Article

Interactivity and memory: Information processing of interactive versus non-interactive content

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Abstract

Existing research on the effects of interactivity tends to treat it as a global characteristic of the interface. However, not all content on an interface is endowed with interactive features. Therefore, it is important to explore how interactivity affects the cognitive processing of those particular content that is presented with interactive features and the surrounding content without these features. With this objective, a between-subjects experiment was conducted to understand how levels of interactivity affect information processing among users of an e-commerce website. The major findings of the study are: 1) Higher interactivity enhances recognition as well as recall memory of interactive content, but diminishes recognition and recall memory of non-interactive content; 2) Individuals spend the least amount of time on the interface with high interactivity, while most of this time is spent on interactive part rather than non-interactive part of the interface; 3) A moderate level of interactivity attracts most user attention to product information. The findings about interactivity’s effect have implications for cue-summation theory and limited capacity theory. The experiment’s results also hold practical implications for e-tailers.

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... Yet, there is a lack of understanding of whether the information is processed in a heuristic or systematic manner (Chaiken, 1980). Other studies suggest that thoughts related to the presented information (Chaiken, 1980), levels of self-reported elaboration (Eveland, 2002), extent of information retrieval from memory (Xu and Sundar, 2016), and quality of performance on cognitively challenging tasks such as detecting deception (Masip et al., 2009) are all indicators of heuristic or systematic processing (higher levels on these indicators imply systematic information processing, while lower levels indicate more heuristic information processing). All these measurement differences may further complicate the direction of prediction. ...
... Similarly, Schemer et al. (2008) operationalized the amount of cognitive resources in terms of the time spent by participants reading the information. Xu and Sundar (2016) combined all these dimensions and operationalized heuristic versus systematic information processing in terms of (1) time spent processing the information, (2) attention, (3) recognition memory, and (4) recall memory. Since self-reported measures can be subjective, some researchers have argued that we can measure more distal outcome variables of heuristic information processing to better assess the depth at which individuals processed the information, including individuals' attitude toward the messages (especially when the message has a persuasive intention; Darley and Smith, 1995), credibility assessment of unfounded arguments (Pennycook et al., 2015), and whether they are able to detect deception (Ali and Zain-ul-abdin, 2021). ...
... In general, we followed Xu and Sundar's (2016) method for gauging systematic versus heuristic processing by comparing the time spent processing the information, attention, recall memory, and recognition memory. In addition, we measured users' susceptibility to deceptive content (i.e., tricky pictures and spam emails). ...
Article
Do people process information differently on mobile phones compared to computers? We investigate this question by conducting two online field experiments. We randomly assigned participants to use their mobile phones or personal computers (PCs) to process different kinds of information. Study 1 ( N = 116) discovered that participants using mobile phones process emails more efficiently (i.e., spend less time) than those using PCs. Study 2 ( N = 241) extended this to online deceptive content and found that individuals using mobile phones, especially habitual users, are more efficient, but engage in less information processing, are less attentive and less vigilant about misinformation, compared to those using PCs. However, the latter are more likely to succumb to phishing emails by clicking on malicious links. We discuss theoretical implications for information processing across media devices and practical implications for combating misinformation and cybersecurity attacks.
... Prior research demonstrates that the control and execution of actions through interactivity affects a wide array of consumer responses such as flow when using a website (Van Noort et al., 2012) or perceived usefulness of newer technologies such as AI (Lucia-Palacios & Pérez-López, 2021). In relation to human memory, research shows that web interactivity related to the number of clicks and sense of control supports users to better remember the products or websites they visited (Chung & Zhao, 2004;Xu & Sundar, 2016). Relatedly, previous research has affirmed that the greater number of interactive features available on a website, the more likely the website is to achieve information exchange between a consumer and the interface (Sundar, 2008), and the more likely to enhance memory recall (Xu & Sundar, 2016). ...
... In relation to human memory, research shows that web interactivity related to the number of clicks and sense of control supports users to better remember the products or websites they visited (Chung & Zhao, 2004;Xu & Sundar, 2016). Relatedly, previous research has affirmed that the greater number of interactive features available on a website, the more likely the website is to achieve information exchange between a consumer and the interface (Sundar, 2008), and the more likely to enhance memory recall (Xu & Sundar, 2016). Accordingly, Reeves and Nass (2000) note that when media such as websites involve more interactive features, an individual's 'conceptual bandwidth' is increased, resulting in more sensory perceptions with resultant increases in the depth and range of mental representation of website information. ...
... We propose that interactivity represents one of the key factors for eliciting mental time travel to the past upon exposure to a marketing stimulus, thus evoking memories of the past and going beyond direct recall of the recently-visited content (Chung & Zhao, 2004;Xu & Sundar, 2016). It does so as movement and engagement with the interactive content of marketing stimuli not only stimulate the sensory processing system but also activate cognitive activities (Krishna, 2012;Petit et al., 2019). ...
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This research introduces the concept of mental time travel experience (MTTE) to the experiential marketing literature as a new type of experience that marketers can evoke to prompt consumers to mentally travel to a different time in one’s personal past or forwards in time to one’s personal future. Although research indicates that experiences are a cornerstone of building positive brand equity for firms, and that humans are rarely mentally in the present moment, there is a distinct gap regarding experiences that take place in consumers’ minds. We address this gap with the introduction and examination of MTTEs with two between-subjects studies with 1,879 participants. Results identify three factors important to the elicitation of MTTEs and mental time travel to the past as a key factor to influencing behavioral intentions. Finally, findings indicate that lower states of immersion have the propensity to strengthen mental time travel’s effect on behavioral intentions.
... According to French et al. (2018), student housing market has similar qualities where the products are defined as building services aims to attract tenants. In the same vein, where tenants upon reviewing online pictures and field observation prove other way, it creates mistrust (Xu and Sundar, 2016). With respect to student housing, the interaction that usually occurs between students and housing providers in arriving at rent makes these Online review marketing strategies concept applicable in determining student accommodation choices, especially in pandemic seasons where students cannot use the traditional means of seeking for accommodation. ...
... Similar studies that applied this include Fine et al. (2017), Pedeliento et al. (2017); Lin and Lu (2010). Online website on the other hand explains the use of online platforms to transact or select room (Xu and Sundar, 2016;Anwar and Daniel, 2015). ...
... In other studies it was revealed that, where tenants upon reviewing online pictures and field observation prove other way, it reduces trust (Xu and Sundar, 2016). In Model 2 (Table 8), it can be observed that only three variables were significant (Table 8). ...
Article
Purpose This study aims to examine the effect of using word-of-mouth and online housing website strategies for student housing selection and building services satisfaction during COVID-19. Design/methodology/approach The study adopted mixed-methods research approach. An online survey of 975 public and private university students experience on room selection prior to school re-opening in Ghana was used. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and multiple regression model (MRM) were used to estimate the satisfaction of using online websites and word-of-mouth strategies (renting housing based on personal recommendation) on student room pricing and building services availability. Telephone interviews were further used to support the results of EFA and MRM. Findings The study reveals that most students were satisfied with the word-of-mouth strategy than online review marketing strategy for room selection during the COVID-19 pandemic. Secondly, online student housing review marketing strategy provided higher rent which did not reflect the services available. Furthermore, students were more interested in the nature of rooms, lavatories and kitchen in their choice of room than availability of internet, study area, television (TV) room and gym center. Practical implications The study suggest that student housing managers require to market their facilities as-it-is than to use one room as an advertising justification for all rooms which does not usually provide a true reflection of the existing situation of room. Again, housing which rely on online marketing strategies need to provide compensation for students who feel they have been misled by their advertisement. Originality/value The provision of compensation to students and availability of COVID-19 protection measures determine student room selection. Asides, the introduction of online marketing strategies in student housing in sub-Saharan student housing market is new, and, consequently, this study on it is a novelty.
... Although Web-based interactive technology seems to increase the persuasiveness of health messages, previous studies on interactivity have focused primarily on interactions among people and Web2.0 technology such as sharing, tagging, and instant messaging [27], or onscreen interaction techniques for promoting goods on e-commerce sites [28]. There is insufficient evidence that the typical type of interactivity interfaced with health content can enhance awareness of HPV and behavioral intentions to obtain the vaccine. ...
... On the other hand, studies based on LC4MP suggest that people have a limited capacity to engage in the tasks of encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. If a task requires a high level of encoding that dominates cognitive resources, it leaves insufficient resources available for information storage and retrieval [20,28]. Information avoidance occurs when people encounter complex or incomprehensible information that overwhelms their limited information processing capacities [34]. ...
... F [1, 174] = 5.11, p < 0.05. The results are consistent with the limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing suggesting that complicated interactive features compete for limited cognitive resources, leading to cognitive resource overload and information avoidance [28]. ...
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Background Currently no study has investigated whether Web-based interactive technology can influence females to adopt healthy behaviors. We investigated how and under what conditions do Web-based interactivity influence vaccination intentions among young females. Methods In this randomized controlled trail, we conduct a 2 (mode of information presentation: narrative vs. data visualization) × 2 (interactivity: interactive information vs. noninteractive information) between-groups design. A total of 180 Chinese female undergraduate students who had never received HPV vaccination were randomly allocated to 4 experimental groups. Each participant was assessed for their information avoidance behavior and vaccination intention. The hypotheses were tested using a moderated mediation model. All analyses were performed using SPSS version 22.0 with probability set at 0.05 alpha level. Results The indirect relationship between interactivity and behavioral intention though information avoidance was moderated by the mode of presentation. Under the narrative condition, interactivity (vs. non-interactivity) decreased information avoidance and increased the intention to receive HPV vaccination (B = -.23, SE = 0.10, P < 0.05). However, under data visualization condition, no significant difference was observed between the effects of interactivity and non-interactivity on intention. Conclusion The findings suggest that when young females experience difficulties in manipulating or understanding HPV-related information, their information-avoidance behavior is likely to increase. Rather than use interactive statistical or graphical information, young females are more likely to be persuaded by interactive narratives.
... Regarding the effectiveness of interactive features online, past research has also shown mixed results. While some supported the additive effect of incorporating various interactive features (e.g., Guillory & Sundar, 2014;Liu, Li, Ji, North, & Yang, 2017), others suggested that combining too many features may deplete message effectiveness in generating positive responses from publics due to increased cognitive load (e.g., Ji et al., 2019;Xu & Sundar, 2016). The conflicting and inconclusive findings on the impacts of the two message-level factors call for robustly designed studies with strong theoretical foundation to examine if and how NPOs' social media content and interactivity drive outcomes from the public. ...
... On the other hand, when people's motivation and capability decrease, they tend to avoid effortful thinking and reduce their likelihood to elaborate on the information. Under such a circumstance, people tend to draw a simple reference based on the information presented via the peripheral cues, which focus on components that are not directly related to the central argument, such as the technical features and source attractiveness (Petty et al., 1983;Xu & Sundar, 2016). ...
