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Usability Evaluation of Access Ramps in Transit Buses: Preliminary Findings
Abstract
The research literature on access ramps used in transit vehicles is undermined by inconsistent methodologies used across studies, thus providing an inconclusive evidence base for proposed Federal guidelines that would impose a maximum 1:6 slope for all deployment situations. The current study assessed the usability of ramp slope for mobility aid users. Four access ramp slopes were evaluated, with 27 adults representing three populations: manual wheelchair users, power wheelchair users, and people with vision impairment who use a cane or service animal. The dependent variables included five usability measures. The 1:8 and 1:12 slopes were usable and acceptable for most participants. The data indicate that the 1:4 slope is too steep for safe unassisted boarding and disembarking. Many manual wheelchair users lacked the strength needed for unassisted ascent. Power wheelchair users and people with vision impairment expressed safety concerns about descent of steeper slopes. Conclusive interpretations should be cautiously drawn because the sample size was relatively small and did not include users of scooters or ambulation aids.
... Of the 26 studies, 14 investigated user experiences to understand what users may face, particularly related to access barriers [8,11,34,35,[39][40][41][42]47,50,51,53,55,56], five examined bus formats and floor layouts [38,40,41,43,47], and a further five focussed on bus ramp incidents and optimal design [36,37,44,45,48]. Ten studies examined the accessibility of public transport in general [8,11,12,34,35,39,46,51,54,55], and through reviewing the specific types of vehicles included in the studies, 24 included bus, 10 included train, 5 included taxi, and 2 studies each included ferry or tram/light rail/streetcars (refer to Table 1, column 2). ...
... In terms of populations included in the studies, 15 of the 26 studies focused solely on mobility device users [8,11,35,36,38,[40][41][42][43][44][45]50,[54][55][56] and included people using powered wheelchairs and scooters, manual wheelchairs, ambulant-propelled adult strollers, walkers, walking sticks/canes and crutches. Seven of the studies had a mix of people who were able-bodied (including older people with general health declines) and disabled [12,34,39,46,48,51,52], and four of the studies only included able bodied participants simulating mobility device use [37,47,49,53]. Only two studies specifically researched people aged 60 years and over [39,50], one explored the experience of teenagers (13-17 years) [8] and the remaining studies with people who use mobility devices all had participants of mixed age groups [11,[34][35][36]38,[40][41][42][43][44][45][46]48,[51][52][53][54][55][56]. ...
... Seven of the studies had a mix of people who were able-bodied (including older people with general health declines) and disabled [12,34,39,46,48,51,52], and four of the studies only included able bodied participants simulating mobility device use [37,47,49,53]. Only two studies specifically researched people aged 60 years and over [39,50], one explored the experience of teenagers (13-17 years) [8] and the remaining studies with people who use mobility devices all had participants of mixed age groups [11,[34][35][36]38,[40][41][42][43][44][45][46]48,[51][52][53][54][55][56]. ...
Purpose: Being able to access public transport is vital for mobility device users as this is an affordable way of maintaining community connections and participating in activities that promote quality of life. This systematic review investigated literature on public transport access for people using mobility devices, excluding transit restraint and securement literature.
Materials and methods: A systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature in English from 1995 to 2019, with critical appraisal and narrative synthesis.
Results: Twenty-six articles were identified, including 14 studies investigating user experiences, seven examining bus formats and floor layouts, and five focusing on bus ramp incidents and optimal design. Studies were generally observational and descriptive, with 12 including analysis of video data.
Conclusion: This is the first systematic review of literature related to the accessibility of public transport for people using mobility devices. Topics such as ramp access have been relatively well-researched, as have the experiences of users. However, many gaps remain and there is a need for research to; address the barriers identified through user experiences, discern the best access to stations and stops, as well as floor formats for people to ingress, manoeuvre and egress from a variety of transport modes, and promote universal design principles in the transport sector. Rehabilitation professionals can use the findings of this review to advocate for, and support people using mobility devices to successfully negotiate public transport.
• Implications for Rehabilitation
• Accessible public transport is vital to enable people using mobility devices to remain connected in their communities.
• Despite increased international awareness and adoption of accessibility features by the public transport sector to improve getting to a stop, ingress, manoeuvrability within and egress from conveyances, access for people using wheeled mobility devices cannot be assumed.
• When prescribing new wheeled mobility devices with clients, rehabilitation professionals and users need to consider public transport access and the suitability of different devices for this purpose.
• Rehabilitation professionals can undertake skills training with people using wheeled mobility devices to test out access prior to independent travel on public transport and develop strategies to overcome any barriers.
... Laboratory-based human factors research on transit bus usability have largely comprised evaluations of specific components used in the bus environment such as access ramps [29] and wheeled mobility securement systems [30,31,32] for comfort, safety, ease-of-use, and efficiency. There are few usability evaluations of the vehicle environment in its entirety during the boarding and disembarking process [24,33,34,35,36]. ...
... Likewise, the Acceptability Rating Scale measures acceptability of a task in a two-step rating process using a 7-point ordinal scale ranging from -3 (very unacceptable) to +3 (very acceptable). These measures have demonstrated convergent validity with other functional measures of task performance when using in-door environments [40] and access ramps on buses [29]. ...
... Recent laboratory studies on ramp usability [29] and naturalistic field studies on boarding and disembarking [8] support our findings on problems faced by wheeled mobility device users when using access ramps. Lower ramp slopes may reduce difficulty in using the ramp, fare payment and traveling to the securement area, especially when boarding at the forward doorway (Layout 1). ...
Background: Low ridership of public transit buses among wheeled mobility device users suggests the need to identify vehicle design conditions that are either particularly accommodating or challenging. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of low-floor bus interior seating configuration and passenger load on wheeled mobility device user-reported difficulty, overall acceptability and design preference.
Methods: Forty-eight wheeled mobility users evaluated three interior design layouts at two levels of passenger load (high vs. low) after simulating boarding and disembarking tasks on a static full-scale low-floor bus mockup.
Results: User self-reports of task difficulty, acceptability and design preference were analyzed across the different test conditions. Ramp ascent was the most difficult task for manual wheelchair users relative to other tasks. The most difficult tasks for users of power wheelchairs and scooters were related to interior circulation, including moving to the securement area, entry and positioning in the securement area and exiting the securement area. Boarding and disembarking at the rear doorway was significantly more acceptable and preferred compared to the layouts with front doorways.
