BLENDED LEARNING: DEFINITION, MODELS, IMPLICATIONS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

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24 Bulletin of the South Ural State University. Ser. Education.
Educational Sciences. 2016, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 24–30
Introduction
The aim of this paper is to give an introduc-
tory overview of ‘blended learning’, first by in-
vestigating the meaning of the term, then secondly
by looking at different models, together with
some suggested ways of classifying them. Fi-
nally, the implications of these models for practi-
tioners are examined, by considering the rationales
for adopting blended learning and the challenges
involved in its implementation.
The origins of blended learning pre-date the
advent of digital technology. Its genealogy lies
in distance learning through correspondence
courses. In Canada, for example, the children of
lighthouse keepers were among those educated
thanks to a 1919 scheme [1]. The goal of bridging
distance remains a possible motive for using
blended learning. The rise of personal computing
in the eighties and the advent of the worldwide
web in the nineties encouraged the development
of new models of the learning process at different
levels of education. In higher education, one such
new model was Diane Laurillard’s ‘conversa-
tional’ approach, which regards learning as an
iterative dialogue between student and teacher.
This model remains an influence on current de-
bates about blended learning [2]. Digital techno-
logy also began to be introduced into the field of
private sector training, where Friesen finds the
term ‘blended learning’ used as early as 1999 [3].
The new technology had the potential not only to
bridge space, but also to bridge time (through
recording), and to individualise learning (by
giving the student control over their path through
the material, and over the pace of learning).
This quartet of time, place, path and pace meant
that different educators could value the new tech-
nology for different reasons, and have different
conceptions of what the new ‘blended learning’
might mean.
Definitions
Friesen found that, in the early days of
blended learning, the term could mean ‘almost
any combination of technologies, pedagogies and
even job tasks’. Definitions might cover any in-
structional technology at all, or restrict them-
selves to web-based technology; they might not
mention technology specifically, but instead fo-
cus on blending different theoretical approaches
[3]. Procter defined blended learning in 2003 as
‘the effective combination of different modes
of delivery, models of teaching and styles of
learning’ [4]. According to Chew, Jones and
Turner, ‘blended learning involves the combina-
tion of two fields of concern: education and edu-
cational technology’ [5]. The broad nature of
these definitions meant that critics such as Oliver
and Trigwell could attack the concept as ill-
DOI: 10.14529/ped160204
BLENDED LEARNING: DEFINITION, MODELS, IMPLICATIONS
FOR HIGHER EDUCATION
A
. Bryan, braiana@susu.ru,
K.N. Volchenkova, volchenkovakn@susu.ru
South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk, Russian Federation
The Project 5-100 initiated by the Ministry of Education of Russian Federation is aimed a
t
the internationalization of leading Russian Universities at global education market. In 2015
South Ural State University (SUSU, Chelyabinsk) became part of the Project 5-100, whic
h
along with great opportunities posed a number of targets to be achieved to prove the efficienc
y
of changes to be introduced into the education process. One of the projects in SUSU’s Roa
d
Map is aimed to introduce an innovative system of English language training for bachelor stu-
dents, which is impossible without the usage of new educational technologies. One of the tech-
nologies considered an efficient one is that of blended learning. The article analyzes the concep
t
of blended learning and its didactic possibilities to make an effective transition from a traditional
learning model to an integrated one feasible, with electronic environments and resources being
widely used. The authors give a critical overview of the existing blended learning models. The
y
also consider the ways blended learning can be adopted for the Russian higher education system,
with the focus on the “foreign language” training. The results can be used to develop the models
of blended learning courses for higher education.
Keywords: Project 5-100, technology, blended learning, model, integration, language
learning.

Брайан А., Волченкова К.Н. Смешанное обучение: определение, модели,
использование в системе высшего образования
25
Вестник ЮУрГУ. Серия «Образование. Педагогические науки».
2016. Т. 8, № 2. С. 24–30
defined [6]. Eventually different understandings
began to converge. An influential early definition
was that of Graham, who proposed that ‘Blended
learning systems combine face-to-face instruction
with computer-mediated instruction’ [7]. This de-
fines the concept in terms of two modes of course
delivery, and defines the blend as some combina-
tion of two modes. At the time Graham offered
this definition, computer-mediated communica-
tion was seen as largely asynchronous and text-
based. Now that teleconferencing applications
are common, Friesen has suggested the need
to redefine ‘face-to-face’ (F2F) as ‘co-present’.
For Friesen, “Blended learning” designates the
range of possibilities presented by combining
Internet and digital media with established class-
room forms that require the physical co‐presence
of teacher and students’ [3].