... Recently, ELM has also been applied to online and social media communication contexts (Chun & Lee, 2016;Cyr, Head, Lim, & Stibe, 2018;Ji et al., 2019). These latter studies have positioned technical features, such as interactivity functions, navigation design, and background wallpaper as peripheral cues, while the content-specific attributes of a social media post are considered as central cues (Cyr et al., 2018;Goh & Chi, 2017;Xu & Sundar, 2016). Following their classification, this study identifies message content appeals (informational vs. emotional) as a central cue, and functional interactivity (e.g., hashtags and hyperlinks) as a peripheral cue, both of which impact publics' processing of NPO Facebook posts. ...
Article
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A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Nonprofit public relations Message appeal Functional interactivity Involvement Elaboration Likelihood Model Limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing A B S T R A C T This study aims to answer the question of what makes a nonprofit social media message effective in driving favorable behavioral outcomes from publics. Toward this purpose, it draws on multidisciplinary theoretical insights from public relations literature, functional interactivity research, the Elaboration Likelihood Model, and the limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing. It theorizes an information-processing account to predict and explain the interplay among social media message appeal (emotional versus informa-tional appeal), functional interactivity (high versus low interactivity), and individuals' cause involvement (high versus low involvement) on public behavioral outcomes including information sharing, information seeking, and donation intentions. Results of an online experiment revealed significant two-way interactions between message appeal and functional interactivity, between message appeal and cause involvement, and between functional interactivity and cause involvement on different behavioral outcomes. These results bring novel theoretical and practical insights on when, how, and why nonprofit social media communication can be effective.
... In the online domain, extant research leveraging ELM suggests that the mechanical message features such as interactivity, navigation and connectedness; and the aesthetic features, including background, image or video and format, lead to higher engagement. This effect is enhanced if the message has a social or emotional theme (Cyr et al., 2018;Pederson, 2016;Xu and Sundar, 2016). Thus, a positive interaction occurs between the message's orientation and vividness and its engaging abilities, with a socioemotional content with highvividness creating the highest/cognitive engagement. ...
... Similarly, vivid messages (video/text/links) are most useful for all forms of engagement (comments/likes/shares). Thus, interactivity, navigation, connectedness and aesthetic features Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation; Ã mean is higher for this orientation than the other one, for the same engagement, at p < 0.05 built into the brand SNS communications enable a high-quality engagement (Cyr et al., 2018;Xu and Sundar, 2016). The message sub-orientations and vividness do not evoke equivalent consumer-brand engagement across India and the USA. ...
... The findings, thus, resolve the contradiction within extant research on the enabling vs inhibiting effects of vividness on consumer responses (Keller and Lehmann, 2008). This work also adds to recent research leveraging the ELM in the SNS context by suggesting that peripheral cues (videos/interactivity), supported by strong central ones (content), cause the most engaging behaviors (Cyr et al., 2018;Xu and Sundar, 2016). ...
Article
Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine how consumer-brand engagement on social networking sites (SNS) is an outcome of the message orientation/vividness. Design/methodology/approach Message design is proposed to include two components, namely, orientation and vividness. The message orientation is classified as either task/instrumental or socioemotional. The message vividness is measured through content type. The consumer-brand engagement is conceptualized at three levels, namely, cognitive (comment), affective (shares) and conative (likes). A total of 1,000 posts were collected from the official Facebook pages of the 10 most popular travel brands, five each from India and the USA. These two countries were chosen as they are culturally different, with the former representing a largely collectivist culture and greater social connectivity and the latter representing primarily an individualistic culture. Findings The study reveals that greater message vividness, with more interactive/audio-visual content, leads to higher engagement. The task/instrumental message orientation leads to low-/medium-level engagement. Overall, a combination of high-vividness and socioemotional orientation generates maximum engagement. India and the USA depict unique effects of message orientations/vividness on the consumer-brand engagement levels, indicating cultural implications for the brand SNS messages – effectiveness. Research limitations/implications The study’s conceptualization of consumer-brand engagement reflected through the consumers – responses to brands – SNS messages, represents new knowledge. The unique effects of message vividness and orientation on consumer-brand engagement and the variations across cultures is also a novel contribution to the extant branding literature. Practical implications The brand marketers should not only design their SNS messages with appropriate vividness/orientation but also tweak them across cultures, for maximum consumer engagement. Originality/value The study is a novel attempt to deploy the interaction process analysis framework in an SNS setting.
... In the online domain, extant research leveraging ELM suggests that the mechanical message features such as interactivity, navigation and connectedness; and the aesthetic features, including background, image or video and format, lead to higher engagement. This effect is enhanced if the message has a social or emotional theme (Cyr et al., 2018;Pederson, 2016;Xu and Sundar, 2016). Thus, a positive interaction occurs between the message's orientation and vividness and its engaging abilities, with a socioemotional content with highvividness creating the highest/cognitive engagement. ...
... Similarly, vivid messages (video/text/links) are most useful for all forms of engagement (comments/likes/shares). Thus, interactivity, navigation, connectedness and aesthetic features Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation; Ã mean is higher for this orientation than the other one, for the same engagement, at p < 0.05 built into the brand SNS communications enable a high-quality engagement (Cyr et al., 2018;Xu and Sundar, 2016). The message sub-orientations and vividness do not evoke equivalent consumer-brand engagement across India and the USA. ...
... The findings, thus, resolve the contradiction within extant research on the enabling vs inhibiting effects of vividness on consumer responses (Keller and Lehmann, 2008). This work also adds to recent research leveraging the ELM in the SNS context by suggesting that peripheral cues (videos/interactivity), supported by strong central ones (content), cause the most engaging behaviors (Cyr et al., 2018;Xu and Sundar, 2016). ...
Article
Purpose: The current work examines how consumer engagement with brands on social networking sites (SNS) is an outcome of message orientation/vividness. Design/Methodology/Approach: Facebook is considered as the contextual SNS for this study. Message orientation is classified as either task/instrumental or socioemotional, with various underlying sub-orientations. Message vividness is measured through content type. Consumer brand engagement is conceptualized at three levels: cognitive (comment), affective (shares) and conative (likes). A total of 1,000 posts were collected from 10 travel brands, five each from India and the USA.
... We experimentally compared this interactive version of Amelia's Dream with an alternative non-interactive version, in which the story progressed linearly and continuously without any user input. We expected that prompting users this way made them focus on the story more, and thus made them process the story in a deeper way (Madore et al., 2020;Xu & Sundar, 2016), and eventually memorize and recognize story details (Wixted & Stretch, 2004) better than in the non-interactive version. In addition, prompting the user to interact in order to progress with the story also positions the user in a different and more controlling role, as compared to a mere observer role in the non-interactive version. ...
... Consequently, users of the interactive version might have been more cognitively busy thinking about the interface and usability, and thus might have processed the story eventually less deeply than users in the non-interactive version, which could just watch and thus fully focus on the story. This interpretation would suggest that interactivity might tax limited cognitive resources that are therefore not available to process other information, e.g., as presented by a story (e.g., see Xu & Sundar, 2016, and Ferguson, Van den Broek and Van Oostendorp for related debates). For example, Xu and Sundar (2016) found that adding interactive features to a website only enhanced recognition among users for interactive objects, but reduced their recognition of website objects that were non-interactive and thus received less attention. ...
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360°-video stories represent a popular new story format, particularly in the community striving to use “VR for Good”. Yet, due to the novelty of the format, many questions about the right “grammar” to tell effective 360°-video stories exist, including questions about how to engage users in interactive and immersive stories via VR without overwhelming them. In the present approach, with the help of a professional VR design agency, we developed Amelia’s Dream , a novel volumetric-video experience that addresses current issues of gender inequality. In a pre-registered quantitative between-subjects experiment with N = 103 participants, we experimentally varied two versions of Amelia’s Dream to illuminate how a basic form of story interactivity influences users’ memorization of the story (message recognition) and the overall perceived persuasive appeal of the story. We explore user engagement (i.e., presence and transportation) as potentially underlying mechanisms. In addition, we tap into the question to what extent users should be recognized in a volumetric video, and examine if users memorize story fragments better depending on whether or not the VR storyteller acknowledges their presence by establishing eye-contact with them. Contrary to expectations, our findings suggest that the basic form of story interactivity that we introduce might undermine users’ learning from 360°-stories. However, in line with expectations, a storytellers’ eye-contact might promote the stories’ effectiveness.
... In this study, to measure recognition, we provide ten multiple-choice questions, and to measure recall, we employ five essay questions by asking respondents about the information. Five simple arithmetic tasks are designed to help respondents clear their memory [22]. After completing the questionnaire, a research team member interviewed respondents to understand their experiences. ...
... Thirty students participated in this pretest with a randomized experiment method. We asked respondents about modality interactivity with the following questions [22]: To what extent does the virtual tour provide interactive features and user control? (1: Not interactive at all; 7: Very interactive). ...
... This study has added an essential antecedent of SM use, i.e., perceived interactivity, in the research framework, which is an addition to TAM within the context of online learning. The relevance of perceived interactivity concerning consumer attitudes and behaviour on social networks and online platforms is well documented in the literature (Alalwan, 2018;Xu and Sundar, 2016), making it imperative to include it in this work. Furthermore, earlier research has been primarily conducted in developed nations (Al-Rahmi et al., 2018), making it essential to study SM educational use and enhanced learning performance in developing countries. ...
... Some scholars have also argued that perceived enjoyment is essential in adopting self-service technology such as SM (Curran and Meuter, 2007;Curran and Lennon, 2011). However, perceived interactivity has been missing from such research frameworks, although some evidence suggests that users' SM behaviour may be influenced by it (Xu and Sundar, 2016). Thus, the current work would improve upon the TAM model concerning SM usage by including perceived interactivity in the research framework. ...
... With regard to interactivity, study results are still mixed, claiming that interactive elements can improve users' product attitude and reduce the negative impact of perceived reduced control on the side of the consumer (Wu, 2019), while too much interactivity can also backfire (Xu and Sundar, 2016). More specifically, Xu and Sundar (2016) find that intertactive elements are recalled more strongly, but also reduce recall of non-interactive elements. ...
... With regard to interactivity, study results are still mixed, claiming that interactive elements can improve users' product attitude and reduce the negative impact of perceived reduced control on the side of the consumer (Wu, 2019), while too much interactivity can also backfire (Xu and Sundar, 2016). More specifically, Xu and Sundar (2016) find that intertactive elements are recalled more strongly, but also reduce recall of non-interactive elements. Moreover, the authors find that time spent on a page is impacted by the degree of interactivity, which may not always be beneficial. ...
Conference Paper
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This literature review systematically analyses recent studies on the effective design of e-commerce presences in order to provide a state-of-the-art overview on this important topic. To do so, our review focuses on the level of webshop elements (i.e., the building blocks to design webshops), which we cluster in eight categories (e.g., color usage, music usage, rich media usage), derived from previous website quality frameworks (e.g., SITEQUAL, WebQual) and prior reviews. The basis of our comprehensive literature review are 91 articles grouped into the webshop element categories and additionally analyzed along three key study criteria, namely the applied research methods, theories, and key dependent variables. Based on the findings from this bibliographic analysis, we formulate an agenda for future research avenues to guide researchers in further exploring the field of e-commerce presences and to support practitioners in their decision-making on the implementation of webshop elements.