Conclusion: Understanding transit usability barriers, perceptions and preferences among wheeled mobility users is an important consideration for clinicians who recommend mobility-related device interventions to those who use public transportation.
• Implications for Rehabilitation
• In order to maximize community participation opportunities for wheeled mobility users, clinicians should consider potential public transit barriers during the processes of wheelchair device selection and skills training.
• Usability barriers experienced by wheeled mobility device users on transit vehicles differ by mobility device type and vehicle configurations.
• Full-scale environment simulations are an effective means of identifying usability barriers and design needs in people with mobility impairments and may provide an alternative model for determining readiness for using fixed route buses or eligibility for paratransit.
... The Difficulty and Acceptability Rating Scales are widely used measures of environmental usability and with established psychometric properties [25,[58][59][60]. The Difficulty Rating Scale measures perceived ease or difficulty of task completion using a 7-point ordinal scale ranging from −3 (very difficult) to +3 (very easy). ...
... However, access ramp slopes vary considerably in field settings often exceeding the maximum permissible slope, with one study reporting ranges between −4 • to 15.5 • [86]. Ramp ascent times, task difficulty, and perceived exertion are significantly higher for users of manual wheelchairs vs. powered devices [60]. Ramp descent on existing transit buses also poses usability issues, particularly for users of powered wheelchairs and scooters, due to the limited turn space at the front section of the bus (mostly from the floor-mounted fare payment device) leading to the ramp coupled with a narrow ramp width [25]. ...
Multiple field studies provide qualitative accounts of usability barriers experienced by users of wheeled mobility devices on public transit. This study aimed to examine these usability barriers from the theoretical perspective of Environmental Docility by quantifying the relationship between functional capabilities of wheeled mobility device users and ingress–egress performance on accessible fixed-route transit vehicles in an urban setting. Twenty-eight wheeled mobility users each completed three trips on a predetermined route through the local public transit system. Ingress and egress times, user-reported usability ratings and open-ended comments were analyzed. Regression analyses indicated significant interactions between age and minimum parallel-park length on ingress and egress times. Specifically, lower functional capability reflected in older age and less maneuvering ability predicted decreased performance (longer ingress–egress times), indicating less adaptability to environmental demands and agreement with the Environmental Docility Hypothesis. Usability ratings and comments revealed difficulty with negotiating access ramps and turning maneuvers in the vehicle interior and in proximity to other passengers. Despite compliance with accessibility standards, current design of transit vehicles present substantial usability barriers for wheeled mobility users. Environmental Docility provides a theoretical basis to identifying modifiable factors related to person and environment for improving usability of public transit for people aging and/or with mobility impairments.
... An a priori power analysis was conducted to determine the target number of WhMD users to enroll in the study to evaluate the effects of layout and user group (i.e., users of manual chairs, power chairs or scooters) on B-D times. Using task completions times from a prior experiment on access ramps with WhMD users (i.e., Lenker et al., 2016) to compute effect sizes (i.e., method established by Cohen, 1992), we determined that a group size of minimum 16 per WhMD group would allow us to detect large effect sizes of 0.4, with a power of 0.8 and significance level of 0.05. ...
... Task times for the ascent and descent on the access ramps differed only by User Group, with SUs taking the least time, and MWUs requiring the most time and greatest amount of assistance. Multiple studies have concluded that manual wheelchair users encounter significantly greater difficulty when ascending ramps at or exceeding 9.5 degrees in gradient (Blennemann, 1991;Karen L Frost, Bertocci, & Smalley, 2015;Lenker et al., 2016;Sweeney, Clarke, Harrison, & Bulstrode, 1989). ...
The emergence of low-floor bus designs and related regulatory standards in the U.S. have resulted in substantial improvements in public transit accessibility. However, passengers using wheeled mobility devices still experience safety concerns and inefficiencies in boarding, disembarking, and interior circulation on low-floor buses. This study investigates effects of low-floor bus interior configuration and passenger crowding on boarding and disembarking efficiency and safety. Users of manual wheelchairs (n = 18), powered wheelchairs (n = 21) and electric scooters (n = 9) simulated boarding and disembarking in three interior layout configurations at low and high passenger crowding conditions on a full-scale laboratory mock-up of a low-floor bus. Dependent measures comprised task times and critical incidents during access ramp use, fare payment, and movement to and from the doorway and wheeled mobility securement area. Individual times for unassisted boarding ranged from 15.2 to 245.3 s and for disembarking ranged from 9.1 to 164.6 s across layout and passenger crowding conditions. Nonparametric analysis of variance showed significant differences and interactions across vehicle design conditions, passenger load and mobility device type on user performance. The configuration having electronic on-board fare payment, rear-bus entrance doorways and adjacent device securement areas demonstrated greatest efficiency and safety. High passenger load adversely impacted efficiency and frequency of critical incidents during on-board circulation across all three layouts. Findings have broader implications for improving transit system efficiency and quality of service across the spectrum of transit users.
... Transport operators must ensure that ramp design and deployment features comply with ADA recommendations. Lenker et al. assert that the accessibility of access ramps is affected by their slope, which is often described by a ratio, a:b, indicating a rise of a inches for every b inches in run (60). On this basis, the ADA is recommending that ramps shall have the least slope practicable and shall not exceed 1:4 when deployed to ground level. ...
Barriers to public transport use may be experienced differently by people with various types of disabilities (e.g., physical, intellectual, cognitive, sensory). Thus, it is important to identify the variable needs within each element of the travel chain. For example, the unavailability or low volume of auditory announcements in a stop or station or on the public transport vehicle may be a barrier to people with visual disability who rely on hearing the information. Consequently, this could provoke negative emotions and unpleasant experiences, which may not be the case for people with physical disabilities. The primary objective was to describe the barriers and facilitators to using public transport experienced by people with disabilities (PWD). The secondary aim was to explore experiences in terms of self-efficacy and satisfaction, when using public transport among people with disabilities. A scoping review was conducted. The search was performed in MEDLINE, TRANSPORT DATABASE, PsycINFO, EMBASE, and WEB OF SCIENCE from 1995 to 2023. Of 6,820 citations identified, 34 articles were included in the review for extraction. The main physical and social barriers included lack of ramp, long walking distance, long waiting time, unavailability of information at bus stop or station, and drivers' negative attitudes towards PWD. Personal factors that prevented the use of public transport included lack of confidence, and decreased satisfaction with public transport use. Strategies such as providing ramps on public transport vehicles, availability of kneeling buses and courtesy of bus drivers, and travel training were considered as enablers to the use of public transport that can lead the improved self-efficacy and satisfaction. In conclusion, this review identified the physical and social barriers and facilitators in travel chain, and highlighted issues related to lack of confidence or self-efficacy and decreased satisfaction when PWD and older adults are using public transport. Identifying and understanding the barriers and facilitators to the use of public transport by PWD is a milestone that may help policy makers and transport operators around the world to develop and implement interventions enabling access, use and inclusion of this mode of transport, as the experiences of PWD when using this mode of transport have an impact on their well-being.
