuanto mayor edad tiene el desaparecido. Este estudio supone un aumento del conocimiento empírico en torno a las desapariciones de etiología suicida, aportando información que pueda ser utilizada en las estrategias preventivas, así como de actuación policial.
This discursive article explores the argument that, by gently tweaking core parameters of what it means to be a missing person—specifically relating to definition and risk—the role played by private organizations and entities in managing the problem of missing persons can be interrogated. The examination begins by inquiring into the extent to which police take ownership of missing persons as an issue, utilizing net-widening and pluralization concepts to investigate the limits of the police role. To inquire into the role of definitional widening, the case of lost children in commercial spaces is used, arguing that private providers are routinely responsibilized with managing lost child cases that would otherwise enter into missing person statistics. To explore tweaks to the definition of risk in relation to missing, the debtor tracing industry is explored. The final argument is made that further exploration of the periphery of ‘missingness’ ought to be undertaken.
In June/July 2016, the Centre for Translation and Interpreting Studies in Scotland (CTISS) brought together over 400 researchers and practitioners from across the world to discuss Future-proofing Interpreting and Translating during the eighth Critical Link Conference (CL 8). Critical Link Conferences are the most important global forum for discussion and knowledge exchange amongst researchers in the field of interpreting and translation, and practitioners who work in multilingual public service settings.
In their Report, Professor Böser and her colleagues discuss the impact of this major Conference, and other research which is aimed at minors and some of the most vulnerable people in society.
This research examined the relationship between adult missing persons and suicide, considering a number of possible vulnerability indicators/characteristics of this group of missing persons. Implications for missing person investigations were also explored, particularly for the risk assessment process. Data was extracted for 93 (N = 93) missing persons cases from one English police force, over a 4-year period. These individuals were found dead suspected of suicide. The findings illustrate a number of vulnerability indicators/characteristics of missing persons who complete suicide. In relation to the initial risk assessment level applied to the missing person report, two vulnerability indicators, a risk of suicide and the presence of a suicide note, had an effect on predicting a higher risk assessment level. Future research, in order to overcome the present study’s limitations, should attempt to collect data from more than one police force in order to increase the sample size. In addition to this, it would be beneficial to use a sample of missing persons who are found safe and well as a comparative sample to have a better chance in understanding the examined relationship and whether the vulnerability indicators/characteristics are indicative of suicide risk. The findings of this study have practical implications for the risk assessment process and are a step forward in providing empirical evidence applicable to identifying missing persons most at risk of suicide. This research has helped to build upon and corroborate existing knowledge of missing persons who complete suicide. This study provides new empirical evidence on suicide in adult missing persons. The findings demonstrate the subjective and variable nature of the risk assessment process and highlight potential implications on missing person investigations.
Young people who go missing face significant risks and vulnerabilities, yet there has been limited research looking their longer-term criminal justice-related outcomes. The aim of this study was to explore the criminal justice and mental health-related trajectories of a random sample of 215 young people reported missing for the first time in 2005, followed up for a decade. Two thirds (64.7%) of the sample had accumulated an offence history and 68.4% a victimisation history. More than a third were reported missing multiple times; these youth were characteristically different to single episode missing persons with respect to police contacts and mental health-related vulnerability. Results highlight a significant level of mental health concern among a population that police are not adequately equipped to respond to. Further research is needed to better understand motivations for going missing and the extent of risks and vulnerabilities they face while missing and upon return.