... This study has added an essential antecedent of SM use, i.e., perceived interactivity, in the research framework, which is an addition to TAM within the context of online learning. The relevance of perceived interactivity concerning consumer attitudes and behaviour on social networks and online platforms is well documented in the literature (Alalwan, 2018;Xu and Sundar, 2016), making it imperative to include it in this work. Furthermore, earlier research has been primarily conducted in developed nations (Al-Rahmi et al., 2018), making it essential to study SM educational use and enhanced learning performance in developing countries. ...
... Some scholars have also argued that perceived enjoyment is essential in adopting self-service technology such as SM (Curran and Meuter, 2007;Curran and Lennon, 2011). However, perceived interactivity has been missing from such research frameworks, although some evidence suggests that users' SM behaviour may be influenced by it (Xu and Sundar, 2016). Thus, the current work would improve upon the TAM model concerning SM usage by including perceived interactivity in the research framework. ...
Article
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Academic research concerning social media learning has seen an accelerated pace in the last many years. However, some aspects of online learning on such platforms remain unaddressed. This work has investigated the relationship between social media use and its four antecedents, i.e. perceived interactivity, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and perceived enjoyment. Moreover, it has also examined the association of social media use with its outcome variables, i.e. active learning, creativity and collaborative learning, leading to learning performance. This work has been conducted on university learners with a sample size of 511. A causal research design was applied in this work as it allowed the testing of relationships amongst various variables. SEM (Structural Equation Modeling) analysis revealed interesting results as social media use positively correlates with its four antecedents. Perceived enjoyment has the most substantial influence on social media use. Moreover, the results show that social media use enhances active learning, creativity and collaborative learning amongst learners, improving their academic performance. Social media use has the most influence on active learning, and active learning has the most substantial impact on learning performance. These results offer some unique insights into social media learning that all stakeholders can apply to improve learners' learning performance in the education domain.
... They note that markup language can improve the accessibility and transparency of online information. More precisely, Seele (2016) argues that in order to assure the transparency and reliability of online sustainability reporting, the markup language that provides support to reporting information must use a single data source, regulated standards, and taxonomy that serves as guidelines for both companies and Interactivity, in the context of ICTs, refers to a communication system's ability to let user exert an influence on online content with actions such as adding, clicking and dragging information (Jensen, 1998;Kiousis, 2002;Xu & Sundar, 2016). Website interactivity can be ranked from low-level to high-level (Burton & Soboleva, 2011;Fortin & Dholakia, 2005;Thorson & Rodgers, 2006). ...
... Research in corporate environmental disclosure has mostly found a positive relationship between web-based interactivity, corporate reputation, and influence on stakeholders' perceptions (Cortado & Chalmeta, 2016;Eberle et al., 2013;Shang et al., 2020). Interactivity features also serve as a tactic for organizations to divert external stakeholders' attention in order to achieve better self-presentation outcomes (Xu & Sundar, 2016). ...
Article
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Organizations across various industries engage in biodiversity conservation as a way to achieve sustainable development and to manage stakeholder engagement expectations. Although the importance of information and communication technology to promote biodiversity conservation has been recognized, little attention has been devoted to shedding more light on corporate practices in this area. This study explores how organizations do use information technology and reporting practices to influence stakeholders' perceptions on biodiversity initiatives. Data are collected from agri‐food companies listed by the Fortune Global 500. Based on a qualitative content analysis approach, this research found that geospatial technologies and web‐based features support organizations' impression management efforts with regard to their biodiversity conservation practices. More precisely, our findings suggest that organizational impression management tactics of abstraction, selectivity and self‐promotion are used to rationalize corporate actions in this area. The paper develops a better understanding of corporate tactics aimed at influencing stakeholders' perceptions of the reliability and credibility of companies' biodiversity conservation practices. Implications of the results for the stakeholders of business organizations are also discussed. This study offers contributions to the body of literature on biodiversity reporting, communication technology and impression management tactics. Managerial implications and avenues for future research are also described.
... In this case, users would take up information neither from the interactive infographic nor from the surrounding text. Xu and Sundar (2016) indeed show that the allocation of cognitive resources to, and the processing of, text-based content change when it is surrounded by an interactive product picture, such that highly interactive content occupied the major part of the time users spent on the website, reducing their attention for the noninteractive part and thus their ability to remember its content. From the perspective of user engagement research, by contrast, interactive infographics can absorb users into the news story (O'Brien & Toms, 2008;Oh & Sundar, 2015), arousing their interest and desire to learn more. ...
... Knowledge acquisition was also measured directly after reception, prohibiting any statements about the effects' stability over time. Moreover, just as many other studies in this area have done (e.g., Lee & Kim, 2016;Xu & Sundar, 2016), we employed a measure of knowledge that was strongly focused on factual information, requiring individuals to recognize and recall pieces of content presented in the stimulus article. ...
Article
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This study investigates how interactive infographics affect individuals' understanding of news. We conducted a survey experiment (N = 293) to isolate the effects of a clickable graph and a slider graph on memory of the interactive graphical content and the surrounding text-based content, respectively. Moreover, to shed light on the underlying mechanisms linking interactive infographics with individuals' cognitive responses en route to learning, we test a model with interface assessment, absorption, and elaboration as key mediators of information acquisition. Overall, the findings point to a negative impact of interactive infographics on news consumers' memory. However, allowing users to interact with information displayed in graphics cannot be expected to uniformly affect the learning process; instead, the impact of interactive visual content depends on how the use of specific interactive modalities initiates both affective and cognitive processes in audiences when reading online news.
... However, Plass, Heidig, Hayward, Homer, and Um (2014) found that positive emotions induced by a multimedia design fostered comprehension of informational material. Furthermore, Xu and Sundar (2016) described that the interactivity of a website affects the information processing of the interactive content positively and the information processing of the non-interactive content negatively. ...
... We found a positive association of multimedia/ interactive functions on reading comprehension when children read themselves, suggesting that multimedia/ interactive functions are more supportive for comprehension than distracting. These findings foster the hypothesis that positive emotions evoked by multimedia functions and interactive information processing support comprehension (Plass, Heidig, Hayward, Homer & Um, 2014;Xu & Sundar, 2016). Previous reviews with meta-analyses (Furenes, Kucirkova & Bus, 2021;Takacs, Swart & Bus, 2014;Zucker, Moody & McKenna, 2009) investigating the impact of interactive and multimedia functions on story comprehension focused mainly on children without the ability to read themselves. ...
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While some argue digital reading media may impair text comprehension, the empirical literature is ambiguous, in particular when it comes to the reading of narrative texts. Therefore, a comprehensive and systematic meta-analysis of studies exploring the effect of screen reading media on reading comprehension of narrative texts was conducted (k = 32, N = 2239). Multimedia and interactive functions in general, the type of multimedia and interactive functions, the change in effect over time, and the type of digital reading device (computer, e-reader, and tablet) were explored as moderating variables. In general, the analyses did not reveal a significant impact of the reading medium (screen vs. paper) on the reading comprehension of a narrative text. Moreover, there does not seem to be a difference over time and between different types of digital reading devices. Also, the analysis of the subsample of studies using plain digital text without any additional functions in comparison to print showed no significant differences. In contrast, multimedia and interactive functions of digital texts affect reading comprehension positively, regardless of the type of additional function. In conclusion, the results do not suggest a negative effect of digital reading media on reading comprehension when reading narrative texts.
... Additionally, waterfront property owners may not recognize how property management decisions away from their shoreline can affect water quality. Interactive visualizations can be more effective than classic educational materials, such as informational webpages or pamphlets, because they enable the user to explore complex cause-effect relationships (Sedig et al. 2014, Xu andSundar 2016) across time (i.e., time lags) and space (e.g., connection of upland decisions to downstream water quality). For example, a visualization in which a user selects different behaviors (e.g., application of lawn fertilizer) that automatically update water quality outcomes (e.g., decreased lake clarity in 10 years) could increase users' awareness of consequences of their individual behavior. ...
... There are important benefits to interactive visualizations that we did not examine. For example, if given an option to engage with information or not, people may be more likely to engage in interactive portions of a website than with noninteractive portions (Xu and Sundar 2016) and may prefer interactive webpages in general x is the density-based median response value (as in Figures 2 and 3), lq is the lower quartile value (25%), uq is the upper quartile value (75%), n is the total number of responses in that category, U is the Mann-Whitney U test statistic, U max is the maximum possible test statistic (n × n). effect size ∼0.5 indicates distributions of sample 1 and sample 2 are similar. ...
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Ward NK, Sorice MG, Reynolds MS, Weathers KC, Weng W, Carey CC. 2022. Can interactive data visualizations promote waterfront best management practices? Lake Reserv Manage. 38:95–108. Lake water quality management often requires private property owner engagement since land-use change generally occurs on private property. Educational components of lake management outreach must connect current property owner behaviors with future water quality. However, it may be challenging for property owners to associate their current behaviors with water quality outcomes due to the time lag between a behavior (e.g., fertilizer application) and a water quality outcome (e.g., decreased water clarity). Interactive data visualizations, characterized by user-determined selections that change visualization output, may be well suited to help property owners connect current behavior to future water quality. We tested the effectiveness of an online, interactive visualization as an educational intervention to alter property owners’ perspectives related to applying lawn fertilizer and installing waterfront buffers. We used cognitive psychology measures to quantify intervention effectiveness. Since property owners’ decision making may be driven by connections to their property, we also explored relationships between seasonal and permanent residents and intentions to apply fertilizer or install waterfront buffers and intervention effectiveness. Despite no significant difference in effectiveness between the interactive and noninteractive versions, the combined responses demonstrated a positive shift in behavioral beliefs and intentions related to lawn fertilizer application and waterfront buffer installation. Seasonal residents were less likely than permanent residents to apply lawn fertilizer before the intervention and more likely to shift their intentions after the intervention. This study provides evidence that brief educational interventions—regardless of their interactivity—can shift private property owner beliefs and intentions regarding lakefront property management.
... ed on this definition, we focus on the social interactivity of multitasking in the current study, i.e., the multitasking activities for building social relationships via technology or in-person (Lowry et al., 2009;Markus, 1987). Social interactivity thus differs from humantechnology interactivity provided by platforms or devices (Oh & Sundar, 2015;Q. Xu & Sundar, 2016), i.e., using a mouse to click, slide, and flip to change the media content. Therefore, our conceptualization of interactive multitasking includes both social interaction with others via technology, i.e., texting, making phone calls, or engaging in social media during work time, and in-person interactive multitasking, such as attending t ...
... objective or accurate measures for multitasking behaviors and life interference with work. We opted for treating multitasking variables as the manifest variables to be aligned with the current state of this line of research (Baumgartner et al., 2014;Gil de Zúñiga et al., 2015;Hwang et al., 2014;Ophir et al., 2009;Pea et al., 2012;Wang et al., 2015;Q. Xu & Sundar, 2016), but future research should make a conceptual and operational refinement to multitasking for more robust empirical testing. The current study also relied on self-reports to measure how employees multitask when working from home and their perceived life interference with work. While objective measures of these concepts are not available, ...