Other theorists and practitioners offer defini-
tions, which are similar to those of Graham and
Friesen. For Staker and Horn, blended learning is
‘a formal education program in which a student
learns at least in part through online delivery
of content and instruction with some element of
student control over time, place, path, and/or
pace and at least in part at a supervised brick-
and-mortar location away from home’ [8]. This
definition emphasises that content and instruction
must be delivered online, meaning that a tradi-
tional face-to-face course in which students are
encouraged to use the internet for research does
not qualify as blended learning. The phrase ‘su-
pervised brick-and-mortar location’ means that
the ‘face-to-face’ element need not necessarily
consist of traditional classroom contact. Hew and
Cheung follow Staker and Horn [9]. Watson
and Murin give an expanded version of Staker
and Horn’s: ‘a formal education program in
which a student learns at least in part through
online learning, with some element of student
control over time, place, path, and/or pace; at
least in part in a supervised brick-and-mortar lo-
cation away from home; and the modalities along
each student’s learning path within a course or
subject are connected to provide an integrated
learning experience’ [10].
For Krasnova, blended learning may be de-
fined as a ‘method of teaching that combines the
most effective face-to-face teaching techniques
and online interactive collaboration, both consti-
tuting a system that functions in constant correla-
tion and forms a single whole’ [11].
Stacey and Gerbic consider a range of defini-
tions of the term, but at a minimum it involves
‘some combination of virtual and physical envi-
ronments’ [12]. For Launer, it is ‘the combination
of technology supported self or distance study
settings and face-to-face settings’ [13].
Aside from the broad nature of many early
definitions of the concept, Oliver and Trigwell
made one more important criticism of blended
learning. They argued that by focusing on modes
of delivery, theorists were actually focusing more
on teaching than on learning. While this critique
might not be wholly fair, it does highlight the
danger of pursuing technology without ade-
quately considering how it contributes to the
learning process [6].
The term ‘hybrid learning’ appears to be
almost synonymous with ‘blended learning’,
however that is defined. In the rest of this paper
Friesen’s definition, given above, will be adopted,
unless otherwise indicated.
Models
The definitions of blended learning deve-
loped by Graham and Friesen, noted above, re-
volve around bimodal delivery, involving a face-
to-face or ‘co-present’ element, and a computer-
mediated element. However, the ways in which
these elements are used for different learning
purposes, and the balance between the elements,
allow for more than one model to be constructed
consistent with these definitions. How may these
different models be characterised and classified?
One early typology, suitable for the world of
work-related training, was that of Valiathan. This
divided blended learning models into three types:
those which are skill-driven, aimed at the acquisi-
tion of specific knowledge and skills, where the
instructor gives feedback and support; those
which are attitude-driven, aimed at the develop-
ment of new attitudes and behaviours, where
peer-to-peer interaction and group work are cen-
tral; and those which are competency-driven,
aimed at capturing tacit knowledge, where
learners must observe experts at work [14]. This
typology has been criticised for its mixed nature,
as it is based on both learning objectives and on
pedagogical methods [6].
A more influential approach is exemplified
by Staker and Horn [8]. They work with a typo-
logy of four models, reduced from an original
six. The six original models were: (1) the face-to-
face driven model, in which classroom learning is
supplemented with online learning; (2) the rota-
tion model, in which students rotate between
working online and other classroom-based mo-
dalities; (3) the flex model, in which students

Теория и методика профессионального образования
26 Bulletin of the South Ural State University. Ser. Education.
Educational Sciences. 2016, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 24–30
study mainly online according to an individually
customised schedule, and face-to-face support is
provided by the teacher as needed’ (4) the online
lab model, in which students supplement their
traditional studies by taking an additional online
course on-campus; (5) the self-blend model,
in which students supplement their traditional
studies by taking an additional online course off-
campus; (6) the enriched virtual model, in which
learning is mainly online with occasional visits to
a brick-and-mortar setting for face-to-face tui-
tion. They decided to eliminate model (1) as in-
sufficiently different to (2) and (3), and to merge
(4) and (5). This left them with the rotation, flex,
self-blend and enriched virtual models. They note
different variants of the rotation model, according
to whether the student rotates within the class-
room, to another room, or off-campus. The most
interesting variant of the rotation model is the
‘flipped classroom’. Here the student studies
online, at a location of their own choosing, in
order to receive basic content and instruction.
The classroom is used for higher-order tasks such
as discussion and evaluation. Thus the order in
which the classroom is used for transmission of
information, and homework for higher-order
assessment of what has been learned, is reversed.
