Content uploaded by M.E. Thornton
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by M.E. Thornton on Aug 06, 2014
Content may be subject to copyright.
Pedagogy, Culture and Society, Vol.8, No.2, pp187-206. 2000
Primary School Teachers Careers in England and Wales: the relationship
between gender, role, position and promotion aspirations.
Mary Thornton and Pat Bricheno
Abstract
This study explores gender differences in UK primary teachers’ perceptions of their
careers, through a national questionnaire survey and follow-up interviews. It is
framed by reference to Weiner’s three main components of feminism (the political, the
critical and the practical) and a concern to highlight difference and complexity, as
well as patterns and trends, within primary school teaching. Female and male
respondents indicated different areas of concern and influence on their careers and it
was found that while reported reasons for not seeking or not achieving promotion
were multifaceted, the known and experienced disproportionate promotion of men,
plus the frequently traditional gender differences in work - home orientation and
contextual / situational expectations, contrived to limit career development for a
significant number of women.
Correspondence
Dr. Mary Thornton
University of Hertfordshire,
Faculty of Humanities, Languages and Education.
Watford Campus, Wall Hall,
Aldenham,
Herts.
WD2 8AT
Telephone No. 01707 285719
Email address: m.e.thornton@herts.ac.uk
Fax. No. 01707 285616
Primary School Teachers Careers in England and Wales: the relationship
between gender, role, position and promotion aspirations.
Mary Thornton and Pat Bricheno
1. Introduction
The teaching profession in the UK and elsewhere has become increasingly female
(Howson, 1998). Currently UK Policy is focused on recruiting more men: however,
once qualified and in-post, men tend to achieve well, acquiring a disproportionate
number of high status / senior posts. This has been noted in other countries too. For
example, Kauppinen-Toropainen. and Lammi’s (1993) cross-cultural study of men in
female-dominated professions notes similar disproportionality in Nordic countries
and the USA . There are few gender-based data available concerning early years /
primary teaching as a career for both men and women. This study maps and explores
gendered differences in UK primary teachers’ perceptions of their careers, through a
national questionnaire survey and follow-up interviews.
While large scale and empirically oriented, the study is framed by reference to
Weiner’s three main components of feminism (the political, the critical and the
practical) as the necessary starting point for any work on gender (Weiner,1994), and a
concern to highlight difference and complexity, as well as patterns and trends, within
the socially constructed and socially structured profession of primary school teaching.
2. Background
The status of early years / primary teaching has been linked to the status of women.
As a career, it has relatively low status, especially for men (Penn & McQuail, 1997).
Despite recommendations from the House of Commons Select Committee, and the
Teacher Training Agency (TTA, 1996) that more men should be recruited it is
becoming more, not less, a predominantly female profession. However, once qualified
and in-post, men tend to achieve well, acquiring a highly disproportionate number of
senior posts.
The extant literature on gender and primary teaching focuses on the nature of teachers
work (Campbell & Neill, 1994; Nias, 1987, 1989), the ‘Glass Ceiling’ effect on
women seeking promotion (Wilson, 1997; Acker, 1994; Ozga 1993), the restrictions
2
hegemonic masculinity imposes on educative and career options for males (Kenway
& Willis, 1998; Mac an Ghaill, 1994; Connell, 1987) and the experience of men
working in predominantly female occupations (Owen et al, 1998; Penn & McQuail,
1997; Ruxton, 1992). There are also some small-scale qualitative studies of primary
teachers (Boulton & Coldron, 1998, Evans, 1998, Skelton, 1991; Jones, 1990).
However, no UK nation-wide data on gender and primary teaching as a career exists
and present British policy initiatives (Department for Education and Employment
(DfEE) ‘Green Paper’, 1998) are based on relatively little empirical evidence.
An earlier small-scale survey of primary schools in the English county of
Hertfordshire found that a large proportion of males reached Head (Principal) or
Deputy Head level, that they were likely to have different subject responsibilities
(mathematics, science and information technology), and that they most frequently
taught the oldest children (10/11yrs) (Thornton, 1996). The national survey, reported
here, replicated these findings and thus places, in the public / political domain,
accurate information about the occupational life-chances of female (and male)
primary teachers. Such information can be used to critique and inform current UK
policy on recruitment and careers in primary teaching. In addition to structured
questions, a free-response section was included in the national questionnaire survey
and, where respondents were willing, followed-up through open-ended focused
interviews. The interviews aimed at facilitating teacher reflection on, and expression
of, their individual and personal feelings, experiences, perceptions and life-contexts in
relation to, but not confined to, their work and careers as primary school teachers. By
participating in the national survey, by sharing their views, often forcefully, with
teacher researchers, they contributed in a practical way to the ideas and findings
presented in this paper.