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The present study explicates four types of multitasking when working from home according to their medium and social interactivity, and further explores the antecedent and consequences of different types of multitasking. A total of 429 U.S. employees who worked from home participated in an online survey in August 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results indicated that a balance between work and life identities was positively associated with technology-mediated and in-person high-interactive multitasking during work time, but not with low-interactive multitasking. In-person high-interactive multitasking, in turn, was related to greater interference with work but a higher level of life satisfaction. In addition, men and women experienced different levels of work-life identity balance and adopted different types of multitasking to achieve such a balance.
... Extensive research shows an important role of interactivity in the attitudes and behaviors of customers and in particular consumer behavior in the online setting and on social platforms. Shoppers who perceive greater interactivity often see social media ads as being more beneficial and fun and have more intentions of buying goods [21][22][23]. ...
... Customer also identified that sometimes OLX website display those products which doesn't present in that state which websites did claimed [14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]. ...
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The aim of this case study is to evaluate the impact of classified online ads available to shoppers for their convenience and to examine their buying behavior in Karachi. In this study sample size of 270 respondents has been taken by using a convenient sampling technique. Internet is a feasible option of buying products so, the variables used in this study as an independent variable are usability, interactivity, trust, marketing mix, aesthetics, and the dependent variable is consumer buying behavior. Factor analysis, Regression analysis and Reliability analysis are the statistical methods used in this study to analyze the results. Results show that usability, interactivity, trust and marketing mix has a positive impact on consumer buying behavior while classified ads webs are weak in the aesthetics area and also lacking in retaining consumer interests in purchasing. After including demographics variables and excluding the limitation of this study for a specific area, a researcher could expedite research from a new perspective. The findings of this study contribute to the existing body of knowledge as it is the first case study that targets the online medium of purchase in the context of Karachi.
... Existing research has produced inconclusive findings. Drawing on limited capacity models (Lang, 2000), it is argued that the saliency of interactive and animated elements in data visualizations comes at a cost: By capturing user attention and directing it toward the graphical content, they are said to divert visual attention away from the surrounding textbased content (Xu & Sundar, 2016). Supplementing the interactive image with an attention-arousing animation might even amplify this negative effect (Opach et al., 2014;Wolfe & Horowitz, 2004;Yang et al., 2013). ...
... The present study supports the following inference: Adding interactive and animated elements to a data visualization only affected the time spent with the body of text after the visualization, which, in turn, translated into better learning. This insight may at least partly explain the inconclusive results obtained in previous studies on learning from multimodal news (but see Xu & Sundar, 2016). One direction for future research thus may be to further examine whether the combination of interactivity and animation in graphical content is indeed able to overturn the common pattern of website reading (i.e., allocating most of the attention to the beginning of the website; Kessler et al., 2020), as indicated by our data. ...
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Relying on a multimethod approach with eye tracking, cued retrospective reporting, and a memory test, this experimental study (N = 45) shows how individuals engage with static, interactive, and interactive-animated data visualizations embedded in online science news. The results suggest that interactivity and animation engage participants most strongly: The second part of the news article is fixated the longest by participants exposed to the interactive-animated visualization, which translates into higher learning outcomes. However, the dynamic process of news reception requires a nuanced understanding of how users attend to visual and textual parts of a message to make informed statements about their effectiveness.
... Interactivity refers to communication or design quality that allows users to manage information. Xu and Sundar [62] describe "interactivity as the ability of the interface to allow users to access the content through a variety of different interactive features." These elements play a vital role in raising interest by stimulating exploratory behavior. ...
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This study assesses the effects of several factors related to appearance, organization and information architecture on the continued intention to use Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). The theoretical framework used was the Stimulus-Organism-response (SOR). This model postulates some intermediate constructs associated with cognitive absorption, which are temporal dissociation, focused immersion, and curiosity. The sample in this study was formed by 533 students from different universities who voluntarily accepted to participate in the experiment. An application MOOC prototype was created to collect data from participants and used to validate the proposed research model and hypotheses. An assessment questionnaire based on prior related research was established to corroborate the planned relationships. The partial least squares method was used to analyze the collected data. It was found that the design characteristics increased the level of curiosity and immersed participants in the learning environment, causing them to lose their sense of time and develop a sense of temporal dissociation. Subsequently, these constructs evidenced a significant and positive effect on the continued intention to use. This study aims to draw the attention of e-learning service providers to learners’ perceptions of learning resources.
... Although Web interactivity may enhance the enjoyment and behavioral intentions of users, it does not necessarily mean acquiring education or remembering information (Yang and Shen, 2017). However, Xu and Sundar (2016) uncovered that high interactivity reduces the time required for learning and may help retrieve memory for interactive content. The opposite was found for noninteractive content. ...
Article
Purpose In the cosmic expanse of the digital universe, a new celestial body emerges the Metaverse. This study embarks on an interstellar journey to scrutinize the dynamics of entrepreneurial learning (EL) and opportunity in the burgeoning realm of the metaverse. This study aims to understand how personal entrepreneurial characteristics (PEC) and Metaverse environment characteristics (MEC) influence these processes. Design/methodology/approach The study devotes a dual-lens approach, combining the power of interviews (Phase I) and the precision of a survey (Phase II). It harnesses the insights of the entrepreneurial event model (EEM) and the technology acceptance model (TAM), serving as twin beacons guiding our exploration of the constructs under PEC/MEC. Findings The study uncovers a fascinating tapestry of interwoven variables. Certain threads in the PEC/MEC weave significantly into the fabric of EL, which in turn embroiders the pattern of opportunity exploitation. However, some threads, namely, Metaverse scalability, entrepreneurial risk-taking and innovativeness, do not significantly contribute to the design of EL. Practical implications The findings serve as a compass for various stakeholders in the metaverse. They guide the design of entrepreneurial education programs, inform the development of user-friendly metaverse platforms, shape policies promoting entrepreneurship in the metaverse and provide strategic insights for entrepreneurs and investors. Originality/value This study is a trailblazer, being among the first to apply the EEM and TAM in the context of the Metaverse. It offers fresh perspectives on entrepreneurial processes in virtual environments, enriching the emerging narrative on metaverse entrepreneurship and charting unexplored territories for future research.
... Due to acute motion perception, the human eye is easily attracted to dynamic objects (Yarbus 1967). It has been confirmed that motion is also beneficial to enhance the persistence of viewers' memory (Xu & Sundar 2016). Researchers have confirmed through eye-tracking experiments that the shorter duration (Lee et al. 2015;Bakhshi et al. 2016), the greater the range of motion (Hong et al. 2021) and the larger proportion of the media on the page (Hamborg et al. 2012;Li et al. 2016), the more attractive and impressive the media is. ...
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Product graphics interchange formats (GIFs) employ this format to show the features of the product and make up for the lack of physical experience online. These GIFs have been widely applied in domains such as e-shopping and social media, aiming to interest and impress viewers. Contrary to this wide application, most designers in this domain lack expertise and produce GIFs of varied quality. Moreover, the knowledge of techniques to enhance viewers’ engagement with product GIFs is also lacking. To bridge the gap, we conducted a series of studies. First, we collected and summarized seven design factors referring to existing literature and semi-structured interviews. Then, the impacts of these design factors were revealed through an online study with 106 product GIFs among 307 participants. The results showed that visual-related factors such as color contrast and moving intensity mainly impact viewers’ interest, while content-related factors such as scenario and style matching impact viewers’ impressions. The simplicity of GIFs also impressed viewers with a quick viewing mode. Finally, we conducted a workshop and verified that these results support large-scale production of product GIFs. Our studies might support the codesign methods of product GIFs and enhance their quality in design practice.
... Further research can examine the effect of new types of content (infographics vs storytelling text vs video) that influence eWOM receivers by delivering communicators' messages. Research studies indicate that information richness, content interactivity, message clarity and different phrases used in online reviews can make eWOM content likable to reviewers, thereby improving the credibility of an eWOM message (De Pelsmacker et al., 2018;Xu and Sundar, 2016). Hence, it would be worthwhile to analyze the role of message characteristics on eWOM seeking behaviors, as mentioned in the following research question. ...
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Purpose The purpose of this study is to conduct a systematic study of important research trends and published electronic word of mouth (eWOM) studies over the past 20 years in the emerging economy. This research is designed to identify the key areas of eWOM based on the Antecedents-Consequence-Intervention (ACI) framework. This paper is also aimed to analyze the current research status of each WOM area and critically review each area for developing future research directions. Design/methodology/approach 616 articles were selected from 112 journals for in-depth review analysis. For the systematic review of articles, an ACI framework was adopted. This paper used systematic review analysis methodology to critically analyze important research studies in each area of the ACI framework with a set of research questions. Findings Results identify six significant areas of eWOM, i.e. WOM antecedents, outcomes, senders, receivers, eWOM platform and eWOM management representing the whole environment. The result highlights increasing research interest on mixed eWOM and rich eWOM content and market-level source credibility factors. Research also identifies research gaps based on the ACI framework. Originality/value Analyzing the recent trends in the eWOM environment with the SLR approach and linking these trends to the ACI framework with a future research agenda in the emerging market indicated a pioneering attempt in eWOM research.
... With the development and transformation of new media technology, it is found that inherent interactivity can enable more users to participate in information dissemination and obtain information content, because inherent interactivity can shorten the distance between information content and users thanks to its own attributes, so as to give users a sense of control and interest when they read information. As a result, users can get a deeper understanding and thinking of information and easily recall information content again (Xu and Sundar, 2016). Potentially an important breakthrough in the field of knowledge visualization, this study can improve users' memory of knowledge in a wider range, thus improving their cultural literacy. ...
Conference Paper
The inherent interactivity in knowledge visualization design is considered to be able to help users better understand and recall information content. However, little is known about whether and how such interactivity would affect information recall. Therefore, this study designs an experiment for subjects with a single factor at two levels (high and low intrinsic interaction) to explore the influencing mechanism between inherent interactivity and information recall, while measuring the influence of such intermediary variables as cognitive involvement, perceived active control and cognitive load on this mechanism. The results show that participants in low inherent interactivity can recall more information than in high inherent interactivity. In the analysis of mediating variables, the relationship between inherent interactivity and information recall is significantly affected by the mediating variables, and the perceived active control delivers a significant positive impact on this relationship.
... Aligned with this general literature on task-based attention and learning, attentional selection has been found to moderate learning effects in interactive media and games. Both Xu and Sundar (2016) and Sreejesh and Anusree (2017) found that higher levels of interactivity increased attention on the elements, which were interacted with and increased recognition of those elements afterward. Wood and Simons (2019) found task-dependent spatial inattentional blindness in an interactive environment similar to the video game Frogger (Konami Digital Entertainment, 1981). ...
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Why do learning games fail or succeed? Recent evidence suggests that attention forms an important moderator of learning from games. While existing media effects and learning theories acknowledge the role of attentional limits, they fail to account for the specific ways that games as interactive media steer attention. In response, we here develop the Task-Attention Theory of Game Learning. Drawing on current psychological and games research, task-attention theory argues that games as interactive media demand and structure the pursuit of tasks, which ties into distinct attentional mechanisms, namely learned attentional sets which focus attentional selection onto task-relevant features, as well as active sampling: users navigate and manipulate the game to elicit task-relevant information. This active sampling and selection precedes and moderates what information can be learned. We identify task-related game features (mechanics, goals, rewards and uncertainty) and demands (cognitive and perceptual load, pressure) that affect active sampling and attentional selection. We articulate implications and future work for game-based learning research and design, as well as wider media effects, learning, and HCI research.