... This is not the case in practice, as the latest Brazilian census [30] has shown that only 4.7% of the country's urban pathways have accessibility ramps. This lack of urban accessibility is not exclusive to Brazil, as it was shown to also be a problem in the US [31,32], Mexico [33], Ecuador [34], and several European cities [35]. Also, a review of 1331 studies about urban accessibility found a generally low quality thorough these studies, indicating a lack of attention to accessibility in the literature itself [36]. ...
Purpose:
Seat tilting wheelchair features can increase the comfort and safety of the user. Although many power wheelchairs have tilting mechanisms, they are often designed with a specific wheelchair model in mind. In this study, a design process for seat tilting mechanisms that can be applied to most rear-wheel drive wheelchair models is developed.
Methodology:
Equations were developed to describe the geometrical and load constraints that were used to size the electric actuator that powers the system and define its position. Finally, the equations were used to create the seat tilting mechanism of a prototype wheelchair, which was then tested.
Results:
The equations yielded coherent results which showed that advantageous actuator positions from a load minimization perspective usually require dimensions that cannot be found in commercial actuators. Also, there are positions in which the load increases exponentially, which should be avoided. The tests showed that the system was able to function properly on the prototype wheelchair and that the actuator position affected the time taken for the actuator to execute different parts of the tilting movement.
Conclusions:
The design process presented here was successful and modelled by general equations that can be applied to most front-wheel drive wheelchairs. It presents a low-cost option for the design of seat tilting systems, which can increase their accessibility.
... La pendenza della rampa può essere un altro fattore che influenza l'accessibilità delle PMR. L'usabilità delle pendenze della rampa da parte delle PMR valutata in uno studio di LENKER et al. [20] su 27 partecipanti (utenti su sedia a rotelle manuale ed elettrica e persone con problemi di vista) ha indicato che le pendenze da 1:8 a 1:12 sono accettabili e adatte alla maggior parte dei partecipanti mentre le pendenze 1:4 sono troppo ripide per le operazioni di imbarco e sbarco in sicurezza senza assistenza. Gli utenti su carrozzina elettrica e le persone ipovedenti potrebbero salire a bordo dei pendii ripidi meglio degli utenti su sedia a rotelle manuali, ma tutti i partecipanti hanno espresso preoccupazione durante la discesa da tali pendenze. ...
This work, carried out within the CARBODIN EU-funded project, aims to study the impacts of a new train boarding device conceived as an innovative solution that improves train accessibility for passengers encountering significant boarding and alighting maneuvers due to their reduced mobility. Experiments were carried out at the MASATS facility, involving a heterogeneous sample of Persons with Reduced Mobility (PRM). Different scenarios were tested to reproduce various conditions potentially relevant for real cases, such as platform height, the distance between the platform and the doorsill, the residual gap between the gap filler and the platform, and other complex boarding and alighting (B&A) conditions. The above was possible thanks to the prototype equipped with three platform-to-train interface variants for simulating different platform designs. The data collected from the testing activity allowed for a detailed statistical study of PRM's boarding and alighting times per train door in different disability types for a particular number of alighting and boarding passengers. // Il presente lavoro, svolto nell'ambito del progetto europeo CARBODIN, mira a studiare gli impatti di un nuovo dispositivo di ausilio per la salita a bordo concepito come una soluzione innovativa volta a migliorare l'accessibilità al treno per i passeggeri che devono affrontare manovre di imbarco e sbarco difficoltose a causa della loro ridotta mobilità. Presso la struttura MASATS è stata effettuata una sperimentazione che ha coinvolto un campione eterogeneo di Persone a Mobilità Ridotta (PMR). Sono stati testati diversi scenari per riprodurre varie condizioni potenzialmente rilevanti per casi reali, come l'altezza del marciapiede, la distanza tra il marciapiede e la soglia d’ingresso al treno e altre condizioni complesse di imbarco e sbarco (I&S). Quanto sopra è stato possibile poichè il prototipo è stato equipaggiato con tre varianti di interfaccia marciapiede-treno per simulare diverse tipologie di banchina. I dati raccolti dall'attività di test hanno consentito di effettuare uno studio statistico dettagliato dei tempi di salita a bordo o discesa delle PMR, in funzione delle diverse tipologie di disabilità e secondo scenari di criticità formulati in base a un specifico numero di passeggeri che effettuano la salita e discesa da una singola porta del treno.
... Most interchanges have accessible facilities such as lifts and ramps to support the movement of users with physical impairments. However, the additional distance, time, and effort it takes to maneuver long or steep ramps can be wearisome for these users (Lenker et al., 2016;Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, 2016;Sanford et al., 1997); hence they may prefer simpler walking routes. For visually impaired users, the assistance of mobile apps in addition to the staff at most interchanges can make navigating around busy and large interchanges more manageable (European Conference of Ministers of Transport, 2004;Korbel et al., 2013). ...
Most studies on the operation and planning of integrated systems have been based on the needs of public transport users without disabilities. However, people with disabilities face different challenges when riding public transport. This study adopts Weber’s Law "Just Noticeable Difference" to investigate the travel time savings and transfer time desired by public transport users with disabilities when selecting a route with transfer(s). An online survey was undertaken in major cities around New Zealand. A total of 108 public transport users with disabilities who have traveled independently in the last five years participated. Results show a variation among the travel time savings required by different groups of users with disabilities when choosing transfers. Participants with multiple impairments were less willing to choose a transfer route (k=0.458), followed by participants with cognitive impairments (k=0.315). There is a negligible difference in willingness between participants with physical (k=0.255) and visual impairments (k=0.253). Findings from this study are expected to assist transport planners and public transport operators in reconsidering how they design integrated systems to ensure ease of transfers for people with disabilities.