3. Methodology
A random, representative sample of primary schools in England and Wales was
selected, using existing Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) figures.
Schools were used because a national sampling frame for primary teachers does not
exist. Simple random sampling of Local Education Authorities (LEAs) was followed
by stratified sampling of school types within each LEA. All selected schools were
sent a letter asking them to participate. All teachers within schools agreeing to
participate were sent a copy of the questionnaire to complete. Two hundred and
seven teachers responded to the questionnaire and fifty-four teachers have been
interviewed.
3
The proportion of school types in the survey was close to that required in the designed
sample. There was some over-representation of first and infant schools and under-
representation of junior and middle schools. This had an effect on the proportions of
male and female respondents since male primary teachers are more likely to be found
teaching older children. This disproportionate response from junior schools / male
teachers will be addressed in future work, but it is not thought to seriously affect the
validity of the sample currently available. Indeed, it may, in part at least, reflect the
continuing decline in the number of male primary school teachers in England and
Wales since 1994. The current gender spread of questionnaire and interview
respondents is given in Table 1.
[Table 1: Respondents by gender about here]
a) The Questionnaire
The questionnaire was in two parts. Part one consisted of factual questions
concerning, for example, age and qualifications of teachers. Part two offered
respondents the opportunity to express an opinion. Part one was designed to answer
the following questions: -
Are promotion opportunities related to full-time and part-time patterns of work?
Do male and female teachers differ in their level of subject qualifications?
Are responsibilities and subject specialisms related to age and qualifications?
Do male and female teachers differ in the amount and type of INSET they receive?
Are male teachers more likely to seek promotion?
Text analysis of free-response data from part two explored the reasons reported by
teachers for their promotion or lack of promotion, and their views about seeking
promotion. The NUD.IST software, which is particularly suitable for grounded
analysis (Richards & Richards, 1997; Kelle, 1995) and the linking of qualitative and
quantitative data, was used to facilitate this analysis. Teachers who completed the
questionnaire were asked to indicate their willingness to be interviewed later.
b) The Interviews
Open-ended focused interviews were undertaken with selected respondents who had
indicated a willingness to participate further. The aim of these interviews was to
feedback general face-data findings from the survey; to include participants’ views in
aiding understanding of survey validity and meaning; and to explore informants’
4
individual and personal responses to primary teaching as a career. Issues connected
with teachers’ career aspirations, and their perceptions of beneficial or detrimental
effects on these aspirations, were also addressed in the interviews. All interviews
were tape-recorded with respondents’ approval.
A total of 54 teachers have been interviewed so far. The final interview target (80)
will be obtained by a second random selection of additional teachers from specific
school types (second-tranche questionnaires and interviews) such that the teacher
respondents are clearly both randomly selected and thus viewed as representative of
the teaching population of England and Wales.
4. Survey Findings
Face-data summaries and simple counts of stated views or opinions are useful in
identifying the social frameworks and patterns within which individual teacher career
orientations are located. It should be noted that they provide only a snapshot view, at
one particular time, of teachers in one particular national education system. Survey
data, as reported here, take little account of individual circumstances, constraints,
experiences, or views and beliefs. These are indeed unique and can only be captured
through more qualitative data collection and analysis. However, questionnaires can
help provide an understanding of the socially structured frameworks and patterns
within which individual teachers make, change, and live with, and through, their
current career orientations.
The national survey data reported here confirm the findings from the earlier 1995
Hertfordshire study: almost half of the female teachers (47.2%) are on main
professional grade (MPG), holding no additional allowances or management
positions; the majority of male teachers (68.4%) are on salaries above MPG, as
allowance holders or as part of the senior management team. Of the males in the
sample, almost half (48.1%) have achieved headship but a far smaller proportion of
the female teachers (16.1%) have done so (Table 2). Chi squared tests suggest that
these gender differences are statistically significant (p<0.001). The structured
questionnaire data suggest that while there may be relatively few male teachers in
primary teaching, once qualified and in post, they have excellent career prospects.