... Interactivity has been defined as 'an expression of the extent that in a given series of communication exchanges, any third (or later) transmission (or message) is related to the degree to which previous exchanges referred to ever earlier transmissions' (Rafaeli, 1988, p. 111). Therefore, interactivity is commonly considered a concept of interpersonal exchange facilitated by media technology, though the concept also includes the ability of individuals to interact with computer systems to manipulate media (Xu & Sundar, 2016). ...
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The tendency for crises to erupt on social media raises the question: How can strategic communication professionals determine the likelihood that these social media‐borne warning signs of an impending crisis (often referred to as a paracrisis) will impact the organization? This study evaluated paracrisis through a semantic network analysis of two cases of claims of racism against two brands, Prada and Gucci. Using interactivity as the lens for evaluating social media claims against an organization revealed paracrisis characteristics, including referencing activities, social tagging and calls for action against corporate misconduct.
... Qualtrics allows automatic termination of survey not answered on the assigned devices. We followed Xu and Sundar's (2016) method of gauging systematic versus heuristic processing, by comparing the time spent processing the information (recorded by Qualtrics), selfreported attention, recall memory (number of relevant thoughts listed, Shen & Dillard, 2007), and recognition memory (numbers of questions answered correctly). Participants' need for cognition (Cacioppo et al., 1984) was measured at the beginning of the survey, as it is a trait that predicts one's predisposition of engaging in more effortful thinking (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) and controlled in our analysis. ...
Presentation
Are users more likely to employ heuristic (vs. systematic) processing on mobile phones compared to PCs?
... The additional visual information obtained by user interactions can distract their attention that otherwise could be directed to the fear-evoking storyline. In fact, early research in user interface literature has shown that active user actions can hinder their contemplation of the message content (Sicilia et al., 2005), and recent studies reported that interactive features could help cognitive processing only for the specific information that the features are designed to highlight (Xu & Sundar, 2016). A recent meta-analysis on the impact of modality interactivity also suggests that the effects of interactivity on recall and recognition memory seem to be not significant (Yang & Shen, 2018). ...
Article
360-degree videos have become favored tools to deliver environmental messages to audiences on social media platforms. Whereas 360-degree videos can emotionally engage users with beautiful scenery imitating virtual reality (VR) technology, such positive experiences may not be always translated into greater persuasion. Based on the theories of emotion and interactivity, we propose that the peaceful feelings evoked by interacting with natural scenery using the 360-degree feature may decrease the persuasive impact of environmental messages. We conducted a lab experiment (N = 119) where the persuasive effectiveness of four 360-degree videos featuring climate change was compared with that of uni-directional videos. Findings showed that participants who interacted with the 360-degree videos felt more peaceful and tranquil and less scared in general, regardless of the emotional valence of video content. As a result, the presence and usage of the 360-degree feature reduced participants’ environmental engagement. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... In contrast, participants exposed to the still photo with text had greater knowledge acquisition though still less than text-only. These results support the idea that immersive visual forms create distracting conditions, pulling the cognitive resources needed to attend to information away from the story (Van Damme et al., 2018, Xu & Sundar, 2016. Interestingly, all forms of visual content did nothing to increase believability regarding climate change messages, possibly due to the simplicity of the icy, snowy landscape photo used in the experiment. ...
Article
Journalism has seen tremendous change and 360-degree video, a form of virtual reality (VR), continues to present new ways for audiences to experience and engage with stories. Many journalists see 360° video as the future of storytelling. This literature review was conducted to guide UX practitioners and journalism professionals to practical information in an effort to understand the design challenges of VR and 360° video in journalism and identify opportunities to improve the user experience.
... Interactivity is defined as the "extent to which users can participate in modifying the form and content of a mediated environment in real-time" [ [42], p. 84]. Previous research seeks to uncover interactivity conceptually [25,51]. Some research (e.g., [5,10,14]) treat interactivity as the unique characteristics/capabilities of a given medium. ...
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This study examines the joint effects of interactivity, task complexity, and product knowledge on customers’ online purchase decision quality. Interactivity is defined as the extent to which users can participate in modifying the form and content of a mediated environment in real-time. For example, users sort products on a website based on certain criteria (e.g., price). An experiment with 264 participants was conducted to test the hypotheses. The results suggest that interactivity and task complexity jointly affect customers’ online purchase decision quality. When customers perform a complex task, interactivity reduces the cognitive resources needed to perform the task and thus improves customers’ decision quality. However, when customers perform a simple task, interactivity worsens the mismatch between the cognitive resources available and what is required, leading to deteriorated decision quality. Similarly, product knowledge and task complexity interact to influence customers’ decision quality. Product knowledge improves decision quality when customers perform a complex task, whereas it results in deteriorated decision quality when customers perform a simple task. In addition, interactivity interacts with product knowledge to affect customers’ intention to revisit the website. Specifically, interactivity has a stronger effect on customers’ intention to revisit the website when the customer has more product knowledge.
... The research evidence regarding scrollytelling is even more ambiguous: On the one side, scrollytelling's multimedia elements may cause sensory overload or cue distraction which can hinder information processing (Sundar, 2000). On the other side, interactivity such as scrolling through the story may enhance elaboration and learning (Xu & Sundar, 2016). Further, the narrative flow, ergo the consecutive presentation of text passages and video sequences in scrollytelling, may impede distractions, interferences or cognitive overload (Pincus, Wojcieszak, & Boomgarden, 2017; see also Lang, 2006). ...
Article
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Whether and to what extent mass media contribute to the acquisition of knowledge depends fundamentally on the senses addressed by a particular medium. However, there is a lack of current research investigating the effectiveness and efficiency of (new) media, like scrollytelling and explainer videos, at conveying information, compared to established formats like text and audio. To fill this research gap, I conducted an experimental online survey (N = 381) with medium as the independent variable (explainer text vs. audio vs. video vs. scrollytelling) and the recall of information as the dependent variable. The subjects were presented with a popular scientific presentation on the environmental consequences of meat consumption in order to examine a socially relevant, controversial topic and to explore the possible consequences of dissonance on recalling information. As the present study demonstrates, the traditionally lower reputation of moving images in regard to the effectiveness of information transfer is not always justified. Rather, the results show that scrollytelling and video lead to a significantly more extensive recall than audio and in part text media. However, when considering exposure time, text turns out to be the most efficient medium. The dissonance perceived by the participants did not have any significant influence on their recall of information.
Chapter
Technology development, such as immersive technologies, artificial intelligence, and the utilization in the virtual environment, i.e., metaverse, has enhanced and enriched customer-brand relationships (CBR). Particularly in tourism, which is experiential, CBR is formed throughout a holistic tourism journey. This study aims to explain how the different levels of interactivity to communicate with the customer (using avatar manipulations with deepfake in a metaverse environment) can affect customers, specifically brand attractiveness, affective/cognitive brand trust, and brand recall. Drawing from a literature review, this study provides a framework on interactivity manipulations that can help to what extent a brand can manipulate its deepfaked-avatar appearance and the extent of interactivity held on metaverse. At last, three research agendas are suggested, especially on how deepfake and metaverse affect brand personality and customer-brand self-congruency, deviant behavior or value co-destructions on tourism experience, and overall tourist journey on metaverse.
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Chatbots are increasingly used to correct health misinformation. However, few studies have investigated whether and how certain design features could enhance their effectiveness. We developed four chatbots and conducted an experiment that examined whether chatbots with interactive and empathetic conversational cues could outperform a basic chatbot at correcting unvaccinated participants’ COVID-19 vaccination misperceptions and increasing their vaccination intentions. Perceived chatbot interactivity was associated with lower levels of misperception, which in turn were linked to greater vaccination intention. Perceived chatbot empathy did not reduce misperception, yet was directly and positively associated with vaccination intention. Implications of these findings are discussed.
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Research on gamification of advertising concerning subtle design elements of computer games and their effects on consumers’ psychological responses are limited. The present research addresses this gap by examining how consumers’ attention and memory of brands advertised in a game, popularly called in-game advertising (IGA), are positively affected by the type of the gaming platform (mobile vs. PC) and rule orientation (or game rules) in the presence of potential moderators such as interactivity with the ad and congruence between the ad and game’s goals. Two experimental studies are conducted that investigate these afore-mentioned effects. The results indicate an interaction effect such that rule enactment under high ad interactivity and high ad–game goal congruence increases attention and memory of ads in mobile-based IGAs. Further, these affects are mediated through media and ad transportation, that is, players’ immersion experience in the flow of a story while playing the game. The research advances past knowledge on advertising effectiveness in computer games by exploring a less studied area, that is, the independent and interactive effects of game design elements. It also contributes to the flow experience literature in the domain of gamification by revealing a sequential pathway involving media and ad transportation. Also, it adds novelty to the gamification literature by exploring the role of gaming platforms and their interaction with design elements. For the game developers and advertisers, the research provides strategic guidance to manipulate these elements and to choose suitable platforms for the purpose of maximizing consumers’ favorable psychological responses.
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As technology advances, the use of social media is becoming more extensive, and many businesses are adapting their marketing plans to take advantage of it. Research has shown that individuals, especially teenagers, appear to be increasingly relying on social platforms like Tiktok as their primary search engine. This study aims to determine whether there is a growing number of people who use social media as their search engine. An online survey was distributed to several high school students who were asked to search for answers to questions across six different categories. The results indicate that most teenagers still use browsers and search engines like Safari, Google, or Chrome for information gathering due to their content diversity, quality, and habit. However, there was a wide variety of social media and other platforms used throughout the research, which demonstrates the potential of social media as a search engine.
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Rapid technological growth and frequent modi cation in user usage behavior consequently emerge new challenges for online learning service providers to continuously determine individuals' experiences to maintain their level of engagement. Accessible interfaces and interactive services play a key role in increasing user engagement with technologies. The intent is to seek deeper insights to determine potential interface design features that heighten curiosity and absorption, leading to continued intention to use. An application MOOC prototype was created to collect data from participants and used to validate the proposed research model and hypotheses. The partial least squares method was used to analyze the collected data. It was found that the design characteristics increased the level of curiosity and immersed participants in the learning environment, causing them to lose their sense of time and develop a sense of temporal dissociation. This study will draw the attention of e-learning service providers to learners' perceptions of learning resources.