ISBN 0642 24145 7 Each year, around 30,000 people are reported missing in Australia—one person every 18 minutes. The 30,000 people exceed the total number of victims, reported to police for homicide, sexual assault, and unarmed robbery combined. Nation-ally, the rate of missing people reported to the police is 1.55 per thousand, and it varies considerably around Australia with South Australia and the Australian Capital Territory have rates double the national average. Children and young people having rates three times those of adults. Fortunately, nearly all are found, and 86 per cent are located within one week. The social and economic impacts on families, friends, and the community as a whole are profound. It is estimated that each missing person costs the community about $2,360—in search costs, loss of earnings while family members look, and health and legal costs. For 30,000 people, this adds to over $70 million per year. Relatively little is known about the reasons people go missing, the character-istics of missing persons, and the impact of their disappearance on the commu-nity. In 1998, the National Missing Persons Unit (NMPU) at the Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence commissioned an independent study to address this information gap and to identify service delivery needs for those affected by the phenomenon of missing persons. This paper summarises that report. Adam Graycar Director T he study was based on various sources of information. These included an analysis of missing person statistics provided by Australian police and by three non-government tracing organisations—the Salvation Army, Australian Red Cross, and International Social Service (Australia) over a three-year period. A detailed analysis was carried out on 505 missing person police reports, representing all missing persons reported to Australian police during a single week at the mid-point of the three-year period. A national survey of families and friends of 270 people reported missing to police was conducted, using an in-depth structured telephone interview. Consultations were held with over 90 organisations with an interest in missing person issues. The study also included an assessment of the economic and social costs of missing people in the Australian community.
The extrapolation of characteristics of criminals from information about their crimes, as an aid to police investigation, is the essence of ‘profiling'. This paper proposes that for such extrapolations to be more than educated guesses they must be based upon knowledge of (1) coherent consistencies in criminal behaviour and (2) the relationship those behavioural consistencies have to aspects of an offender available to the police in an investigation. Hypotheses concerning behavioural consistencies are drawn from the diverse literature on sexual offences and a study is described of 66 sexual assaults committed by 27 offenders against strangers. Multivariate statistical analyses of these assaults support a five-component system of rapist behaviour, reflecting modes of interaction with the victim as a sexual object. The potential this provides for an eclectic theoretical basis to offender profiling is discussed.
The newly emerging area of Investigative Psychology provides a behavioural science basis for crime detection by examining investigative processes and criminal behaviour. It draws upon a range of material collected by law enforcement agencies that is not widely utilised in the social sciences. This may be regarded as a form of non- reactive, unobtrusive data that has many of the advantages originally promoted by Webb, Campbell, Schwartz and Sechrest (1966) and more recently explored by Lee (2000). The value of such data, derived from police sources, has been demonstrated in a variety of Investigative Psychology studies. However, law enforcement material is not usually collected as data but rather as evidence. Consideration is therefore given to how to address the challenges this poses. The unobtrusive measures derived from police investigations provide a different perspective on crime and other aspects of human actions from that based on more conventional sources of data such as questionnaires and interviews. To assist in the effective use of measures derived from police information a framework for considering this material is proposed reflecting the range of sources of measures that Lee (2000) identified; personal records, running records, physical traces, and simple observation. As in other areas, close attention to the methods of collecting such material can considerably improve its utility. The measures being utilized in Investigative Psychology therefore offer some fruitful directions for other areas of social science research. Development of these measures can also improve the effectiveness of
Objectives:
The aim of the present study was to investigate whether participation in a structured resource-enhancing group intervention at work would act as primary prevention against depression. The authors analysed whether the intervention resulted in universal, selected or indicated prevention.
Methods:
A total of 566 persons participated in a prospective, within-organisation, randomly assigned field experimental study, which consisted of 34 workshops in 17 organisations. The participants filled in a questionnaire, were randomly assigned to either intervention (n=296) or comparison (n=324) groups and returned another questionnaire 7 months later. The intervention, lasting four half-day sessions, was delivered by trainers from occupational health services and human resources. The aim of the structured programme was to enhance participants' career management preparedness by strengthening self-efficacy and inoculation against setbacks. The comparison group received a literature package. The authors measured depressive symptoms using the short version of the Beck Depression Inventory. A high number of depressive symptoms (over 9 points) were used as a proxy for depression.
Results:
At follow-up, the odds of depression were lower in the intervention group (OR=0.40, 95% CI 0.19 to 0.85) than in the comparison group when adjusted for baseline depressive symptoms, job strain and socio-demographics. In addition, the odds of depression among those with job strain (OR=0.15, 95% CI 0.03-0.81) at baseline were lower after the intervention. The intervention had no statistically significant effect on those with depressive symptoms (over 4 points) at baseline.
Conclusion:
The resource-enhancing group intervention appeared to be successful as universal and selective prevention of potential depression.