... However, these models did not account for passengers with other mobility impairments that may not necessitate use of the lift. In addition, these models would need to be updated as electromechanical lifts are becoming less common on fixed-route transit vehicles in the US in favor of low-floor vehicles with folding access ramps due to lower equipment maintenance costs and shorter deployment times (Lenker et al., 2016). It has also been recognized that passengers with large items need more time to board and alight a transit vehicle, and a few models accounted for the effects of passengers with large items (e.g., luggage, bicycles) and those with disabilities by treating them as one encumbered category (e.g., Grise and El-Geneidy, 2017). ...
Public transit serves users with a broad range of physical capabilities and design needs. However information about the operational effects of diverse users interacting with the transit system is scarce. This paper examined the occurrence and effects of boarding and alighting passengers with mobility aids (wheelchairs, scooters, walkers and canes), or with large items (carts, strollers, bicycles, or carrying an infant) on bus stop dwell time in a fixed-route bus service. On-board video data from low-floor public transit buses serving Ann Arbor, Michigan were used from 199 bus stops with at least one passenger boarding or alighting with a mobility aid or encumbered with a large item, and an additional 1642 bus stops without any mobility aids or encumbrances. A sequence of linear regression models examined the relationship between dwell time and the addition of variables representing passengers with mobility aids and encumbrances, and use of the on-vehicle access ramp, beyond explanatory variables typically used in dwell time analysis. Accounting for passengers boarding/alighting with mobility aids and encumbrances (p < 0.001) and use of the access ramp (p < 0.001) increased the variance explanation of a dwell time model based on boarding passengers by fare payment, alighting passengers by door use, and passenger load from 46% to 56%. Results indicate distinct patterns in the durations for boarding and alighting by passengers with vs. without mobility aids and encumbrances, and when a ramp is used by wheeled mobility users vs. ambulatory passengers with walking aids. The findings suggest that accounting for the presence of passengers with mobility aids or encumbrances and ramp use in dwell time analyses could help transit operators make their service operationally more efficient and inclusive for all passengers and encourage more use of fixed-route transit among individuals with disabilities.
... In fact, a previous study reported 75% of MWC users were unable to independently traverse a 14 slope and 37.5% could not negotiate a 9.5 incline in a laboratory setting [13]. In addition, MWC users have described ascending a 14 slope as being very difficult and unsafe, while requiring a high level of perceived exertion [13][14][15]. ...
Objective: To compare the kinetics of manual wheelchair (MWC) propulsion on ramps of varying slopes that may be encountered when accessing large accessible transit vehicles (LATVs).
Design: Observational study.
Setting: Biomechanics research laboratory.
Participants: A convenience sample of able-bodied adults (n = 7) having no propulsion experience propelled a MWC on ramps of slope 3.5°, 9.5° and 15°.
Interventions: Not applicable.
Main outcome measures: Resultant (Fres), radial (Fr) and tangential (Ft) forces applied to the wheelchair pushrim, rate of rise of resultant force (ROR), peak power output (P), temporal characteristics and thigh to trunk angle were analyzed across three ramp slopes.
Results: Pushrim forces and power output significantly increased with increasing slope, with peak Fres more than doubling from 107 N on a 3.5° slope to 230 N on a 15° slope. ROR was 1.76 times higher at 9.5° and 2.47 times higher at 15° compared to a 3.5° slope. Minimum thigh to trunk angle decreased sharply from 80° (3.5° slope) to 50° (9.5° slope) and then to 30° (15° slope) as ramp slope increased.
Conclusions: Ascending bus ramps require greater power and pushrim force on steeper ramp slopes, presenting a potential barrier to transportation accessibility. Given this finding, it is imperative that bus operators minimize ramp slope to assure MWC users are able to access LATVs.
• Implications for Rehabilitation
• Although transit bus ramps are intended to provide wheelchair access to public transportation, limitations in MWC user physical strength and function may prevent safe access.
• Transit bus ramp slopes encountered during ingress can present a challenge to MWC users given power output and pushrim force requirements to ascend the ramp.
• MWC users and therapists should be aware of ramp slopes that may be encountered when boarding transit buses; wheelchair training should incorporate skills needed to ascend transit bus ramps.
Access to transport is key to people’s movement in cities, their social participation, and personal development. People with mobility disabilities (PMDs) face additional barriers when using public transport. The objective of this study is to identify the dilemmas that PMDs face in their daily mobility practices and their coping strategies, in particular the ways in which these dilemmas and strategies are influenced by both personal and environmental characteristics. We conducted ethnographic research, utilizing narrative interviews, life stories, focus groups, and participant observations. Our aim was to analyse multiple experiences of mobility in situations of disability in Quebec City, Canada. This study engages the following research question: how do PMDs navigate their social environment, considering the impact of personal, social, and physical landscape factors on their mobility strategies? Depending on the accessibility of fixed-route public buses and the availability of public paratransit services, what are the dilemmas that PMDs face and how do they shape their mobility strategies? Using the three-dimensional model of narrative analysis, we present a narrative ethnography of participants’ dilemmas and strategies about their experiences on public transport. Five dilemmas are examined. Through this methodology, we propose to extend the study of “constellations of mobility” by including the notion of strategies as an experiential outcome between personal and physical landscape factors, practices, and meanings of mobility. This offers new research perspectives both in disability and mobility studies and in the understanding of urban accessibility experiences in situations of disability.
Despite the daily need for people to travel on public transit buses using their wheeled mobility devices, relatively little information is available regarding the most efficacious, affordable, and independent approaches to assist passengers with keeping their mobility devices in the designated wheelchair access space. A systematic review was undertaken to summarize this literature, place it within a geographical and temporal context, appraise its quality, and establish common themes. Key academic and grey literature transportation databases and government websites searched from 1990 to May 2022 identified 33 documents, which were appraised using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) or the Authority, Accuracy, Coverage, Objectivity, Date, Significance (AACODS) tool. Overall, the documents included were of good quality. The literature retrieved focused on the development and testing of the active containment systems favored for use in North America with a contrastingly small examination of the effectiveness of passive or semi-passive containment systems. Almost no literature was retrieved in English from European researchers documenting the use or effectiveness of rearward-facing passive systems. While tip or slide events are relatively rare among mobility device users, the effective use of containment systems is vital to minimize these. Further research is required to support transport policy makers, operators, and bus drivers to identify and correctly implement optimal containment systems to promote safety for all passengers on public buses.