[Table 2: Male / female teacher respondents on basic (MPG) salary scale,
receiving additional salary (above MPG) or having achieved Headship.
about here]
5
Significant differences (p<0.001) were also found between male and female teachers
and school type (infant, first, junior, middle and junior plus infant (JMI) schools). Men
were mostly teaching in, and head teachers of, types of school that contained older
children
Research by Alexander, (1991) suggests that, in England, around 80% of primary
teachers are female but around 50% of head teachers are male. Our statistical data are
in line with his findings. Similar patterns of disproportionality, in male control over
decision making in primary schools, have been found in America (Allen, 1993; Lee,
1973, cited Acker, 1983), and the Nordic countries (Kauppinen- Toropainen and
Lammi, 1993). There too, men tend to occupy more senior positions and obtain higher
salaries than their female contemporaries. The socially structured and gender-
patterned occupational life-chances of primary teachers are clearly unequal. This
needs to be addressed in current public / political debate and policy initiatives, which
focus on teacher career structures and the recruitment of more men, but which
explicitly ignore gender as an issue.
When John Patten, a former British Secretary of State for Education under Margaret
Thatcher, proposed, in 1993, a ‘mums’ army’ of non-graduate and differentially
trained nursery and Key Stage 1 (5 to 7 years) teachers, he made explicit and overt the
usually implicit low status of primary teachers. His ‘mums’ army’ proposal clearly
illustrated, and made public, teacher stratification within the educational division of
labour, although he did not invent it. This stratification of teachers has a long history
covering the latter half of this century and permeating the consciousness of many
parents and the general public as well as politicians (see Zufiaurre and Goni in this
issue for a discussion of this in Spain). For teachers in England and Wales, as
elsewhere, higher status (and subsequent authority and power) goes with the teaching
of older pupils and maleness. As Skelton (1991) notes, the younger the child the
lower the status of its teacher. This power / status pattern is illustrated by the gender
distribution of teachers not only between schools (different age-phases) but also
within primary schools. These gendered and patterned inequalities in power relations
within primary teaching were recognised and addressed by many respondents in the
free response section of the questionnaire and the follow-up interviews discussed
below.
For women teachers in our survey, various factors, such as age, qualifications and
length of teaching experience, were found to be significantly related. This was not the
6
case for male teachers. In terms of actual qualifications held, there was no evidence to
suggest that, overall, male and female teachers are differentially qualified for the
teaching positions they hold (see Table 3).
[Table 3: Management positions in relation to qualifications and gender – about
here]
Male respondents, however, reported a different pattern of current career intentions
from female respondents with similar qualifications. Thus, nearly 80% of female
teachers with the lowest qualifications (Teaching Certificate) claimed definitely not to
be seeking promotion while only 50% of men with the same low qualification ruled
out promotion. There were similarly different responses from male and female
teachers with the highest qualifications (Higher Degree). For men, 50% reported
seeking promotion and the remaining 50% were looking for a job outside teaching.
For women with a higher degree, 39% reported seeking promotion, while 15% were
looking for a job outside teaching. Forty six percent said they were definitely not
seeking promotion (Table 4).
7
[Table 4: Reported promotion seeking among male and female teachers - about
here]
From this particular snapshot view of the primary teaching profession in England and
Wales, taken during 1998/9, men simply appear more likely to seek and achieve
promotion and higher pay with, on average, the same qualifications as their female
peers (see Table 5 & Fig. 1)
[FIG 1: Achievement of promotion and gender – about here]
All the male teachers aged 21 to 30yrs were recorded as intending to seek promotion
at this point in their career but only 71% of female teachers in this age group. Of the
female teachers, 21% self-reported as ‘definitely not seeking promotion’ and 8% were
‘not sure’. While the percentages of both male and female teachers reporting that they
were seeking promotion decreased according to their age, the proportion of female
teachers within each age group seeking promotion was quite different from that of
male teachers. This was particularly conspicuous among the youngest and oldest
respondents: in the over 50yrs age group only 3% of females but 20% of males were
seeking promotion (see Fig. 2 below).
For the 31-40yrs group 50% of males reported that they were not seeking promotion
but there were none who were ‘not sure’. In contrast, in the female 31-40yrs group
10% were not sure. Only in the 41-50yrs group were there were some males (6%)
who were ‘not sure’ about seeking promotion, but ‘not sure’ occurred in all female
age groups except 50+.
[FIG. 2 Age of teacher, promotion seeking and gender – about here]
When length of teaching experience (rather than age of teachers) is considered,
where some variance might be expected, regarding female respondents who may have
had, or were contemplating, career breaks, gender differences are still apparent (see
Fig 3). The peak period for women reporting promotion seeking is between 6 and 10
years in-service (52%) followed by a significant decline (11 to 20 years, 27%; 20 plus
years, 23%). Compared to their women peers, men in the sample reported a higher
rate of promotion seeking in all length of service groups except 6 to 10 years. But,
8
length of service as a variable did generate a ‘not sure’ group of 33% of men with less
than 5 years service.