The social context can impact psychological and physiological functioning. Being alone, in particular, is experienced as more negative on average than being with others, in both normative and pathological populations. This study investigates whether daily solitude is associated with changes in cortisol and, if so, whether momentary and trait affect can explain this relationship. Forty-four female college students used the Experience Sampling Method during a week, completing questionnaires and collecting saliva 8 times daily. Effects of current solitude, affect, and trait affectivity on cortisol were tested with multilevel regression. Cortisol levels were significantly higher when individuals were alone. Although momentary affective states changed during solitude and were also associated with cortisol, they did not fully explain the effects of solitude on cortisol. Trait affectivity moderated the association between solitude and cortisol. Findings may help clarify how daily experience may heighten risk of depression or other negative health outcomes in vulnerable individuals.
Antidepressant medications represent the best established treatment for major depressive disorder, but there is little evidence that they have a specific pharmacological effect relative to pill placebo for patients with less severe depression.
To estimate the relative benefit of medication vs placebo across a wide range of initial symptom severity in patients diagnosed with depression.
PubMed, PsycINFO, and the Cochrane Library databases were searched from January 1980 through March 2009, along with references from meta-analyses and reviews.
Randomized placebo-controlled trials of antidepressants approved by the Food and Drug Administration in the treatment of major or minor depressive disorder were selected. Studies were included if their authors provided the requisite original data, they comprised adult outpatients, they included a medication vs placebo comparison for at least 6 weeks, they did not exclude patients on the basis of a placebo washout period, and they used the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS). Data from 6 studies (718 patients) were included.
Individual patient-level data were obtained from study authors.
Medication vs placebo differences varied substantially as a function of baseline severity. Among patients with HDRS scores below 23, Cohen d effect sizes for the difference between medication and placebo were estimated to be less than 0.20 (a standard definition of a small effect). Estimates of the magnitude of the superiority of medication over placebo increased with increases in baseline depression severity and crossed the threshold defined by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence for a clinically significant difference at a baseline HDRS score of 25.
The magnitude of benefit of antidepressant medication compared with placebo increases with severity of depression symptoms and may be minimal or nonexistent, on average, in patients with mild or moderate symptoms. For patients with very severe depression, the benefit of medications over placebo is substantial.
Two studies explored relations between positive reminiscing and emotional experience – a survey of naturally occurring reminiscence (Study 1) and a field experiment testing the affective consequences of two styles of reminiscing (Study 2). In Study 1, frequency of positive reminiscing predicted perceived ability to enjoy life, and students who reminisced using cognitive imagery reported a greater ability to savor positive events than those who reminisced using memorabilia. In Study 2, students were randomly assigned either to reminisce about pleasant memories using cognitive imagery, reminisce about pleasant memories using memorabilia, or think about current concerns (control condition) for 10 min twice daily for a week. Both reminiscence groups reported greater increases in the percent of time they felt happy over the past week than the control group; and happiness increased more in the cognitive imagery group than in the memorabilia group.
It is hypothesized that stranger rape victim statements will reveal a scale of violation experienced by the victim, ranging from personal violation, through to physical violation, and finally, at the most extreme level, sexual violation. It is also hypothesized that offences can be differentiated in terms of one of four themes: hostile, controlling, stealing, or involving. To test these hypotheses, crime scene data from 112 rapes were analyzed by the multi-dimensional scaling procedure Smallest Space Analysis. The results provide empirical support for a composite model of rape consisting of four behavioral themes as different expressions of various intensities of violation. The results also suggest that stranger rapes may be less about power and control than about hostility and pseudo-intimacy. The proposed model has implications for the classification of rape, the investigation of sexual crimes, and the treatment of victims.
Responding to reports of missing persons represents one of the biggest demands on the resources of police organisations. In the UK, for example, it is estimated that over 300,000 missing persons incidents are recorded by the police each year which means that a person in the UK is recorded missing by the police approximately every two minutes. However, there is a complex web of behaviours that surround the phenomenon of missing persons which can make it difficult to establish whether someone's disappearance is ‘intentional’ or ‘unintentional’ or whether they might be at risk of harm from themselves or others. Drawing on a set of missing person case reconstructions and interviews with the officers involved with these cases, this paper provides insights into the different stages of the investigative process and some of the key influences which shape the trajectory of a missing person's investigation. In particular, it highlights the complex interplay between actions which are ‘ordered and conditioned’ by a procedural discourse around how missing persons investigations should be conducted, and the narratives that officers construct about how they approach investigations which are often shaped by a mix of police craft, ‘science’ and ‘reputational’ issues.