Wheelchairs need to be secured properly during transit to reduce the risk of passenger injury. New wheelchair securement systems have been developed in an attempt to provide increased usability and independence for passengers who need to use them. This field study evaluated newer wheelchair securement system usage through a retrospective review of on-board video surveillance recordings and large accessible transit vehicle (LATV) operators’ perceived usability of two newer wheelchair securement systems on fixed-route LATVs. Results showed that nonuse and misuse of securement systems were more prevalent with trips using the 3-point, forward-facing (3P-FF) tiedown system compared with trips using the semi-automated, rear-facing (SA-RF) system. While a majority of nonuse and misuse of the 3P-FF system was because of LATV operator error, the reasons for nonuse and misuse of the SA-RF system were more complex and mostly involved system design and transit policy issues. Operators most preferred using the 3P-FF system on the LATV rather than the SA-RF system. Findings support the need for further development and implementation of wheelchair securement with improved usability, innovative securement systems that can be operated independently by wheelchair users, and improved securement training for bus operators and wheelchair passengers.
Purpose
Despite the increase of users of Mobility Assistive Devices (MobAD), there has been a lack of accessibility in urban environments in many parts of the world. We present a systematic review of how the inaccessible design of public spaces affects quality-of-life – including aspects of health and safety, independence, and social participation – of MobAD users.
Materials and methods
We conducted a literature search in three databases (i.e., Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed) and initially discovered 3980 publications. We analysed 48 peer-reviewed journal articles published in English from 2005 to 2021 and assessed their quality of evidence via the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool.
Results
Findings indicated a substantial number of inaccessible elements for MobAD users in public spaces. Pathway characteristics, boarding ramps, entrance features, confined spaces, and service surfaces were deemed to be the least accessible elements. These barriers had multifaceted effects on MobAD users’ quality of life with aspects of physical health, mobility, and use of public transport being most affected.
Conclusions
Notwithstanding that the reviewed studies mostly ocused on wheelchair users residing in high-income countries, this review outlines the critical role of the design of the built environment as a factor of disablement for MobAD users. We conclude by highlighting a few recommendations for future research and practice, especially inclusive approaches and adaptive techniques to assist MobAD users with performing tasks in public spaces independently.
•
Implications for Rehabilitation
• Users of Mobility Assistive Devices experience a lack of accessibility provisions in public open spaces and buildings internationally.
• Physical barriers in public spaces substantially diminish the health and safety, autonomy, and social participation of users of Mobility Assistive Devices.
• There is a definite need for the adoption of inclusive strategies and adaptive techniques in placemaking processes so that users of Mobility Assistive Devices can have equitable access to public spaces.
Purpose
Shared autonomy has played a major role in assistive mobile robotics as it has the potential to effectively balance user satisfaction and smooth functioning of systems by adapting itself to each user’s needs and preferences. Many shared control paradigms have been developed over the years. However, despite these advancements, shared control paradigms have not been widely adopted as there are several integral aspects that have not fully matured. The purpose of this paper is to discuss and review various aspects of shared control and the technologies leading up to the current advancements in shared control for assistive mobile robots.
Methods
A comprehensive review of the literature was conducted following a dichotomy of studies from the pre-2000 and the post-2000 periods to focus on both the early developments and the current state of the art in this domain.
Results
A systematic review of 135 research papers and 7 review papers selected from the literature was conducted. To facilitate the organization of the reviewed work, a 6-level ladder categorization was developed based on the extent of autonomy shared between the human and the robot in the use of assistive mobile robots. This taxonomy highlights the chronological improvements in this domain.
Conclusion
It was found that most prior studies have focussed on basic functionalities, thus paving the way for research to now focus on the higher levels of the ladder taxonomy. It was concluded that further research in the domain must focus on ensuring safety in mobility and adaptability to varying environments.
•
Implications for rehabilitation
• Shared autonomy in assistive mobile robots plays a vital role in effectively adapting to ensure safety while also considering the user comfort.
• User’s immediate desires should be considered in decision making to ensure that the users are in control of the assistive robots.
• The current focus of research should be towards successful adaptation of the assistive mobile robots to varying environments to assure safety of the user.
The Standards Planning for Multimodal and Accessible Travel services task will provide an assessment of standardization needs to support multimodal and accessible travel options by conducting a study to review standardization needs, assessing impacts on ITS and related standards that currently exist or are under development, and developing a roadmap for multimodal and accessible travel standardization work. This white paper explores the challenges, gaps, and impacts of current and emerging policies, trends, and technologies to seamless travel information access and navigation for all travelers. Over 100 pieces of literature were reviewed and contributed to this report.
Wheelchair securement designs for fixed route, large accessible transit vehicles (LATVs) often create difficulties for passengers who use wheelchairs and operational inefficiencies for public transit agencies. Recent innovations in wheelchair securement technology for LATVs may reduce these challenges. This field study builds on a recent lab study that used a full-scale LATV simulation apparatus to address similar knowledge gaps. The current study used a mixed-methods approach to explore the usability of two newer wheelchair securement systems currently installed in LATVs in Buffalo, NY: a 3-point, forward-facing (3P-FF) securement system and a semi-automated, rear-facing (SA-RF) securement system. Three groups of wheelchair users (manual wheelchair [MWC], power wheelchair [PWC], and scooter [SC] users; n = 40) completed a pre-study interview, four trips on the LATVs and accompanying surveys, and a final interview. Using multiple usability rating scales, findings indicated clear differences in ratings of difficulty and acceptability between securement systems by wheelchair user group, with the SA-RF outperforming the 3P-FF on most usability measures for MWC and PWC users. SC users consistently rated both securement systems as more difficult to use and the SA-RF securement as less acceptable than MWC and PWC users.