[FIG 3 Length of teaching experience, promotion seeking and gender. – about
here]
The data suggest a pattern concerning firmness of decision-making for male primary
teachers, in seeking or not seeking promotion that was not shared by their female
peers. Some reasons for this apparent greater female ambivalence are indicated in the
questionnaire free-responses and interview data.
5. Self-reported concerns and issues
Many teachers wrote extensive comments in the questionnaire’s free response section.
There were clear indications here, and in the interviews, that a large number of
respondents wanted their feelings and views to be heard and the issues they raised
addressed publicly and politically. These more qualitative data also suggest some
important gender disparities in primary teachers’ perceptions of their careers,
priorities, orientation to work and the opportunities that they believe are available to
them. The gender disparities identified frequently (but not always) reinforce gender
stereotypes. Through the use of QSR NUD.IST (1997) for free-response questionnaire
data sorting, female respondents were found to write more about family
circumstances (22% vs. 7% men), stress (12% vs. 4%) and male career advantage
(16% vs. 7%). Male respondents were found to write more about government
initiatives and the curriculum (15% vs. 4% of women), power (15% vs. 4%) and
status issues (22% vs. 14%) (Table 6). These issues and differences were also noted
in the interview data.
[Table 5: Issues arising from free-response data about here]
a) Government Initiatives and the Curriculum
Male primary teachers were more likely than their female peers to write and talk
about government initiatives and the curriculum (15% to 4%). Drawing on their
personal and individual experiences, and orientations to their careers, men were more
likely to express concern about the ways in which government initiatives had affected
the status and power of primary teachers while women tended to be more concerned
9
about the effects government initiatives had upon their work with children. The
following two quotes from male respondents usefully illustrate this point.
I know of MANY, especially male, acquaintances who have begun to
train to be teachers and have left either before completing training or
very soon after joining the profession. Long hours, low pay, low status
and higher stress were all cited as reasons for finding alternative
careers.... government initiatives and denigration of teachers have not
helped. Even parents say they wouldn't do the job.! (Male, 316.1)
I do not wish to seek any further promotion from my current position
as deputy head teacher. The current demands on a head teacher are
unrealistic and reflect a lack of good management practice from central
government etc.- too much change in a short period of time and a
chronic shortage of adequate finance to implement the changes.
(Male, 7.5)
There is some evidence (Bonner, 1997; Allan, 1993; Flintoff, 1993) that men, as
students and workers, prefer to be seen as achieving and competent and as having
high status. That is: ‘they internalise the norms of hegemonic masculinity, which
reward the ideals of masculinity, regardless of its correspondence with the actual
traits of the majority of men’ (Connell, cited Williams and Villemez, 1993:66). The
perceived and real public ‘denigration’ of teachers in the UK over the past ten years
may be effectively encouraging such men not to seek promotion, stay in, or even to
join, a profession that already has relatively low status, due to its association with
women’s work and young children. It appeared from the study that even the potential
power and position of headship could not, for many of these men working in a non-
traditional occupation, counter the more general societal evaluation of primary
teaching as relatively low status.
Women tended to focus more on the negative effects that government initiatives had
upon their work as teachers with children.
.... despite the wish to stay with the children as a class teacher, the
frustration of having heads of department, and heads who did an
appalling job and had no respect for individuals be they adult or child I
felt forced to seek promotion. My career in teaching has been
rewarding, and enjoyable, but it has dominated my whole life because
of the hours it demands... This with the low esteem given to the
10
profession and constant criticism by central government takes some
handling at times..... We are constantly asked to add new things to the
curriculum, and change our approach, to pull our socks up. When we
are giving our heart and soul and a great deal of thought... this
becomes a question of squeezing time yet again and not mind the
throwing out of hours of work done from the previous curriculum.....
(Female, 93.1 )
I am perfectly content with my role as it stands. Teaching is very
demanding and takes all our time and efforts. We have enough
responsibility as it is. Promotion means more paper work etc. which
detracts from your actual role which is to teach the children in my care.
They are what is important. Their individual learning, development
and happiness. As teachers we have enough to cope with from the
Government's bureaucracy. Their ever-changing policies and whims.....