In the wake of the 2011 ‘riots’, public order policing tactics in England and Wales have once again been brought into question. Yet, the riots came two years since police regulatory authorities in the UK called for fundamental reforms to the policing of public order. Questions are raised about why the change called for appears to have been so slow and what can be done to assist reform. This paper suggests that developing an evidence-based policing approach within the field of public order policing to inform police decision-making would provide the answers. By doing so, the paper addresses some of the possible barriers to implementing evidence-based policing in public order and calls for police academic partnership to overcome these to make ‘change’ an ongoing reality. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article presents the current state of knowledge in deliberate-self harm (DSH). DSH presents as a comorbidity with a number of personality disorders and psychopathologies, but is also relatively common in the psychologically healthy population. Over the past 10 years, attention has shifted from the investigation of DSH as a cardinal or comorbid symptom of psychopathology to an attempt to understand the behaviour itself, without reference to other psychopathological processes. It is argued that this development in understanding the aetiology of DSH has not been matched by developments in treatment or management of DSH, with the majority of treatment programs targeting larger syndromes of which DSH is a symptom. Treatment regimes aimed at reducing DSH appear to be either untested or demonstrably unsuccessful.
Drawing on information from a random sample of over 1,000 cases this paper highlights the variety and complexity of missing person cases, reported to the police. The overwhelming majority of missing persons are found safe and well or are no longer considered as missing. Most return within a short space of time. Some cases, however, are not concluded quickly or with such favourable outcomes. A further sample of cases, which had caused problems for the police, was examined. These cases also revealed a variety of situations, backgrounds and outcomes. Many were immigration cases or had other reasons for wishing to remain ‘missing’. Some missing persons, unfortunately, were found dead but many of them had died of natural causes and had died before the police were notified. In view of the variety of cases and the rarity of adverse outcomes it is difficult to develop statistical risk prediction scores as an aid to decision-making. Instead the Association of Chief Police Officers has issued guidance to strengthen police officers' professional judgement in dealing with MISPER (missing person) cases.
This paper outlines a brief history of the evolutionary trajectory of offender profiling and illustrates the three broad strands (investigative, clinical, and statistical) that emerged in the 1970s–1990s. We then indicate how a more pragmatic, interdisciplinary practitioner–academic model has emerged in recent years and go on to describe the range of contributions that are now made across the criminal justice field. More recently termed ‘behavioural investigative advice’ in the UK, the paper then argues that whilst a range of potential contributions exist (from linking crimes, risk assessment, provision of bad character evidence, investigative interviewing advice, to geoprofiling), the nature of the process by which that contribution occurs is not yet well understood. The review of these potential contributions concludes with several suggestions and recommendations for further research and relevant methodologies by which to conduct that research. This includes the requirement to combine conceptual and theory-driven models alongside empirically driven statistical approaches, as well as the requirement to more precisely delineate and describe how contributions are made by behavioural experts through cognitive task analyses and associated methods.
The present study investigates the variations in crime scene behaviour that exist among child sex offenders. Hypotheses concerning behavioural consistencies are drawn from the diverse literature on child sexual abuse wherein three conceptually distinct behavioural themes are identified, characterized by aggressive, intimate, or criminal-opportunist modes of offender-victim interaction.Crime scene data from 97 recorded child sex offences are analysed using multivariate statistical procedures to assess the validity of the themes. The results provide empirical support for all three themes, suggesting a multivariate model of offence behaviour in child sexual abuse. These findings effectively demonstrate that paedophilia can exist as both a pathology and a form of criminality.