The Staker-and-Horn typology is clearly in-
formed by their ‘bimodal’ definition of blended
learning.
Graham suggested classifying blended learning
models according to four dimensions, four levels,
and three types [7]. His four dimensions were
space (face-to-face/virtual), time (synchro-
nous/asynchronous), sensual richness (high, all
senses/low, text only) and humanness (high hu-
man, no machine/low human, high machine).
These are related to the idea of blended learning
as defined by bimodal delivery. A second, and
entirely different element of classification is in-
troduced by his consideration of level: activity,
course, program and institution. Using blended
methods for individual learning activities is quite
different from blended learning as an institution-
wide approach. Finally, Graham introduced three
different categories of blend, related to purpose:
enabling blends, which focus on access and
flexibility; enhancing blends, which seek to sup-
plement traditional pedagogy; and transformative
blends, aimed at changing pedagogy, which for
Graham meant for example that learners could
play a more active role in the construction of
their own knowledge. There is a clear implicit
hierarchy here, in which transformation is
the most worthwhile goal. Graham therefore
moved beyond modalities in his typology to con-
sider both scope and pedagogical purpose.
Chew, Jones and Turner not only examined
four different models of blended learning but in-
troduced a theoretical basis for critiquing them,
by using Vygotsky’s and Maslow’s insights into
learning [5]. The first model they consider is Gill
Salmon’s structured e-moderation, in which the
moderator follows a series of steps to make the
student feel welcome in an online environment.
Chew et al praise this model as consistent with
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. However, it cannot
really be considered a model of blended learning
in Friesen’s sense of the term, and this is pro-
bably a consequence of the fact that the authors
began with their own rather looser definition of
blended learning. The second model is Sun Mi-
crosoft Systems’ ‘learning ecology’, documented
by Wenger and Ferguson. This model takes the
form of a quadrant, with self-directed/guided
learning and content/practice axes. Self-directed
study of content could mean reading a book or
asynchronous online content. Self-directed prac-
tice might involve peer-to-peer student discus-
sion. Guided study of content might involve
a classroom lecture or video conference. Guided
practice might involve mentoring or using a prac-
tice laboratory. This model has the virtue that it
makes clear that different learning objectives can
be delivered using different modes of delivery,
a point noted elsewhere by Singh [15]. Chew et
al credit the model for its potential to be consis-
tent with the insights of Vygotsky about the Zone
of Proximal Development. The learner can con-
struct their own knowledge under expert guidance.
Its weakness is that is does not express a clear
model for implementation.
Chew et al’s third model is Jones’ Blended
Learning Continuum. While the University of
Glamorgan took an institution-wide approach to
blended learning, it did not implement it in a uni-
form way, rather allowing departments to place
different modules on a spectrum of e-intensi-
veness from the minimal (Powerpoint slides) to
the wholly-delivered online. Intermediate points
on the scale represent access to learning re-
sources, followed by discussion boards, online
assessment and interactive material. This model
is extremely flexible and recognises that different
disciplines may implement blended learning in
different ways. Chew et al reject the idea that
Jones’ Continuum should be cast in percentage
terms as Allen, Seaman and Garrett advocate.

Брайан А., Волченкова К.Н. Смешанное обучение: определение, модели,
использование в системе высшего образования
27
Вестник ЮУрГУ. Серия «Образование. Педагогические науки».
2016. Т. 8, № 2. С. 24–30
The idea that only a course which is 30–80%
online is blended is an oversimplification, even
if it could be agreed what it is that should be
measured. However, the model is concerned
only with modes of delivery and is theoretically
weak [5].
The fourth model is Garrison and Vaughan’s
Inquiry-Based Framework, which envisages stu-
dents and teachers as participants in a Commu-
nity of Inquiry. This term itself is based on Wen-
ger’s work on ‘communities of practice’ [16].
Just as a community of practice consists of
a group of practitioners who share a concern and
learn how to do it better as they interact, so
a Community of Inquiry consists of collaborative
learners who construct their own knowledge as
they interact. This model shifts the emphasis
away from modes of delivery to learning. Tech-
nology’s role is to enable the three main elements
of cognitive presence (information exchange,
creating and testing concepts), teaching presence
(providing structure and direction) and social
presence (allowing group collaboration). Chew et
al see the model as being consistent with many
of the insights of Vygotsky and Maslow. The pro-
cess of operationalising such a vision takes time
and effort, however [17, 18].
Implications of the models
The implications of the different models for
practitioners of blended learning depend on the
intended goals of adopting it, and on how suc-
cessfully the challenges of implementing it are
met. For example, take the ‘learning ecology’
model discussed above. One of the considerations
in developing this model was cost-effectiveness.