It's the children that matter and what we do for them! ( Female, 157.4)
These detailed, heart-felt comments, were frequently encountered in this study, and
echo the traditional prioritisation by many women teachers of the job of classroom
teacher, and of the children in their care. They appear to be in marked opposition to
the implicit and explicit career orientation and status seeking of some of their
traditionally oriented male counterparts.
b) Power and Status Issues
Men tended to write more about power (15% vs. 4%) and status issues (22% vs.
14%), but again their foci differed. For some men progression to headship was seen as
the logical way for their careers to develop
It has been a natural progression building on experiences and
expertise. (Male, 316.1)
That it was always a natural progression and what I set out to do. It
seems that if you enter a profession you should seek to ‘aim for the
top. (Male, 269.1)
Look forward to more challenge. Able to lead/decision making. (Male,
88.2)
11
This was less frequently the case for female teachers.
My own aspirations as a young teacher are to specialise in one area,
such as literacy, rather than a traditional linear route (to Headship). I
look forward to having management responsibilities and an influence
in the running of a school, but have no aspirations to the arduous
responsibilities and personal sacrifices necessary to be a good head
teacher. (Female, 284.6)
For other less conventional men there was a shared concern with female peers about
headship taking them away from the prime purpose of the job i.e. teaching and the
children.
Headship (and Deputy Headships in large schools) is more and more
becoming a managerial/financial type of job, to the exclusion of
contact with children. I would not seek promotion unless I could
guarantee a large proportion of my time involved some input into day-
to-day teaching. I also think that the position of head carries far too
much power - the role of an SMT should be developed and some of the
head's powers devolved to it (Male, 194.7)
Promotion is often seen as a reward for work done on cultivating
contacts, doing courses (which may or may not be relevant to the real
classroom needs) and other 'band-wagon' stuff. Next for me is some
voluntary work: i.e. my own children are GCSE + University. Soon I'll
be free to teach someone who will thank me, somewhere in the world
outside UK Promotion for me is not an option. (Male, 269.3)
Morale in teaching is low. Unjustified criticism is having a serious
effect on the profession. Raise morale and salaries plus introduce
effective TOP management and then I would be interested in further
promotion.” (Male, 47.5)
Clearly, not all men as individuals seek the power and status of headship or of
hegemonic masculinity (Connell, 1987).
However, the data do indicate that some men may be more interested in obtaining
influence / power / status within their teaching careers, while, in contrast, women
12
appear more frequently to seek promotion in order to use it to make a ‘difference’, be
it a better or different style of management and / or improvements at the classroom
level.
c) Family Circumstances
Women wrote more about family commitments (22% vs. 7%) and how these affected
their promotion opportunities and intentions.
The workload is making promotion accessible to those who do not
have family commitments. This limits it to mainly men and excludes
working mums for the most part. (Female, 92.2)
It is very easy to become locked into one teaching appointment
particularly if you are a woman with a family. Often this leads to
penalties and a terminated career structure. (Female, 65.3)
I will not be seeking promotion from class teacher – as although age
and experience wise I ought to be considering promotion, I have
recently had a baby. Therefore I have my hands full. (Female, 68.4)
If you want promotion you have to be prepared to put the job before
the family and I have never been prepared to do this. (Female, 296.3)
The workload for a primary teacher in the UK, especially with extra responsibilities
for year groups or specialist subject teaching, has become very heavy in recent years.
Some female respondents noted that to take on senior roles they would have to be in a
position where family responsibilities were delegated to a partner or extended family.
This was viewed by many women as a stronger possibility for male teachers with
female partners at home, but much less so for female teachers. The data suggest that
many women teachers with families feel compelled to drop out of the promotion race,
for a variety of personal reasons and circumstances, and this may explain, at least in
part, why they are under-represented in the most senior positions. There is also a
problem, noted by female respondents, in regaining career momentum once they have
had a career-break to have and raise children.
d) Stress
13
Given the individual but also shared family circumstances to which many women
teachers referred perhaps it was not surprising that it more female than male
respondents wrote about stress (12% vs. 4%).
Owing to cultural expectations of females, women teachers are
generally more obedient and wear themselves out trying to ‘make
things work. (Female, 40.3)
Increased stress from workload puts me off promotion! I am busy
enough just on an ‘A’ allowance. (Female, 205.6)
Where men talked of stress, it was more likely to be in relation to leadership positions
than to classroom workload and / or family commitments. “MAJOR concerns relating
to increasing levels of ill health/stress related problems in the profession, particularly
Heads.” (Male, 88.2)
e) Career Prospects and Advantages
Women emphasised male career advantage (16% vs. 7%). In the free response section
of the questionnaire and in interviews many claimed that men had an advantage over
women when seeking promotion. However, male teachers did not write anything that
would appear to acknowledge their male sex as an advantage.