Article
Objective: Although interactive data visualizations are increasingly popular for health communication, it remains to be seen what design features improve psychological and behavioral targets. This study experimentally tested how interactivity and descriptive titles may influence perceived susceptibility to the flu, intention to vaccinate, and information recall, particularly among older adults. Materials and methods: We created data visualization dashboards on flu vaccinations, tested in a 2 (explanatory text vs none) × 3 (interactive + tailored, static + tailored, static + nontailored) + questionnaire-only control randomized between-participant online experiment (N = 1378). Results: The flu dashboards significantly increased perceived susceptibility to the flu compared to the control: static+nontailored dashboard, b = 0.14, P = .049; static-tailored, b = 0.16, P = .028; and interactive+tailored, b = 0.15, P = .039. Interactive dashboards potentially decreased recall particularly among the elderly (moderation by age: b = -0.03, P = .073). The benefits of descriptive text on recall were larger among the elderly (interaction effects: b = 0.03, P = .025). Discussion: Interactive dashboards with complex statistics and limited textual information are widely used in health and public health but may be suboptimal for older individuals. We experimentally showed that adding explanatory text on visualizations can increase information recall particularly for older populations. Conclusion: We did not find evidence to support the effectiveness of interactivity in data visualizations on flu vaccination intentions or on information recall. Future research should examine what types of explanatory text can best support improved health outcomes and intentions in other contexts. Practitioners should consider whether interactivity is optimal in data visualization dashboards for their populations.
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Desde o lançamento do primeiro livro do Harry Potter (1997), vários conteú- dos interativos foram lançados para os fãs. O mais recente trabalho criado para os Potterhead pelo Jam City e Portkey Games foi o videojogo para telemóvel, no forma- do de RPG, Hogwarts Mystery. A partir da análise estética e interativa do videojogo acima citado, esta revisão pretende explanar a experiência do usuário além do jogo, com seus respetivos desmembramentos acerca da cultura da convergência adentro da narrativa transmedia, contextualizado no ciberespaço colaborativo, entendendo a importância de manter a interação social dos participantes, despertando assim uma nova comunidade de consumidores-jogadores como novas possibilidades de criação de videojogos.
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Individuals can react to the same media content in significantly different ways depending on their emotions, yet only little attention has been paid to this topic in the context of interactive media usage. Filling this gap, the current study investigates how the valence of emotion affects the persuasive impact of interactive health messages. We conducted a 2 (emotion: positive vs. negative) × 2 (interactivity: interactive website vs. non-interactive webpage) between-subjects factorial design experiment (N = 225) and measured participants’ interface assessment, website/message attitudes, behaviour intentions and recognition memory. The results showed that interactivity elicited more favourable interface assessments and website attitudes only for those experiencing positive emotions, which indirectly enhanced their message attitudes and behavioural intentions toward the anti-drug-driving message. In contrast, negative emotions aided recognition memory of the interactive part of the website. The findings bridge the human–computer interaction and cognitive psychology literature and suggest how user emotions can be used as a design strategy to enhance positive attitudes toward websites.
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Se presentan los resultados de una investigación cuyo objetivo es evaluar el nivel de comprensibilidad de textos online a través de una encuesta sobre la experiencia de lectura. La comprensibilidad de la información representa una nueva vertiente del comportamiento en información, condicionada por componentes subjetivos y características propias de la experiencia lectora y de quienes lean. Estudiamos el efecto de la interactividad del texto digital comparando la experiencia de lectura de dos textos, ambos dedicados a la temática del ejercicio físico y diferenciados por el nivel de interactividad, siendo más alto en un caso. Los resultados se obtuvieron través de una encuesta con 39 personas, en la que se recabaron datos sobre la experiencia de lectura, la comprensión del texto e influencia del mismo en actitudes y opiniones, y la valoración global de las dos páginas. La comprensión del texto se midió en base a 14 preguntas de verdadero y falso. Los datos obtenidos se analizan a través de estadística descriptiva y, donde procede, se realizan pruebas de estadística inferencial. La única diferencia significativa que se aprecia entre las dos páginas atañe a una mejor comprensibilidad de la página más interactiva, aunque la comprensibilidad no está relacionada con un mayor uso de las funcionalidades interactivas en las dos páginas. Finalmente, los resultados muestran que el consumo del texto digital se ve condicionado por las expectativas que aportan los lectores y que la interactividad no es solo una propiedad del medio sino también co-construida en la interacción entre el medio y los lectores.
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To date, videos are often presented on social media platforms where they are accompanied by social information in the form of user comments. Research suggests that this social information can alter viewers’ video enjoyment. The present study aimed to learn more about two factors that may enhance this effect by conducting a 2x2 between-subjects experiment with a control group (N = 290, Mage = 20.82, SDage = 2.49) in the Netherlands. First, we investigated the role that the source of social information (i.e., in-group vs. out-group) plays in the effect of social information. Second, we explored how writing a comment while watching a video (i.e., commenting vs. no commenting) may alter the effect of the source of social information. Results indicated that social information created by in-group members is more influential than social information created by out-group members. However, writing a comment did not increase viewers’ susceptibility to the effects of social information. These results are discussed in light of the social identity framework, leading to new insights into what may bolster the effect of social information on video enjoyment when individuals watch videos presented on social media.
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Purpose This study examines the effect of design quality (i.e. appearance, navigation, information and interactivity) on cognitive and affective involvement leading to continued intention to use the online learning application. Design/methodology/approach We assume that design quality potentially contributes to enhance the individual's involvement and excitement. An experimental prototype is developed for collecting data used to verify and validate the proposed research model and hypotheses. A partial-least-squares approach is used to analyze the data collected from the participants (n = 662). Findings Communication, aesthetic and information quality revealed to be strong determinants of both cognitive and affective involvement. However, font quality and user control positively influence cognitive involvement, while navigation quality and responsiveness were observed as significant indicators of affective involvement. Lastly, cognitive and affective involvement equally contribute to determining the continued intention to use. Research limitations/implications This study will draw the attention of designers and practitioners towards the perception of users for providing appropriate and engaging learning resources. Originality/value Prevalent research in the online context is focused primarily on cognitive and utilization behavior. However, these works overlook the implication of design quality on cognitive and affective involvement.
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El presente trabajo muestra un proyecto de investigación finalizado a la mejora de la legibilidad y comprensibilidad de textos a través de un estudio de usuarios. La legibilidad del texto se suele concebir en términos de las características lingüísticas que pueden influir positiva o negativamente en la comprensión de este, incluyendo el número de sílabas por palabra, el número de palabras por oración o la mayor o menor familiaridad de los términos empleados. Sin embargo, la literatura especializada ha puesto de relieve la necesidad de conocer mejor la experiencia del usuario para captar el componente subjetivo implícito de la comprensión textual. En este proyecto nos centramos en estudiar la interactividad del texto digital en la experiencia de lectura y comprensión del texto de usuarios. Nos decantamos por la interactividad porque por un lado se trata de un elemento textual fácilmente reconocible de forma automática, mientras que por otro permite adaptar la experiencia de lectura a diferentes necesidades, ofreciendo al usuario posibilidad de personalización de la información. En este trabajo, previamente al estudio de usuarios que pretendemos realizar comparando la comprensión de un mismo texto con diferentes funcionalidades de interactividad, analizamos factores y variables relacionados con la interactividad y que pueden influir en los resultados del trabajo empírico. En primer lugar, el concepto de interactividad se define y operacionaliza de diferentes maneras, y un primer objetivo será repasar y sistematizar la literatura relevante en este sentido. Dependiendo de su nivel de contribución potencial a la elaboración del mensaje, puede incluir tanto aspectos superficiales, como deslizadores, arrastradores (drags), mouse-overs, o funcionalidades de zooming, como aspectos que permiten una comunicación con el sistema como, por ejemplo, diferentes niveles de hiper-enlaces o breadcrums. En segundo lugar, diferencias importantes, y de momento poco conocidas en la literatura sobre comprensibilidad, pueden depender de la población estudiada, pues diferentes características de esta pueden afectar la capacidad de valerse de herramientas interactivas y de responder a las mismas. En particular, valoramos las características de la población mayor.
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COVID-19 has affected everyone's daily lives. At least 316 million people in 42 states have been asked to stay at home to slow down the pandemic. In this aspect, businesses have been susceptible to make substantial transformations. Workplace operations of many businesses went virtual. The effect of the digital transformation on productivity and corporate culture has been studied extensively. Meanwhile, how COVID-19 has influenced consumers, and the consumption culture has received relatively limited attention. Managers often take a wait-and-see approach on the impact of COVID-19 on sales. It is often uncertain whether and how many customers will return after the pandemic passes. Consumers live through the pandemic, and some changes might be long-lasting even after the situation eases. We examine the pandemic as an accelerator of the structural change in consumption and the digital transformation in the marketplace. Managers might adapt to the digital transformation in the market to recover or even grow further the sales after COVID-19.
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Privacy notices and consent forms are the means of conveying privacy policy information to users. In Europe, a valid consent needs to be confirmed by a clear affirmative action. Despite previous research, it is not yet clear whether user engagement with consent forms via different types of interactions for confirming consent may play a significant role in effectively drawing user attention to the content, even after repeated exposure. We investigate, in a laboratory study, how different types of interactions that engage users with consent forms differ in terms of their effectiveness, efficiency, and user satisfaction. In addition, we examine if and how habituation affects user attention and satisfaction, and the time they spend on giving their consent. We conducted a controlled experiment with 80 participants in four different groups where people either were engaged actively with the policy content via Drag and Drop (DAD), Swipe, or Checkboxes, or were not actively engaged with the content (as the control condition) in a first-exposure phase and in a habituation phase. We measured user attention to consent forms along multiple dimensions, including direct, objective measurements and indirect, self-reported measures. Our results show that the different types of interactions may affect user attention to certain parts of policy information. In particular, the DAD action results in significantly more user attention to the data items compared to other groups. However, with repeated exposure to consent forms, the difference disappears. We conclude that user engagement with policy content needs to be designed with care, so that attention to substantial policy information is increased and not negatively affected.
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This study investigated the effects of web site interactivity on consumers’ trust in brands and product evaluations, and their subsequent purchase intentions in a multi-channel context. Results from the experiment indicated that through greater interactivity, individuals developed greater trust in the vendor and better understanding of its products. Further, it was demonstrated that trust and product evaluation carried interactivity’s influence onto not only online purchase intention, but also offline purchase intention at a brand-specific business level. These findings indicate that online interactivity can have broad implications for multi-channel marketing.
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Interactivity is an often mentioned but seldom operationalized concept associated with the World Wide Web. Interactivity has been positioned conceptually as a process, a function, and a perception, but most operational definitions have focused on the process or function. This study develops scales to operationalize the perception-based approach to interactivity, because consumer perceptions are central to advertising research. Three overlapping constructs that are central to interactivity are explored: direction of communication, user control, and time. A multistage method is used to identify and refine measures of perceived interactivity (MPI). The 18 items included in the MPI offer researchers a tool for measuring a consumer perception central to advertising on the Web.
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Heightened interactivity and excitement characterize much of our online browsing, especially when it involves shopping on e-commerce websites. Interactivity is said to affect users’ engagement with the website by expanding their perceptual bandwidth (Sundar, 2007), much like the effect of optimal physiological arousal on cognitive functioning (Kahneman, 1973). We examine the direct and combinatory effects of interactivity and arousal on consumers’ engagement, attitudes, and behavioral intentions in an e-commerce website through a 3 (interactivity: low, medium, high) × 3 (arousal: control, low, high) between-participants experiment (N = 186). Higher levels of interactivity were found to generate more favorable attitudes and behavioral intentions toward both the website and the product. Interactivity and arousal differed in their effects on various aspects of website engagement. The study also identified several mediators explicating the theoretical mechanism underlying the influence of interactivity on purchase likelihood.