This study investigates the variations in characteristics that exist among youths who sexually harm (YSH). Three conceptually distinct sets of background characteristics are hypothesized from the literature relating to whether the YSH was abused, delinquent or impaired. Forty-one characteristics were drawn from an extensive and detailed review of the files of 300 cases. The pattern of co-occurrence of the presence or absence of these characteristics was revealed by a non-metric multidimensional scaling procedure, smallest space analysis (SSA). The results provide empirical support for three distinct background themes as 215 (71%) of the youths could be assigned to one dominant background theme (abused, delinquent or impaired). The findings have implications for the ways in which practitioners differentiate between young people who sexually harm.
The police response to missing persons has attracted growing levels of scrutiny, resulting in an increasing demand to ensure police decisions taken about the likely “outcome” of a disappearance are based on empirical evidence as well as clinical expertise. While most missing persons return soon after their disappearance, a small proportion will remain missing for prolonged periods of time and require ongoing police review and risk assessment. This article presents the findings from an analysis of over 1,000 people reported missing to the police who, at the time of data collection, had remained missing for more than one year. The findings illustrate that long-term outstanding missing persons are more likely to be male, adults and over-represented by people from minority ethnic backgrounds. While it is not possible to know what has actually happened to the individuals concerned, the study indicates that the overall sample is likely to comprise a number of discrete subgroups of individuals experiencing different outcomes (e.g., suicide, homicide, assuming a new identity).
Syndromes are clusters of symptoms that tend to occur together in the same patient. They usually are described crosssectionally (i.e., the symptoms occur in the same individual at the same time) but can also occur longitudinally (i.e., the symptoms occur in the same individual but at different times).
We conducted a case-control study of the association between nearly lethal suicide attempts and facets of alcohol consumption; namely, drinking frequency, drinking quantity, binge drinking, alcoholism, drinking within 3 hours of suicide attempt, and age began drinking. Subjects were 13–34 years of age. In bivariable analyses, all measures were associated with nearly lethal suicide attempts. Odds ratios ranged from 2.4 for alcoholism to 7.0 for drinking within 3 hours of attempt. All exposure variables except age began drinking exhibited a J-shaped relationship between alcohol exposure and nearly lethal suicide attempt. After controlling for potential confounders and other measures of alcohol exposure, drinking within 3 hours of attempt remained most strongly (odds ratios > 6) associated. Alcoholism remained significantly associated in most models, but at lower strength.
This article reviews the arguments for reporting effect size estimates as part of the statistical results in empirical studies. Following this review, formulas are presented for the calculation of major mean-difference and association-based effect size measures for t tests, one-way ANOVA, zero order correlation, simple regression, multiple regression, and chi-square. The emphasis is on the presentation formulas that make the calculation of effect size measures as easy as possible. In most cases, the formula components are readily available and easily recognizable on the output from most major statistical software. Examples of effect size reporting with guidelines for design and analytic variations are provided. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 43: 653–672, 2006.
This study is a post hoc analysis of additions of antidepressants, anxiolytics, and sedative/hypnotics in treatment of patients randomized to antipsychotic treatment in the CATIE study, which recruited a chronic, "real world" schizophrenia sample and followed patients for up to eighteen months. We examined baseline predictors of initiation, time until initiation, and duration of treatment with antidepressants, anxiolytics, and sedative/hypnotics in CATIE study participants.
Psychotropic medication use by 1,449 CATIE study participants was documented at each study visit. Baseline demographic and clinical predictors of initiation, of time to initiation, and of duration of treatment of Concomitant Psychotropic Medications (CPMs) in each category (antidepressant, anxiolytic, and sedative/hypnotics) were identified through multiple regression analyses.
Initiation of new CPMs post baseline by CATIE clinicians was moderately frequent, with 14.6% of patients receiving antidepressants, 13.7% receiving anxiolytics, and 11.2% receiving sedative/hypnotics. Predictors of antidepressant initiation (14.6% of group) were being female or white, and having a prior diagnosis of depression or symptoms of depression at baseline. Patients with higher positive symptom scores and younger patients were started on antidepressants sooner. Duration of antidepressant treatment was longer in patients with less education and in those with a history of alcohol abuse/dependence. Predictors of anxiolytic initiation (13.7% of group) were not being of African-American race, being separated/divorced, younger age, higher body mass index, and akathisia. Time to anxiolytic initiation was shorter in patients who were separated or divorced and in patients with better neurocognitive functioning. Duration of anxiolytic treatment was shorter for African Americans and longer in patients with better instrumental role functioning. Predictors of sedative/hypnotic use (11.2% of group) were depressive symptoms and prior diagnosis of an anxiety disorder. Time to initiation of sedative/hypnotics was longer for those with depressive symptoms and shorter for those with a history of alcohol abuse/dependence.