..... women teachers .... rarely get promotion especially if they immerse
themselves in work and leave themselves no time to ‘sell themselves’.
Less dedicated workers ( and generally speaking men belong to this
group) are more successful at self presentation....... Promotion is theirs!
(Female, 40.3)
I know this is a common cry from female primary school teachers but
over my 32 years I worked with many extremely able and committed
male and female teachers and some less so! All the males are now
heads – the majority of the women are not! (Female, 126.5)
Seeking promotion in the primary sector is difficult and is becoming
more difficult nowadays – unless you are male, in which case you
appear to go up the ladder more quickly. (Female, 298.6)
14
It is harder for a woman than a man. This view is coloured by my own
experience. In my present position on a teaching team of 12.2 teachers,
3 are men. All 3 are on the Senior Management Team and until last
year I was the only female on SMT (now there are 2,..... I believe
promotion favours men.... The profession still has more promotion
prospects for male teachers, whereas the females are generally the
more conscientious! (Female, 88.3)
Such apparent and often cited individual female resentment of the gendered nature of
career opportunities went largely unrecognised by most male respondents.
I always wanted to be a headmaster. I was fortunate to be appointed to
the deputy headship of a 4 teacher school after just over four years
teaching and then to be deputy head of a large (16 class) school four
and a half years later. After almost five years I was appointed
headmaster of this school where I have almost completed 25 years and
never applied for another job. (Male, 47.7)
One man did however note that gender might be an issue.
I consider that gender is an issue in primary education promotion
simply because of the ratio of entrants to this area of education rather
than any sense of preference. (Male, 316.1)
Interview data suggest that, when engaged in open discussion, other male primary
teachers recognise the possibility or perceptions of a gendered career advantage.
Without that dialogue however, and despite the stated questionnaire focus on gender,
male respondents did not appear to see gender as an issue in their careers. Female
respondents clearly did!
Some female teachers located the problem of gendered career patterns within the
appointments and promotions structures that operate in UK schools. Here school
governing bodies have a great deal of power, making decisions about promotion,
appointments and pay. They involve, alongside head teachers and civil service
advisors, volunteer lay people from the community and local businesses. Training for
school governorship is encouraged but is optional, and equality or gender issues are
not high on the agenda of governor training (Bagley, 1993). Thus traditional attitudes
15
(men in leadership roles) may go unchallenged and the small number of available
male primary teachers can lead school governors to favour men when considering
appointments and promotions in their schools.
I do not favour the L. M. S. (Local Management of Schools) structure
and the role of governors appointing professionals within schools. The
appointment process is rather unprofessional. I feel that the teaching
profession should support a more professional and assertive role in
appointing teachers. (Female, 65.3)
Priorities are always given to men. They needn’t work so hard. You
can see a clear pattern from the beginning of their career. Most of the
interviewing panel are male. (Female, 13.1)
I do feel in early years that men have an unfair advantage as I
remember attending an interview for a post ‘experienced infant teacher
required’ all candidates were female apart from the one male who
was straight out of uni(versity) and needless to say he was appointed!
(Female, 68.5)
To summarise the data presented in this section, it would seem that the known and
experienced disproportionate promotion of men, plus the frequently traditional gender
differences in work - home orientation and contextual / situational expectations,
contrive to limit career development for a significant number of women. Many
women (and some men) choose not to seek promotion and some successfully achieve
promotion to senior levels while others do not. Overall, the data indicate that, for
women primary teachers, reasons for not seeking or not achieving promotion are
multifaceted; the reasons vary by individuals and their current circumstances, and in
specific and different combinations. For example because,
they feel that the competition is unfairly weighted against them, with men taking
priority in promotion appointments;
promotion procedures actually work against them (career breaks, traditional male
governors);
of limited funds within primary schools for promoted posts (few such posts
available);
of the current and increasing work load for teachers (need to prioritise);
teachers’ work as women’s’ work is unrecognised or devalued (public image);
16
they do not wish to remove themselves from the classroom and contact with
children (career orientation);
they are lone parents (other priorities re: time);
because of family commitments (double-bind of women’s work);
because they see their paid work as secondary to that of their partners, as the chief
bread-winners (subordinate career).