Kentsel alanların ve yapıların ulaşılabilirliği, sadece engelli bireyler için değil, yaşlılar, çocuklar ve tüm bireyler için önemli bir yere sahiptir. Günümüzde, engelli bireylerin haklarını koruyan yasa ve mevzuatlar mevcut olmakla birlikte, bu mevzuatların uygulamaya geçirilmesinde eksiklikler görülmektedir. Bu çalışmada, aralarında engellilerin de bulunduğu, birçok yerli ve yabancı turistin ziyaret ettiği Eskişehir Odunpazarı Kentsel Sit Alanı ile Kurşunlu Kül-liyesi, tekerlekli sandalye kullanıcıları bağlamında, ulaşılabilirlik açısından incelenmektedir. Elde edilen veriler doğrultusunda, ulaşılabilirliğin sağlanamadığı durumlara yönelik çözüm ve öneriler sunulmaktadır.
The accessibility of urban areas and structures has an important place not only for the disabled people, but also for the elderly, children and all individuals. Today, although there are laws and regulations that protect the rights of people with disabilities, there are shortcomings in the implementation of these legislation. In this study, Eskisehir Odunpazarı Urban Site and Kursunlu Complex which are visited by many local and foreign tourists are examined in terms of accessibility in the context of wheelchair users. The obtained data is evaluated, then solutions and suggestions are provided for situations where accessibility cannot be achieved.
Both bus dwell time and bus headway adherence are critical to the serviceability of the bus transit system. It is acknowledged that passengers with physical disabilities may greatly impact bus dwell time and bus headway adherence due to the increased time needed to safely board the bus. However, the mitigating effects of securement systems and ramp features on bus dwell time and bus schedule adherence have not yet been examined in the literature. This study investigates the impacts of the combination of bus boarding conditions and passengers who used wheeled mobility devices on bus dwell time and headway adherence. The results indicate that bus dwell time drops by 30% for the most supportive boarding conditions. Results also demonstrated that the deviations of bus headways from the scheduled headways regarding the most favorable conditions were much smaller than the traditional design of the buses under the light traffic condition. There is a 47% reduction in headway adherence coefficient under the light traffic condition with favorable ramp slopes, interior bus configuration, and securement conditions.
Background: Wheelchair users (WCUs) often rely on ramps for access to transit buses. Previous studies indicate WCUs have difficulty using ramps for bus ingress/egress and many transportation-related incidents occur on ramps. However, experiences of WCU ramp usage during ingress/egress have not been fully described.
Methods: Cross-sectional, internet-based survey of WCUs who ride transit buses was conducted. The participants were queried on frequency of bus usage, difficulty and incidents involving ramps, and factors contributing to difficulty and incidents. Wheelchair characteristics, primary condition, and whether participants received travel training were also captured. Chi-square was used to describe relationships between wheelchair type and frequency of difficulties and incidents, and odd ratios were used to determine likelihood of the incidents.
Results: The majority (55.7%) of 384 participants reported using public transportation ≥ 1 per week. Seventy-eight percent of WCUs had ≥ 1 ramp incident over the past 3 years, with an increased likelihood of incidents occurring during ingress (OR = 1.53; CI 1.21–1.86). Of those who had an incident, 22% were injured or had damage to their wheelchair. Over 60% of those who had an incident identified steep ramp slope as being the contributing factor. Steep ramp slope, exterior ramp thresholds and wet surfaces were the most common contributing factors to difficulty using ramps.
Conclusion: This is the first large-scale US study enabling WCUs to describe their experiences using transit bus ramps. Despite ADA guidelines, steep ramps remain the primary factor contributing to incidents and difficulty when using ramps to access transit buses.
• Implications for rehabilitation
• The discrepancy between ADA maximum allowable ramp slopes for the built environment and transit buses may require an increased level of effort that is a barrier to transportation accessibility for some wheelchair users.
• Wheelchair users who access transit buses should be made aware of, and trained, to navigate ramp configurations found in the environment.
• We suggest rehabilitation therapists provide skills training specific to navigating transit bus ramp slopes that may be steeper and narrower than building ramps.
To estimate the prevalence of wheeled mobility device (WhMD) ramp-related incidents while boarding/alighting a public transit bus and determine whether frequency of incidents is less when ramp slope meets the proposed ADA maximum allowable limit of ≤9.5°.
Observational.
Community public transportation.
414 WhMD users accessing a public transit bus using an instrumented ramp.
Not applicable.
Prevalence of boarding/alighting incidents involving WhMD users and associated ramp slopes; factors influencing incidents.
4.6% of WhMD users experienced an incident while boarding or alighting a transit bus. Significantly more incidents occurred during boarding (7.0%) than alighting (2.2%) (p<0.01), and when the ramp was deployed to street level (mean slope=11.4°) compared to sidewalk level (mean slope=4.2°) (p=0.01). Odds ratio for experiencing an incident when ramp slope exceeded the proposed ADA maximum allowable ramp slope was 5.4 (95% CI: 2.4(o) to 12.2(o), p<0.01). Odds ratio for assistance being rendered to board/alight when ramp slope exceeded the proposed ADA maximum allowable ramp slope was 5.1 (95% CI: 2.9 to 9.0, p<0.01).
Findings support the proposed ADA maximum allowable ramp slope of 9.5(o). Ramp slopes >9.5(o), and ramps deployed to street level are associated with greater frequency of incidents and provision of assistance. Transit agencies should increase awareness among bus operators of the effect kneeling and deployment location (street/sidewalk) have on ramp slope. Additionally, ramp components and the built environment may contribute to incidents. When prescribing WhMDs, skills training must include ascending/descending ramps at slopes encountered during boarding/alighting to assure safe and independent access to public transit buses.
Copyright © 2015 American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Purpose:
The slopes of fixed-route bus ramps deployed for wheeled mobility device (WhMD) users during boarding and alighting were assessed. Measured slopes were compared to the proposed Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) maximum allowable ramp slope.
Methods:
A ramp-embedded inclinometer measured ramp slope during WhMD user boarding and alighting on a fixed-route transit bus. The extent of bus kneeling was determined for each ramp deployment. In-vehicle video surveillance cameras captured ramp deployment level (street versus sidewalk) and WhMD type.
Results:
Ramp slopes ranged from -4° to 15.5° with means of 4.3° during boarding (n = 406) and 4.2° during alighting (n = 405). Ramp slope was significantly greater when deployed to street level. During boarding, the proposed ADA maximum allowable ramp slope (9.5°) was exceeded in 66.7% of instances when the ramp was deployed to street level, and in 1.9% of instances when the ramp was deployed to sidewalk level. During alighting, the proposed ADA maximum allowable slope was exceeded in 56.8% of instances when the ramp was deployed to street level and in 1.4% of instances when the ramp was deployed to sidewalk level.