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From scrolling and clicking to dragging, flipping, sliding, hovering, and zooming, the wide array of interaction techniques has vastly expanded the range of user actions on an interface. Each of these interaction techniques affords a distinct action. But do these techniques differ in their ability to engage users and contribute to their user experience? Furthermore, do they affect how users view the content and how much they learn from it? We address these questions via two between-subjects laboratory experiments. Study 1 (N = 128) investigated the relative effects of six on-screen interaction techniques (click-to-download, drag, mouseover, slide, zoom, and 3D carousel) on users' assessment ofas well as their engagement withan informational website. The site for each condition was identical in content and design, except for the interaction technique used, so that we could isolate the effects of each technique on various cognitive, attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. Study 2 (N = 127) examined the relative effects of four combinations of interaction techniques (slide+click, slide+mouseover, drag+mouseover, and drag+zoom) on the same dependent variables. Data from Study 1 suggest that although the 3D carousel generates more user action, the slide is better at aiding memory. The zoom-in/out tool was the least favored, whereas the mouseover feature fostered greater engagement among power users. Findings from Study 2, which was conducted with a different content domain, replicated the positive effects of slide and negative effects of drag in influencing user experience. Path analyses, using structural equation modeling, revealed the importance of users' assessment of the interface (perceived levels of natural mapping, intuitiveness, and ease of use), which can have significant consequences for user engagement as well as resulting attitudes and behavioral outcomes. Design insights, theories, and techniques to test and capture user experience are discussed.
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This article applies a limited-capacity information processing approach to the question of whether audio / video redundancy improves memory for television messages. Audio / video redundancy is defined as a continuum. Four different types of stimuli frequently used to operationalize redundancy are considered in terms of: (a) how much capacity they require to be fully processed; (b) how complex they are; and, (c) how much audio and video information they contain. Predictions based on these considerations are made about relative memory for each type of stimulus at three levels of processing (encoding, storage, and retrieval). The three major memory measures are conceptualized as providing information about different aspects of the information processing of a message. Specifically, recognition measures index how much information was encoded, cued recall indexes how much information has been stored, and free recall indexes the information available for retrieval. The predictions made using this theoretical approach are initially tested using the results previously reported in the literature. Over 75% of the reported results are in the direction predicted. It is suggested that talking head messages are different from other forms of audio / video redundancy, that audio memory is affected more by audio / video redundancy than video memory, and that video memory is affected more by complexity and amount of information—both of which are frequently confounded with redundancy.
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Although interactivity is often considered to have a positive infl uence on persuasion, research on interactiv- ity effects is actually very mixed. This paper argues that under certain circumstances, interactivity may either enhance or inhibit persuasion. A dual-process model of interactivity effects is proposed and tested that posits differential effects of interactivity on persuasion depending on person and situation factors. Results of an experiment that manipulated level of Web site interactivity and task involvement, and measured user ability (Internet usage experience), show that under low-involvement conditions, the mere presence of interactivity served as a peripheral cue that led to more positive atti- tudes regardless of ability (experience). Under high-involvement conditions, however, interactivity elicited more positive attitudes for experienced users but less positive attitudes for inexperienced users. Implications for the use of interactivity in advertising and promotions are discussed.
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This experimental study examines the effects of audio and visual redundancy on recall and story understanding in television news. College students viewed a series of voice-over news stories that varied in the amount of redundancy between the two channels and then responded to both auditory and visual recall measures. The results show higher auditory recall and story understanding in the high-redundancy condition than in the lower redundancy conditions. Visual recall shows the reverse pattern with higher recall scores in the lower redundancy conditions than in the high-redundancy condition.
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Preliminary evidence suggests that forms of unregulated consumer behavior, including impulsive, compulsive, and addictive buying, are present on the Internet. This study reconceptualized unregulated buying behaviors as the result of deficient self-regulation using mechanisms proposed in social cognitive theory. As a result, deficient self-regulation of online buying was positively related to online shopping activity. It was a more important predictor than the rational merits of e-commerce, such as convenience and low price, and than personal and economic consumer characteristics. Together with Internet self-efficacy and Internet use, these variables explained 43% of the variance in online shopping behavior.
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In this article we respond to James Stiff's (1986) recent critique of the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981, 1986b). In particular, we make the following corrections to Stiff's misrepresentation of the model: (1) Many variables other than “involvement”; can affect the elaboration likelihood and thus the route to persuasion, (2) variables can serve in multiple roles under specifiable conditions, and (3) the ELM does not preclude multi‐channel information processing. After correcting these misperceptions of the ELM, we critique Stiffs meta‐analyses comparing the ELM predictions with those he derives from Kahneman's (1973) elastic capacity model. His analysis of message factors is critiqued on the grounds that some of the message factors included in the analysis are capable of affecting attitudes via either the central or the peripheral route. His analysis of source factors is critiqued on the grounds of insufficient sample size, lack of statistical significance, and possible miscategorization of studies. In short, we argue both that Stiff's presentation of the ELM and the conclusions he draws based on the data he presents are misleading.
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The use of interactivity as a variable in empirical investigations has dramatically increased with the emergence of new communication channels such as the world wide web. Though many scholars have employed the concept in analyses, theoretical and operational definitions are exceedingly scattered and incoherent. Accordingly, the purpose of this project is to engender a detailed explication of interactivity that could bring some consensus to how the concept should be theoretically and operationally defined. Following Chaffee’s (1991) framework for concept explication, we generate new theoretical and operational definitions that may be central to future work in this area. In particular, we suggest that interactivity is both a media and psychological factor that varies across communication technologies, communication contexts, and people’s perceptions.
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This paper examines how consumers process the information available, and what their experiences are, when exposed to an interactive Web site as compared with a noninteractive Web site. The experiment developed analyzes two versions of a Web site in which the capacity to interact with the message has been manipulated. The results show that the interactive Web site leads to more information processing, higher favorability toward the product and the Web site, and greater flow state intensity. In addition, the findings confirm the hypothesized moderating effect of need for cognition on information processing. Implications for new media researchers and practitioners are discussed.
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Some theorists argue that the node-link design of the Web mimics human information storage and that Web use encourages individuals to process information efficiently and effectively, potentially increasing meaningful learning. However, critics claim that Web navigation increases cognitive load and often produces disorientation. This reduces the processing devoted to meaningful learning, and, thus the Web may potentially inhibit learning. In an examination of information processing on the Web using a quantitative analysis of think aloud protocols, we found that users spend a substantial proportion of their cognitive effort orienting to the content and structure of the Web, and this effort comes at the expense of elaborative and evaluative processing. Additional findings suggest that, at least during a single relatively short session, time spent in a given site does not reduce the processing devoted to orientation. Finally, this paper offers a theoretically informed strategy for analyzing information processing activities that may be of use to other scholars.
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Argues that the nature of the stimulus is an important variable determining how information is processed. 2 major stimulus concepts are discussed: dimensional integrality vs. separability, and state vs. process limited stimuli. These concepts relate to the effects of stimulus redundancy on discrimination. There will be a gain with redundancy: (a) if the need for redundancy is due to a process limitation and the redundant dimensions are integral, or (b) if the need for redundancy is due to state limitation and the redundant dimensions are separable. Redundancy can also lead to improvement in discrimination if the stimulus elements can be integrated into a gestalt whole. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Most perceptions of interactivity are that it is an inherently good thing, that it will change marketing and advertising as we know it. However, though there are obvious and intuitive advantages to interactivity, it may pose a disadvantage for marketing and advertising in some conditions. In this article, we explore the nature of interactivity and its underlying processes to determine the conditions in which interactivity may be both useful and detrimental in an advertising context. We first discuss the multidimensional nature of the interactivity construct as it has appeared in the literature. We then provide a concrete conceptualization and definition of interactivity that encompasses these various dimensions. We argue that inconsistencies between the definitions and operationalizations found in previous studies make it difficult to draw firm conclusions about the role of interactivity but that these inconsistencies can be at least partly explained by a focus on the different dimensions of interactivity. Finally, drawing on theory and research in cognitive, social, and personality psychology, we suggest that the influence of interactivity on advertising effectiveness may be a function of both the person and the situation. We offer a program of research, in the form of testable propositions, to explore these boundary conditions and discuss implications for Internet advertising strategy.
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This article reviews the empirical literature on interactivity, primarily studies based on experimental designs, and concludes that two conceptualizations of interactivity are beginning to dominate: the functional and the perceptual. Suggestions concerning future experiments with interactivity are offered. As many have noted, there is little consistency in the communication research literature concerning the proper conceptualization of interactivity. This has led to the unfortunate situation of scholars sometimes reaching contradictory conclusions, not because their findings are necessarily at odds, but because the definitions of key terms are not the same. Although this is bound to occur with emerging concepts, advancement in theory is enhanced when communities of scholars reach consensus on conceptual building blocks (Shoemaker, Tankard, and Lasorsa 2004). While a universal definition for interactivity has yet to be attained, there is, interestingly, some agreement among experimentalists on how to manipulate it, usually by varying the quantity and quality of channel features, most typically on the Web. This paper starts on this common ground, reviewing (primarily) the empirical literature, and then arguing that, while one study can push us only so far towards a workable definition, collectively the results of these studies help guide us in the proper direction.
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This paper argues for enhanced consideration of third variables in interactivity research and proposes a "mediated moderation" model to bring increased sophistication to bear on the study of information technology effects. Interactivity, a central phenomenon in new media research, is an elusive concept that has enduringly intrigued and confused scholars. Extant conceptualizations have produced incomplete causal models and have generally ignored the effect of third variables. We conceptualize interactivity as technological attributes of mediated environments that enable reciprocal communication or information exchange, which afford interaction between communication technology and users, or between users through technology. Specifying roles for mediator and moderator variables, this paper proposes a model that incorporates interactive attributes, user perceptions (mediators such as perceived interactivity), individual differences (moderators such as Internet self-efficacy), and media effects measures to systematically examine the definition, process, and consequences of interactivity on users. Lastly, statistical procedures for testing mediated moderation are described.
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This paper presents a model to conceptualize interactivity to help people involved in interaction design. Previous studies on interactivity prototyping focus on tools to implement interactivity concepts. Little is found on models for conceptualizing interactivity. Our objective is to suggest an analytic model to explore the whole user experience by examining the degree of interactivity of a product. This is achieved by interpreting the notion of interactivity as conversation. A conceptualization model, named MCI (model for conceptualizing interactivity), was developed to measure the degree of interactivity. The model can be used to measure and compare the level of user engagement, which in many situations is used as an indication of positive user experience. We illustrate how the model can be used to analyze interactivity in three audio recorder design projects. The proposed model is expected to lead to an interactivity prototyping tool for various product categories including interactive media installations, tangible media, and other intelligent digital products in a ubiquitous computing environment.