17
6. Conclusion
Empirical data, such as the study reported here, enables us to identify patterns of
gender inequality within the primary teaching profession, contributing to Weiner’s
public / political component of feminism. It also enables us to effectively challenge
simplistic suggestions that increased recruitment of males into primary teaching and a
proposed new career structure will resolve the gender imbalance in power and status,
contributing to Weiner’s critical component of feminism (Weiner, 1994). The
complexity of the issues is noted by Skelton (1991).
.. individual and institutional patterns of masculinity and femininity are
so entrenched that as more male teachers enter nursery / infant
education, male power secures an even deeper hold.
We see that men in primary teaching work in an increasingly female and low status
profession but, within it, they achieve disproportionate power and status. Gendered
inequalities in power relations are part of this educational division of labour. Parents,
pupils, other teachers, governors and head teachers greet male students and teachers
with excitement, awe (or fear), precisely because they are a rare commodity. Some
male teachers, when encouraged to do so in interviews, recognise the gendered nature
of career inequalities and generally express regret about them. However, little has
been done to address such inequalities at the national, local or individual school
levels. Yet they must be addressed, both within the microcosm of the school and
wider social structures if the most skilled and effective teachers, male and female, are
to lead UK primary education into the twenty-first century.
Effective practical points of intervention are difficult to identify but they should
initially attempt to address
the double-bind of women’s work (home + workplace), which for women appears
to interact increasingly and more forcefully than for men with the stresses and
strains of current teaching workloads resulting from government initiatives;
the recognition, encouragement and confidence-building of women as educational
leaders, and
the professional location of, and responsibility for, promotions, appointments and
pay.
18
By addressing a national cross-section of teachers, this research has mapped gender,
age, qualifications, teaching experience and current role(s). It clearly demonstrates
continuing gendered inequality in occupational life-chances of primary teachers. This
paper has sought, through the words and views of the teachers themselves, to identify
the concerns and circumstances of the teachers taking part and to make these
available to a wider audience which includes policy makers, thus addressing Weiner’s
third component of feminism, the practical. While there are many differences between
these teachers, which arise out of their uniqueness as individuals, there are also links,
overlaps and some clear patterns of commonality. Our data suggest that, despite these
differences, individual and institutional stereotypical patterns of masculinity and
femininity remain largely intact in primary teaching in the UK today.
19
References
Acker, S. 1983, Women and Teaching: a semi-detached sociology of a semi-detached
profession, in S. Walker and L. Barton (Eds.), Gender, Class and Education, Falmer
Press, Sussex, UK, p. 123-140.
Acker, S. 1994, Gendered Education, OU Press, Buckingham.
Alexander R. 1991, Primary Education in Leeds: Twelfth and final report from the
Primary Needs Independent Evaluation Project, Leeds, UK, University of Leeds.
Allen, J. 1993, Male Elementary Teachers: Experiences and Perceptions, in: C.
L. Williams (Ed.), Doing Women’s Work: Men in Non-Traditional
Occupations, London, Sage, p.113 – 127.
Bagley, C. (1993), Governor Training and Equal Opportunities, NFER, Berks.
Bonner, C. 1997, What About the Boys! Masculinity, Schools and Principals, New
South Wales Secondary Principals’ Council, Australia.
Boulton, P. & Coldron, J. 1998, Why women teachers say “stuff it” to promotion: a
failure of equal opportunities?, in Gender and Education, Vol.10, No.2, p.149-161.
Campbell, R.J. & Neill, S. 1994, Primary Teachers at Work, Routledge.
Connell, R.W. 1987, Gender and Power, Polity Press, Cambridge.
DfEE, 1996, Statistics of Education. Schools in England, Stationary Office, London.
DfEE, 1998, Green Paper: Teachers Meeting the Challenge of Change, Stationary
Office, London.
Evans, L. 1998, Teacher Morale, Job Satisfaction and Motivation, Chapman, London.
Flintoff, A. 1993, One of the Boys? Gender Identities in Physical Education Initial
Teacher Education, p74-93, in Sirag-Blatchford (Ed),. Race, Gender and the
Education of Teachers, OU Press, Buckingham.
Howson, J. (1998) Where have all the young men gone? Hot Data, TES, 6 Nov. p22.
Jones, M.L. 1990, The Attitudes of Men and Women Primary School Teachers to
Promotion and Educational Management, in Educational Management and
Administration, Vol.18, No.3, p11-16.
Kauppinen-Toropainen, K. & Lammi, J. (1993), Men in Female Dominated
Occupations: A cross-cultural comparison, in L. Williams (Ed.), Doing Women’s
Work: Men in Non-Traditional Occupations, Sage Press, London, p.91 – 112.