Sedative/hypnotics, anxiolytics, and antidepressants were commonly used CPMs in schizophrenia during the CATIE trial, where patients were being seen frequently and antipsychotic treatment was optimized. Randomized, controlled clinical trials examining adjunctive use of antidepressants, anxiolytics and sedative/hypnotics to target symptoms of anxiety, depression, and insomnia in patients with schizophrenia are needed to adequately address the efficacy of these interventions.
Recent research about young people and adults who ‘go missing’ raises important issues for social work and the social services. Large numbers of young people go missing each year, becoming vulnerable to exploitation and at risk of committing crime and suffering from other social difficulties. Adults leave behind families with practical and emotional difficulties. A definition of ‘going missing’ should focus on absence from social expectations and responsibilities. Five groups of missing person are identified: runaways, pushaways, throwaways, fallaways and takeaways, reflecting different social situations in which going missing occurs. It is argued that going missing is one of a range of choices which people in difficulties may make, depending on their approach to problems in their lives and the availability of opportunities. Effective local co-ordination to focus on reasons for going missing, on reunions and returns to residential care or home, and to provide emotional and practical help to people ‘left behind’, are required, provided that care is taken to protect people who go missing because they are subject to abuse and violence.
LetA
1,A
2, ...,A
n be anyn objects, such as variables, categories, people, social groups, ideas, physical objects, or any other. The empirical data to be analyzed are coefficients of similarity or distance within pairs (A
i,A
i
), such as correlation coefficients, conditional probabilities or likelihoods, psychological choice or confusion, etc. It is desired to represent these data parsimoniously in a coordinate space, by calculatingm coordinates {x
ia
} for eachA
i
for a semi-metricd of preassigned formd
ij
=d(|x
i1 -x
j1
|, |x
i2 -x
j2|, ..., |x
im
-x
jm
|). The dimensionalitym is sought to be as small as possible, yet satisfy the monotonicity condition thatd
ij
d
kl
whenever the observed data indicate thatA
i
is closer toA
j
thanA
k
is toA
l
. Minkowski and Euclidean spaces are special metric examples ofd. A general coefficient of monotonicity is defined, whose maximization is equivalent to optimal satisfaction of the monotonicity condition, and which allows various options both for treatment of ties and for weighting error-of-fit. A general rationale for algorithm construction is derived for maximizing by gradient-guided iterations; this provides a unified mathematical solution to the basic operational problems of norming the gradient to assure proper convergence, of trading between speed and robustness against undesired stationary values, and of a rational first approximation. Distinction is made between single-phase (quadratic) and two-phase (bilinear) strategies for algorithm construction, and between hard-squeeze and soft-squeeze tactics within these strategies. Special reference is made to the rank-image and related transformational principles, as executed by current Guttman-Lingoes families of computer programs.
The impact on mood of verbal reminiscing was compared with that of talking about the present or future in a group of thirty-six female participants between the ages of forty-six and eighty-five. Self reports of mood showed a relatively more positive effect of reminiscing and thus support the hypothesis that reminiscence may serve an adaptive function in later life. Participants over sixty-five years of age, however, did not report a different impact on mood than the younger participants, calling into question the age-specific nature of this phenomenon. Potential theoretical explanations and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
There are different types of wandering patterns as well as different etiologies which include both emotional and physiological origins. All interventions should focus on understanding why the behavior is present. Wandering may have beneficial effects for the client such as satisfying emotional needs as well as improving physical limitations--poor circulation and oxygenation or the presence of contractures. Management of the environment is the best means of dealing with wandering behavior. Medication should be the intervention of last choice.
Mental disorders have a strong association with suicide. This meta-analysis, or statistical overview, of the literature gives an estimate of the suicide risk of the common mental disorders.