To someone focused on cost-savings, online self-
study may seem an attractive mode of delivery.
To someone focused on constructivist and col-
laborative visions of learning, online group dis-
cussion may be the crucial feature of course de-
livery. Either goal may fail to be achieved, for
example if software licensing fees are higher than
expected, or if online discussion is cumbersome
or badly moderated. More than one goal is com-
patible with the model, and the goal is not gua-
ranteed by the model.
Graham listed six different rationales for
adopting blended learning: ‘(1) pedagogical rich-
ness, (2) access to knowledge, (3) social interac-
tion, (4) personal agency, (5) cost-effectiveness,
and (6) ease of revision’ [7]. Of these, (1), (2)
and (5) have been found to be the most popular
reasons [7].
Taking access first, Procter [4] and Heinze
and Procter [19] suggest that blended learning
can improve access to learning for part-time stu-
dents. Graham [7] lists studies, which show im-
proved access. Few people doubt the potential of
blended learning to improve access, and such
debate as occurs revolves mainly around the con-
cept of a ‘digital divide’ in which some sections
of society lack the digital means and/or literacy
to benefit from widening access. This concern
has diminished in importance in developed coun-
tries as digital technology has spread.
As for cost-effectiveness, this is a matter of
some debate. Graham [7] reports potentially high
returns on investment. By contrast Launer denies
that blended learning is cheaper, because of the
costs of adapting materials, the cost of ICT infra-
structure, the need for technical support and the
unwisdom of cutting back on teaching support to
learners [13]. Graham and Dziuban note that staff
savings are the main source of cost savings in
introducing blended learning [20].
The biggest debate revolves around peda-
gogical effectiveness. One advantage of blended
learning is that it has the potential to accommo-
date different learning styles [4]. The question is
whether it will deliver that potential. Take the
case of the lecture. The role of the lecture in
higher education has been called into question
for some time now, though it is still a common
means of imparting knowledge. It has been
fiercely criticised because of its largely unidirec-
tional nature and inefficiency [21]. ‘Lecture cap-
ture’ can allow students to watch lectures at
a time and pace of their own choosing, thereby
making the process more efficient and accessible
to all. However, in the research by Moskal et al,
‘lecture capture’ is portrayed as a less popular
alternative to blended learning [17]. It appears
that two of the advantages claimed for online
technology (its ability to bridge time and space)
are insufficient to make lectures as attractive as
more fully blended learning. Take another case,
that of group discussion. One advantage some-
times claimed for online discussion is that it al-
lows shy members of a group to participate more
readily [9]. However, evidence has also been
found that shows some students feel just as in-
hibited from participating in online discussion
[19]. The implication seems to be that simply to
move an activity online is not sufficient to secure
a pedagogical gain. Other factors, such as style of
lecturing or style of moderation, may be just as
important.
The overall picture on pedagogical effec-
tiveness has shifted in recent years. As the hype
surrounding blended learning grew in its early

Теория и методика профессионального образования
28 Bulletin of the South Ural State University. Ser. Education.
Educational Sciences. 2016, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 24–30
years, the balloon was punctured by some re-
search by Thomas Russell. His investigation of
the ‘No Significant Difference Phenomenon’
seemed to demonstrate that learning outcomes
were remarkably indifferent to the means of de-
livery used, for studies conducted over a long
period of time [22, 23]. More recently the out-
comes of studies, such as those noted by Graham
and Dziuban [20] have shifted in favour of
blended learning, but it has been suggested that
this is explained partly by an alteration in the
course content being delivered, so as to make it
more suitable for online methods [23]. One ex-
planation for this might be that online assessment
methods are geared to what can be automated,
something, which is preferred only by novice
students [20]. This coincides with anxiety in
some countries, such as Britain, that students are
becoming less able to cope with the traditional
demands of study such as reading a whole book,
according to some because of the influence of
new technology [24, 25]. However, a meta-
analysis by the US Department of Education
found that blended learning produces better re-
sults than, either face-to-face alone or wholly
online methods. The authors were careful to note
that they could not be sure that this effect was
entirely due to blended learning without the ability
to control for other factors such as time spent
studying [26]. In general, it is extremely difficult
for educational researchers to generate hard ex-
perimental evidence about the effectiveness of
different methods because there are so many fac-
tors to control for, and because of the ethical and
practical difficulties in doing so [27].