Conclusions:
Deployment level, built environment and extent of bus kneeling can affect slope of ramps ascended/descended by WhMD users when accessing transit buses. Implications for Rehabilitation Since public transportation services are critical for integration of wheeled mobility device (WhMD) users into the community and society, it is important that they, as well as their therapists, are aware of conditions that may be encountered when accessing transit buses. Knowledge of real world ramp slope conditions that may be encountered when accessing transit buses will allow therapists to better access capabilities of WhMD users in a controlled clinical setting. Real world ramp slope conditions can be recreated in a clinical setting to allow WhMD users to develop and practice necessary skills to safely navigate this environment. Knowing that extent of bus kneeling and ramp deployment level can influence ramp slope, therapists can educate WhMD users to request bus operators further kneel the bus floor and/or redeploy the ramp to a sidewalk level when appropriate, so that the least practicable slope will be presented for ingress/egress.
The objectives of this study were to characterize the ingress and egress activities of wheeled mobility device (WhMD) passengers using fixed-route large, accessible tran-sit vehicles (LATVs), and to examine factors associated with incidents occurring on ramps. A retrospective review of public transit video surveillance footage of WhMD-seated passengers accessing fixed-route LATVs was conducted. Ingress and egress activities were characterized based on travel conditions and characteristics of the WhMD and LATV ramp. Incidents were identified based on predetermined criteria, and chi-square analysis was performed to identify WhMD and/or ingress/egress characteristics associated with incidents. Video records of 250 WhMD trips were ana-lyzed. A total of 39 incidents occurred during ingress and 12 incidents occurred during egress. Results indicated that the frequency of incidents was significantly greater for scooter users and passengers who ascended the ramp using a rear-facing WhMD orientation. Narrow LATV ramp width was associated with the greatest number of incidents, followed by problems related to LATV door width and steep ramp slope.
Space requirements for accommodating wheeled mobility devices and their users in the built environment are key components of standards for accessible design. These requirements typically include dimensions for clear floor areas, maneuvering clearances, seat and knee clearance heights, as well as some reference dimensions on wheeled mobility device sizes. Recent research from four countries was reviewed and compared with their prevailing accessibility standards to identify needs for improving standards. Findings from ongoing anthropometry research on wheeled mobility in the U.S. were used for evaluating the adequacy of existing U.S. accessibility standards. Preliminary analysis suggests that the U.S. standards, which are based on research conducted in the 1970s, need to be updated to address advances in wheeled mobility technology and changes in user demographics. The analysis highlights the importance of integrating research with standards development, organizing international collaborations, and developing international standards.
Characterize wheeled mobility device (WhMD) adverse incidents on large accessible transit vehicles (LATVs) based on vehicle motion, WhMD activity during incident, incident scenario and injury.
Retrospective records review.
WhMD passengers traveling on LATVs while remaining seated in their.
Adverse incidents characterized based on vehicle motion, WhMD activity during incident, and incident scenario. Injury characterized based on outcome, medical attention sought, vehicle activity, WhMD activity and incident scenario.
115 WhMD-related incident reports for years 2000-2005 were analyzed. Most incidents occurred when the LATV was stopped (73.9%), during ingress/egress (42.6%), and at the securement station (33.9%) when the LATV was moving. The combination of WhMD tipping and passenger falling (43.4%) occurred most frequently, and was 1.8 times more likely to occur during ingress/egress than at the securement station. One-third (33.6%) of all incidents resulted in injury, and injuries were equally distributed between ingress/egress (43.6%) and at the securement station (43.6%).
WhMD users have a greater chance of incurring injury during ingress/egress than during transit. Research is needed to objectively assess real world transportation experiences of WhMD passengers, and to assess the adequacy of existing federal legislation/guidelines for accessible ramps used in public transportation.
The literature related to Borg's ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) scale has revealed inconsistencies about the strength of the relationship between ratings of perceived exertion and various physiological criterion measures, such as heart rate, blood lactate concentration, percent maximal oxygen uptake (%VO2max), oxygen uptake (VO2), ventilation and respiration rate. Using sex of participants, fitness, type of RPE scale used, type of exercise, exercise protocol, RPE mode and study quality, we undertook a meta-analysis to determine the strength of the relationship between RPE scores and the six aforementioned physiological measures. The weighted mean validity coefficients were 0.62 for heart rate, 0.57 for blood lactate, 0.64 for %VO2max 0.63 for VO2, 0.61 for ventilation and 0.72 for respiration rate. Analysis of moderator variables revealed that the following study features could account for the variation of results across studies: heart rate--fitness, type of exercise, protocol and RPE mode; blood lactate concentration--sex, RPE scale; VO2--sex, exercise type, RPE mode; ventilation--sex, RPE mode; respiration rate--exercise protocol, RPE mode. The highest correlations between ratings of perceived exertion and the various physiological criterion measures were found in the following conditions: when male participants (whose VO2 or ventilation was measured) were required to maximally exert themselves (measuring %VO2max or ventilation); when the exercise task was unusual [e.g. when participants were swimming, which is less common than walking or running (when heart rate, %VO2max and VO2 are measured)]; or when the 15-point RPE scale (measuring blood lactate concentration) was used. These findings suggest that although Borg's RPE scale has been shown to be a valid measure of exercise intensity, its validity may not be as high as previously thought (r = 0.80-0.90), except under certain conditions.
Swedish legislation and international norms emphasize society's obligation to ensure general accessibility. The possibility of independent outdoor mobility, transportation, and travel are as important for individuals with reduced functional capacity as for other members of society, but today their mobility is limited. The aim of this article is to outline a novel field for research collaboration between occupational therapy and traffic planning and engineering, focusing on person-environment relationships with an explicit orientation towards advantages to society. Target groups are elderly people and individuals with impairments, and their relation to public transportation provided by society, in terms of general accessibility. Topical research from both disciplines is presented and synthesized, leading to the formulation of joint research questions. The collaborative approach presented increases the potential for continuing, comprehensive, and stable growth of knowledge. The intention is to assist the legislative process in the development of society, leading to a more efficient use of available economic resources. The ultimate objective of future research projects will be to gain knowledge that will facilitate improvements in public health.