We searched the medical literature to find reports on the mortality of mental disorders. English language reports were located on MEDLINE (1966-1993) with the search terms mental disorders', 'brain injury', 'eating disorders', 'epilepsy', 'suicide attempt', 'psychosurgery', with 'mortality' and 'follow-up studies', and from the reference lists of these reports. We abstracted 249 reports with two years or more follow-up and less than 10% loss of subjects, and compared observed numbers of suicides with those expected. A standardised mortality ratio (SMR) was calculated for each disorder.
Of 44 disorders considered, 36 have a significantly raised SMR for suicide, five have a raised SMR which fails to reach significance, one SMR is not raised and for two entries the SMR could not be calculated.
If these results can be generalised then virtually all mental disorders have an increased risk of suicide excepting mental retardation and dementia. The suicide risk is highest for functional and lowest for organic disorders with substance misuse disorders lying between. However, within these broad groupings the suicide risk varies widely.
Alzheimer's disease and other types of dementia are characterised by numerous psychiatric and behavioural changes. Little is known of their natural history.
To investigate the sequence and pattern of these changes throughout the course of dementia.
One hundred people, initially living at home with carers, entered a prospective, longitudinal study. At four-monthly intervals, behavioural and psychiatric symptoms were assessed using the Present Behavioural Examination and Mini-Mental State Examination. Follow-up continued for up to nine years (mean 3.3 years; s.d. 2.4). Patterns of onset and disappearance of these symptoms, their sequence and association with time of death and cognitive decline were analysed. Autopsy confirmed a diagnosis of pure Alzheimer's disease in 48 subjects. Data for this subgroup are presented.
Some changes tend to occur earlier than others but changes can occur at almost any time in the course of dementia.
The natural history of behaviour changes in Alzheimer's disease shows great individual variation although some changes tend to follow a recognisable sequence.
Previous UK studies have reported much lower rates of psychiatric and personality disorder in those who attempt suicide than in those who die by suicide.
To determine the nature and prevalence of psychiatric and personality disorders in deliberate self-harm (DSH) patients.
A representative sample of 150 DSH patients who presented to a general hospital were assessed using a structured clinical interview and a standardised instrument. Follow-up interviews were completed for 118 patients approximately 12-16 months later.
ICD-10 psychiatric disorders were diagnosed in 138 patients (92.0%), with comorbidity of psychiatric disorders in 46.7%. The most common diagnosis was affective disorder (72.0%). Personality disorder was identified in 45.9% of patients interviewed at follow-up. Comorbidity of psychiatric and personality disorder was present in 44.1%.
Psychiatric and personality disorders, and their comorbidity, are common in DSH patients. This has important implications for assessment and management.
Both elevated cortisol secretion and low social support have been commonly found in depressed patients, but their respective roles in depression remain unclear. In fact, it may not be a lack of social support but a failure to obtain it that is important. The present study used mediation analysis to study the interrelationships among cortisol, social functioning and depression. Sixty healthy volunteers were recruited from the community. Depression and social functioning were measured by the Beck Depression Inventory and the Social Adaptation Self-evaluation Scale, respectively. Salivary samples were collected to measure the cortisol. Using mediation analysis, it was found that elevated cortisol secretion was a vulnerability factor for low social functioning, leading to higher depression scores. Hypercortisolaemia may be a predisposing factor and may interact with a low level of social functioning leading to depression.
Profiling property crimes
- D. Farrington
- S. Lambert
Comprehensive acute traumatic stress management
- M. Lerner
- R. Shelton
The Guttman Lingoes non-metric program series
- J. Lingoes
Tracing missing persons: An introduction to agencies methods and sources in England and Wales
- C. Rogers
Differentiating stranger murders: Profiling offender characteristics from behavioral styles
- Salfati
Evidence based policing
- L. Sherman
Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach
- Carver
Going missing on a night out: Men found dead in water
- G. Newiss
Establishing the cost of missing person investigations
- K. Shalev-Greene
- F. Pakes
Missing persons: Understanding, planning, responding
- G. J. Gibb
- P. Woolnough
Sleep as an escape mechanism
- Willey