Given these ambiguities, Krasnova’s advice
to ‘keep an open mind and to focus on the learning
experience’ seems wise [11]. Her approach to tea-
ching a foreign language using blended learning
is pragmatic, using online methods for the roles
to which they are best suited. Thus, a grammar
module is available for independent study and is
assessed by automated tests set at different levels,
which the student can choose. Other modules are
used as supplements or elective options. The ap-
proach broadly matches that advocated by Launer,
in which the acquisition of lexis and grammar are
seen as more suitable for online methods, while
communicative activities, especially speaking
and writing, require teacher involvement [13].
On the whole, perceptive language skills (listen-
ing and reading) trained online as well as online
assessment can both decrease the burden put on
the instructor and provide the students with the
possibility to follow their individual track.
Conclusion
The concept of blended learning can not be
defined precisely as different scholars put dif-
ferent content into the term, though all of re-
searchers agree that blended learning is an inte-
grated learning experience that is controlled and
guided by the instructor whether in the form
of face-to-face communication or his virtual pre-
sence. Technological innovation is expanding the
range of possible solutions that can be brought to
bear on teaching and learning. Whether we are
primarily interested in creating more effective
learning experiences, increasing access and fle-
xibility, or reducing the cost of learning, it is likely
that our learning systems will provide a blend of
face-to-face and computer mediated experiences.
Future learning systems will be differentiated not
based on whether they blend but rather by how
they blend. This question of how to blend is one of
the most important we can consider as we move
into the future. Like any design problem this chal-
lenge is highly context dependent with a practi-
cally infinite number of possible solutions.
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dologies Used in the Research on Online Tea-
ching and Learning. Handbook of Research on
K-12 Online and Blended Learning. N.P., ETC
Press Publ., 2014, pp. 83–106.
Received 20 March 2016

Теория и методика профессионального образования
30 Bulletin of the South Ural State University. Ser. Education.
Educational Sciences. 2016, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 24–30
УДК 378.14:001.891 + 378.014 DOI: 10.14529/ped160204
ББК Ч448.44 + 448.02
СМЕШАННОЕ ОБУЧЕНИЕ: ОПРЕДЕЛЕНИЕ, МОДЕЛИ,
ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕ В СИСТЕМЕ ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
А. Брайан, К.Н. Волченкова
Южно-Уральский государственный университет, г. Челябинск
Проект 5-100, реализуемый Министерством Образования Российской Федерации, на-
правлен на интернационализацию ведущих российских университетов на мировом образо-
вательном рынке. В 2015 году Южно-Уральский государственный университет (ЮУрГУ)
стал частью этого проекта, что, наряду с возможностью кардинальных преобразований
привело к необходимости выполнения ряда показателей, которые нужно достичь для того,
чтобы подтвердить эффективность вводимых мер. Одним из проектов в Дорожной Карте
ЮУрГУ стал проект по внедрению системы углубленной языковой подготовки студентов
бакалавриата. Реализация данного проекта невозможна без внедрения новых технологий
обучения, одной из которых является технология смешанного обучения.
В статье дается определение технологии смешанного обучения, анализируется ее по-
тенциальные возможности в качестве дидактического средства при переходе с традицион-
ной модели обучения на интегрированную модель с привлечением электронных средств и
ресурсов. Рассматриваются существующие модели смешанного обучения, обсуждаются
способы их адаптации под условия российской вузовской системы подготовки на примере
учебной дисциплины «Иностранный язык». Результаты анализа технологии смешанного
обучения могут быть использованы при разработке интегрированной модели обучения
в системе высшего образования.
Ключевые слова: Проект 5-100, технология, смешанное обучение, модель, интеграция,
языковая подготовка.
Брайан Антоний, доцент кафедры русского языка как иностранного языка, Институт лин-
гвистики и международных коммуникаций, Южно-Уральский государственный университет,
г. Челябинск, braiana@susu.ru.
Волченкова Ксения Николаевна, доцент кафедры русского языка как иностранного языка,
Институт лингвистики и международных коммуникаций, Южно-Уральский государственный
университет, г. Челябинск, volchenkovakn@susu.ru.
Поступила в редакцию 20 марта 2016 г.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ЦИТИРОВАНИЯ FOR CITATION
Bryan, A. Blended learning: definition, models, impli-
cations for higher education / A. Bryan, K.N. Volchen-
kova // Вестник ЮУрГУ. Серия «Образование. Педа-
гогические науки». – 2016. – Т. 8, № 2. – С. 24–30.
DOI: 10.14529/ped160204
Bryan A., Volchenkova K.N. Blended Learning:
Definition, Models, Implications for Higher Education.
Bulletin of the South Ural State University. Ser.
Education. Educational Sciences. 2016, vol. 8, no. 2,
pp. 24–30. DOI: 10.14529/ped160204