This article summarises the findings of a study which aimed to evaluate a selection of commercially available portable ramps in the United Kingdom. The ramps were tested by wheelchair users and ambulant disabled people, in order to assess ease of use, safety and user acceptance. Some points which should be taken into consideration when recommending or selecting a portable ramp are highlighted.
Research was reviewed and conducted regarding the accessibility of buildings for physically disabled persons. Data was produced regarding anthropometrics (eye level and reach limits for ambulant, semiambulant, and wheelchair bound persons); wheelchair maneuvers; speed and distance (maximum travel distances for people with limitations of stamina); push-pull forces against windows and doors; ramps (maximum slopes); toilet stalls (dimensions, use of grab bars); bathtubs (location of grab bars, need for seat); showers (dimension of shower stalls, usability of wheelin showers and those with a curb); bathroom layouts; kitchen (dimensions, heights of shelves and work surfaces); doorways; elevators (size, location of control panels, timing of elevator doors); public telephones; and public mailboxes. A final section compares data with previous research. (CL)
This article presents a profile of household-resident U.S. adults using wheeled mobility equipment (WME) in 2005, trends in WME use from 1990 to 2005, and data on accessibility features and problems from 1994-97. Data were obtained from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) and the National Health Interview Survey on Disability (NHIS-D). Compared to the general population, WME users are more likely to be older, female, and in poor health. Forty-four percent are working-aged, with twice the rate of poverty of the general population, and only 17% are employed. Mobility difficulty is the most significant predictor of WME use, but gender, race, poverty, and educational attainment are also significant predictors. From 1990-2005, WME use grew 5% per year, while mobility difficulty declined among the elderly and remained steady among working-age persons. This contrast suggests a reduction in unmet need for WME. In 1994-97, more than half of WME users had difficulty entering or exiting their homes, and one-third had accessibility problems outside their homes. Usage of home modification was low, with substantial unmet need. Regular national data collection on the use of WME and other mobility aids, their financing, and accessibility issues is warranted.
This study examined ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) during resistance exercise in women. In addition, changes in blood lactic acid and biceps muscle activity assessed using electromyography (EMG) were investigated as potential mediators of RPE during resistance exercise.
Twenty female volunteers (age, 25 +/- 4 yr) performed one set of biceps curl exercise at 30%, 60%, and 90% of their one-repetition maximum (1-RM). Total work was held constant by varying the number of repetitions during each of the three intensities. The three intensities were performed in random order. RPE responses were assessed for both the active muscle (RPE-AM) and the overall body (RPE-O) following each intensity. EMG data were collected from the biceps brachii muscle during each intensity. Blood samples were taken before and following the intensities and analyzed for blood lactic acid concentration.
A two-factor repeated-measures ANOVA showed a significant RPE (region) x intensity interaction (P < 0.02). Both RPE-AM and RPE-O increased as the intensity of exercise increased. EMG activity increased significantly (P < 0.01) as the intensity of exercise increased. A two-factor repeated measures ANOVA performed on the blood lactate data showed a significant (P < 0.04) time x intensity interaction. Postexercise [Hla] was significantly greater (P < 0.01) at 90% 1-RM than at 30% 1-RM. No significant differences were found in [Hla] between 30% and 60% 1-RM, or between 60% and 90% 1-RM.
These results indicate that monitoring RPE may be a useful technique for regulating resistance exercise intensity. Moreover, blood lactate and activity of the involved muscle may mediate the relation between RPE and resistance exercise intensity.
In order to identify and describe a pattern in bus and coach incident related injuries and fatalities, and to suggest possible future measures for improvement of bus and coach safety, a literature analysis was performed. The results formed a multi-faceted pattern, which briefly can be described as follows; women travelled more frequently by bus as compared to men. Injuries sustained predominantly affected women 60 years of age and older. Of all traffic fatalities in Europe, bus and coach fatalities represented 0.3-0.5%. In the OECD countries, the risk of being killed or seriously injured was found to be seven to nine times lower for bus and coach occupants as compared to those of car occupants. Despite the fact that fatalities were more frequent on rural roads, a vast majority of all bus and coach casualties occurred on urban roads and in dry weather conditions. Boarding and alighting caused about one-third of all injury cases. Collisions were a major injury-contributing factor. Buses and coaches most frequently collided with cars, but unprotected road users were hit in about one-third of all cases of a collision, the point of impact on the bus or the coach being typically frontal or side. Rollovers occurred in almost all cases of severe coach crashes. In this type of crash projection, total ejection, partial ejection, intrusion and smoke inhalation were the main injury mechanisms and among those, ejection being the most dangerous. A 2-point belt may prevent passenger ejection, but in frontal crashes when the upper abdominal parts and the head hit the seatback in front, it could, however, contribute to head and thoracic injuries. Hence, a 3-point belt provides the best restraint in rollovers and frontal crashes.
The purpose of this study was to determine the reliability and validity of regulating exercise intensity by ratings of perceived exertion in step dance sessions. Ten male college-aged students voluntarily participated in 2 step dance sessions for 45 minutes at 70-80% of their heart rate (HR) reserves with a 1-week interval between sessions. The step dance sessions included the same choreography with 10 minutes of warm-up, 25 minutes of the main part, 5 minutes of calisthenics for legs and abdomen, and 5 minutes of cool-down. In each session, subjects' ratings of perceived exertion (RPEs) were determined by Borg's 6-20 scale together with HR and lactic acid (LA) levels with 10-minute intervals. Values for RPE, HR, and LA increased nonlinearly in both sessions, and their trends were explained by polynomial equations to the second degree. The RPE values increased throughout each session, whereas HR and LA showed a decrease in the last time interval, which indicated that RPE did not maintain exercise intensity at proper range. Reliability coefficients for RPE scores in the first and last session ranged from 0.602 to 0.684. These findings suggest that RPE was a reliable but not a valid method for regulating exercise intensity in step dance sessions.
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Souza is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Industrial and Operations Engineering at the University of Michigan
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Clive D'Souza is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Industrial and
Operations Engineering at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Mashtare is a Research Assistant Professor in the Department of Biostatistics at the University of Buffalo
- L Terry
Terry L. Mashtare is a Research Assistant Professor in the Department of
Biostatistics at the University of Buffalo.