Kelle, Udo. (Ed), with Gerald Prein and Katherine Bird, 1995, Computer-aided
qualitative data analysis. Theory, methods and practice, Sage Publications. London.
Kenway, J. & Willis, S. 1998, Answering Back, Routledge, London.
Mac an Ghaill, M. 1994, The Making of Men: Masculinities, Sexualities and
Schooling, OU Press, Buckingham.
Nias, J. 1987, Teaching and the Self, in Cambridge journal of Education, Vol.17,
No.3, p178-195.
20
Nias, J. Southworth, G. & Yeomans, R. 1989, Staff relationships in the Primary
School: A Study of Organisational Cultures, Cassell, London.
Owen, C. Cameron, C. & Moss, P. (Ed), 1998, Men as Workers in Services for Young
Children, Institute of Education, University of London, London.
Ozga, J. (Ed.) 1993, Women in Educational Management, OU Press, Buckingham.
Penn, H. & McQuail, S., 1997, Childcare as a Gendered Occupation, RR 22, DfEE,
HMSO.
QSR NUD.IST, 1997, Version 4.0, User Guide, 2nd Edition, by L. Richards and T.
Richards, Sage Publications Ltd., London.
Ruxton, S. 1992, “What’s he doing at the Family Centre”, NCH, London.
Skelton, C. 1991, A Study of the Career Perspectives of Male Teachers of Young
Children, in Gender and Education, Vol.3, No.3, p. 279-289.
Teacher Training Agency, 1996, Invitation to Bid for Initial Teacher Training
Allocations for 1997/8, 1998/9 and 1999/2000, London, UK, TTA.
Thornton, M. 1996, Subject Specialism, Gender and Status: The Example of Primary
School Mathematics, in Education 3 - 13, Vol.24, No.3, p.53-54.
Weiner, G. 1994, Feminisms in Education: an introduction, Open University Press,
Buckingham.
Williams, L.S. & Villemez, W.J. 1993, Seekers and Finders:Male entry and exit in
female-dominated jobs, in L. Williams (Ed.), Doing Women’s Work: Men in Non-
Traditional Occupations, Sage Press, London, p. 64-90.
Wilson, M. (Ed.) 1997, Women in Educational Management, Chapman, London.
21
Table 1: Respondents by gender
National Total in 1994
(DfEE 1996) UH National Survey
Respondents (1998) UH National Survey
Interviews (1998)
n % n % n %
Male 33458 18.4 27 13 9 16.7
Female 147917 81.6 180 87 45 83.3
22
Table 2: Male / female teacher respondents on basic (MPG) salary scale,
receiving additional salary (above MPG) or having achieved Headship.
Main Professional Grade
(MPG)
%
Above MPG
% Headship (Principal)
%
Male 31.6 68.4 48.1
Female 47.2 52.8 16.1
23
Table 3: Management positions in relation to qualifications and gender
Qualifications
None
listed Teacher
Cert/Cert
Ed
Degree Degree +
Adv. Dip Higher
Degree
Management position
- male ns % % % % %
Head 50.00 43.75 66.67 50.00
Deputy 16.67 12.50
Smt 6.25
Staff development 33.33
Assessment
Ks2
Ks1 6.25
Nursery
Subject/sen coordinator 33.33 31.25 50.00
Miscellaneous - minor
None
Management position –
female ** % % % % %
Head 14.52 5.26 50.00 68.75
Deputy 14.52 9.47
Smt 4.84 4.21 25.00
Staff development 1.61 4.21
Assessment 1.61 5.26
Ks2 1.05
Ks1 9.68 8.42 6.25
Nursery 1.61 1.05
Subject/sen coordinator 66.67 50.00 56.84 25.00 25.00
Miscellaneous - minor 33.33
None 1.61 4.21
ns = management responsibilities not significantly related to qualifications
** = management responsibilities significantly related to qualifications p<0.01 (Chi squared)
24
Table 4: Reported promotion seeking among male and female teachers.
Seeking
Promotion Not Seeking
Promotion Job Outside or Retire
% males with teaching
certificate 17 50 33
% females with teaching
certificate 18 79 3
(includes 1.6% not sure)
% males with higher degree 50 0 50
% females with higher degree 39 46 15
25
Table 5: Issues arising from free-response data
Male
N=27 Female
N=180
% of all males % of all females
Family circumstances 7 22
Male career advantage 7 16
Power 15 4
Status 22 14
Government initiatives and the curriculum 15 4
Stress 4 12
6441 words (including tables)
26