Conference Paper
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Interactivity has become ubiquitous in the digital media landscape. Numerous interactive tools are designed, tested, deployed and evaluated. Yet, we do not have generalizable knowledge about the larger concept of interactivity and its psychological impact on user experience. As a first step toward a theory of interface interactivity, this paper identifies three species of interactivity corresponding to three central elements of communication - source, medium, and message. Interactivity situated in any of these three loci of communication can provide cues and affordances that operate either individually or together to capture users' attention and determine the nature and depth of their processing of online content as well as contribute to their perceptions, attitudes and behavioral intentions. This paper discusses psychological mechanisms by which the three classes of interactivity tools affect users, with the specific purpose of drawing out design implications and outlining UI challenges for strategic development of interactive interfaces.
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We study the problem of performing sensor fusion and distributed consensus in networks, where the objective is to calculate some linear function of the initial sensor values at some or all of the sensors. We utilize a linear iteration where, at each time-step, each sensor updates its value to be a weighted average of its own previous value and those of its neighbors. We show that this approach can be viewed as a linear dynamical system, with dynamics that are given by the weight matrix for the linear iteration, and with outputs for each sensor that are captured by the subset of the state vector that is measurable by that sensor. We then cast the fusion and consensus problems as that of observing a linear functional of the initial state vector using only local measurements (that are available at each sensor). When the topology of the network is time-invariant, we show that the weight matrix can be chosen so that each sensor can calculate the desired function as a linear combination of its measurements over a finite number of time-steps.
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Process satisfaction is one important determinant of workgroup collaborative system adoption, continuance, and performance. We explicate the computer-mediated communication (CMC) interactivity model (CMCIM) to explain and predict how interactivity enhances communication quality that results in increased process satisfaction in CMC-supported workgroups. We operationalize this model in the challenging context of very large groups using extremely lean CMC. We tested it with a rigorous field experiment and analyzed the results with the latest structural equation-modeling techniques. Interactivity and communication quality dramatically improved for very large groups using highly lean CMC (audience response systems) over face-to-face (FtF) groups. Moreover, CMC groups had fewer negative status effects and higher process satisfaction than FtF groups. The practical applications of lean CMC rival theoretical ones in importance because lean CMC is relatively inexpensive and requires minimal training and support compared to other media. The results may aid large global workgroup continuance, satisfaction, and performance in systems, product and strategy development, and other processes in which status effects and communication issues regularly have negative influences on outcomes.
Book
This volume presents a wide selection of studies and works in the area of international communication. The growing globalisation of markets requires of firms to take an increasingly international orientation in developing communication policies. The goal of this book is to contribute to more systematic research in this field. Renowned communication researchers from Europe, the U.S., Asia and Australia have contributed to the making of this book. This mix of international authors offers the reader a comprehensive overview of current thinking and cutting-edge research in the area of international advertising and communication. The book includes seven main areas: " Advertising and Communication Effects " Advertising and Information Processing " Communication and Branding " Emotional, Social and Individual Aspects of Communication " Communication and New Media " International Advertising " Perspectives on the Future of International Advertising
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This chapter refines the conceptual and operational definitions underlying secondary task reaction times (STRTs) in an attempt to clarify exactly what STRTs measure. The intent is to make the measure more useful to researchers studying changes in attention and effort during communication activities. Perusal of the communication literature yields four frequently stated operational definitions of what STRTs measure: (a) the resources required by a message, (b) the resources allocated to the message, (c) the resources available for processing, and (d) the resources remaining in the system. It is demonstrated that these pieces of the resource pie do not always covary. It is suggested that the published research best supports the interpretation of STRTs as available resources. However, interpreting STRTs as available resources cannot explain instances found in the literature where STRTs are fast and memory for messages is slow. A further modification of the model is proposed that involves integrating the limited-capacity approach to television viewing with the four definitions of the STRT. This integration yields a model that interprets STRTs as an index of resources available to the encoding subprocess and interprets memory as an index of resources available at storage. This model is then used to predict the effects of the various independent variables found in the published research on STRTs and memory. The model accurately predicts 16 out of the 20 (84%) of the results of published reaction time studies and 12 out of 14 (85%) of the published tests of memory performance.
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This article discusses interactivity as a modality feature, source feature, and message feature. It argues that the ultimate effect of interactivity does not lie so much in its function as a peripheral cue in the message context, but as a technological feature that boosts social-psychological effects of content by creating greater user engagement with it. Interactivity can manifest itself by extending the range and functionality of all three basic elements of mediated communication - source, modality, message - and, through theoretical mechanisms involving concepts such as perceptual bandwidth, customization, and contingency, it can determine the manner in which content is psychologically processed by users.
Chapter
We investigate the impact of website interactivity in connection with its attention-getting effect on imagery processing and the generation of mental imagery. Results of an experiment indicate that the use of interactivity on brand websites can increase the activity of the Internet users’ imagery and support different dimensions of mental imagery, such as vividness or complexity. Furthermore, highly interactive and imagery-strong websites can lead to more favorable attitudes toward the site and the brand as well as to stronger behavioral intentions. Implications for theory and practice of internet advertising are discussed at the end of this article.
Article
We explore theoretical mechanisms by which the interactivity of a medium enhances the persuasive potential of messages, by investigating the effects of 2 different types of website interactivity—modality interactivity and message interactivity—on the nature of user engagement with messages. In a 3 (Message Interactivity: High/Medium/Low) × 2 (Modality Interactivity: Slider/Control) factorial experiment (N = 167), we discovered that modality interactivity led to more positive assessment of the interface and greater cognitive absorption, contributing to more favorable attitudes toward the website and even toward the antismoking messages. However, it reduced the amount of message-related thoughts. In contrast, message interactivity enhanced message elaboration, leading to more positive attitudes among those with low involvement in the message topic.
Article
The study investigated the effect of two techniques for reinforcing the message in television news stories: visual‐verbal redundancy and verbal recapitulations. Impact of the techniques on learning was examined with a 2 × 2 factorial design experiment (N = 80), using a five story newscast. It was hypothesized that recapping would have a beneficial effect on understanding, based on its highlighting function, while a redundancy effect on recall was expected for visuals that reinforced words. As expected, high visual‐verbal redundancy produced greater viewer recall than did low redundancy. The addition of summary oral recaps improved understanding.
Article
The purpose of this research is to reconcile seemingly inconsistent findings regarding the effects of interactivity on communication outcomes such as attitude toward the website in two different interactivity research streams (i.e., actual interactivity vs. perceived interactivity) by proposing that perceived interactivity mediates the effect of actual interactivity on attitude toward the website. Empirical evidence supports the mediating role of perceived interactivity. Implications of the findings are discussed in terms of building a theory of interactivity and providing practical insights into interactive advertising and marketing communications.
Article
This study identifies two distinct conceptualizations of interactivity in the communication literature-the functional view and the contingency view. Although the functional view has predominated academic research on interactivity, this study operationalizes the contingency view in the context of an experiment designed to investigate the impression formation effects of interactivity in Web-based mass communication. A third of the participants in a between-participants experiment (N=60) were exposed to the lowinteractivity version (no hyperlinks) of a political candidate's Web site, another third to the medium-interactivity version (a single layer of related links), and the remaining third to the high-interactivity version (two hierarchical layers of related links). The results indicate that the level of Web site interactivity influenced participants' perceptions of the candidate as well as their levels of agreement with his policy positions. Implications for conceptual development of interactivity are discussed.
Article
Survey measures of attention, in addition to the usual measures of exposure to media use, are explored in detail. Using data from a two-year longitudinal study of adolescents and their parents, the reliability and validity of self-report questions about attention to newspaper and television news are examined. Attention measures proved to be highly stable across three waves of interviews; repeated items were summed to form reliable indices of attention to each medium's news, and to general news topics without specific mention of medium. Changes in knowledge about public affairs and politics were assessed to test the effects of both exposure and attention to media news. These tests showed significant increments of knowledge gain associated with media attention, even after exposure to the medium was controlled in hierarchical regression analysis. Addition of the attention measures was especially important in evaluating television news, which contributes much more to public knowledge than has been suggested by previous studies that use only measures of TV exposure.
Article
Interactivity is a key feature of Web sites. This article identifies the determinants that enhance user perceptions of interactivity in a communication scenario in which consumers send instant messages to an e-store. Two conceptualizations of interactivity-telepresence theory and interactivity theory-predict that different antecedents (e.g., the number of clicks, response time, message type) are important. The results of Experiment 1 indicate that message type (i.e., how personal a particular message is) is the strongest predictor of interactivity perceptions. Furthermore, the findings suggest that the effects of message type on perceived interactivity and Web site effectiveness are greater when consumers are complaining than when they are inquiring about services. The results of Experiment 2 show that as the level of message personalization increases, interactivity perceptions and site effectiveness are enhanced (linear relationship). The authors discuss the implications of the findings for theory and practice and provide directions for measuring and manipulating interactivity in further research.
Article
Article
The development of electronic curriculum materials holds great promise and rewards for both educators and learners alike, but little research has been conducted to determine the effectiveness of incorporating multimedia components within a electronically delivered unit of instruction. This research tested the theory of cue- summation (multiple cues across multiple channels) in a high school agricultural education setting and measured the effectiveness of the instruction. Curriculum materials were created and placed on CD-ROM for asynchronous delivery capability. Materials comprised a week-long unit of instruction on milk processing and were developed in three Treatments (Tx). The first Tx consisted of text- only materials, the second consisted of text and an audio/video component and the third consisted of audio/video and still images. These three Txs represented single cue, redundancy and cue summation, respectively. One hundred five high school agriculture science students participated in the study. Instrumentation used included a pretest/posttest for cognition as well as a researcher-developed demographic instrument. Data were collected in the fall of 2003 and analyzed using ANOVA techniques to determine significant differences among the Tx groups. The researcher found that students scored significantly higher on the posttest when exposed to Txs containing an audio/video component. Recommendations include continued research as well as incorporating these findings into current curriculum development efforts for the betterment of the learners involved. Cue-summation produced student performance scores similar to redundancy.
Article
What makes customization so appealing? Is it because the content is tailored or because the user feels greater agency? Study 1 tested these propositions with a news-aggregator Website that was either personalized (system-tailored), customized (user-tailored), or neither. Power users rated content quality higher when it had a customizable interface, whereas nonpower users preferred personalized content. In Study 2, half the participants were told that their browsing information may be used for providing requested services while the other half was told that it would not be used. The interaction found in Study 1 was observed only under conditions of low privacy, with the pattern being reversed under high privacy. Significant three-way interactions were found for sense of control and perceived convenience.
Article
This paper presents an information-processing model that is directly applicable to the investigation of how mediated messages are processed. It applies the model to the case of television viewing to demonstrate its applicability. It provides a measure for each part of the model. It presents evidence that supports the model in the television-viewing situation. Finally, it demonstrates how the model may be used to further research and understanding in well-known theoretical traditions. This model is not meant to stand in opposition to any of these theories but, rather, should work well with them by providing hypothesized mechanisms that may underlie well-known effects. This model should prove useful both to researchers and, eventually, to message producers. To the extent that we can better understand how the content and structure of messages interact with a viewer's information-processing system to determine which parts and how much of a communication message is remembered, we will make great strides in understanding how people communicate.