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Staying in Turkey or Marrying to Europe? Understanding Transnational Marriages from the Country-of-Origin Perspective
Abstract
The topic of transnational partner choice has gained attention over the past decades, but most research focuses on the migrants
and their descendants in Europe. Very little is known about the mechanisms underlying marriage migration decisions in the
sending contexts. With reference to migration and partner choice theories, we develop hypotheses on (1) education-related
selectivity, (2) family and community network effects, and (3) the role of consanguineous and arranged marriages for family
formation migrations from Turkey. Drawing on data of the 2000 Families Study, we apply multivariate regression models which
consider (married) stayers and marriage migrants from the same regions of origin. Findings indicate the expected inverted
u-curved effect of education and strong positive influences of prior migrants in the family network. Previous marriage migrants
exert a stronger influence than other migrants in the family. Gender differences are low, but while family networks hardly
diminish the selective impact of education for women, we find a negative interaction effect for men. Unlike the family, community
network effects are low and inconclusive. Moreover, marriage migration is strongly associated with consanguineous marriage,
and less with marriage arrangement. The implications of these findings are discussed in the light of existing theoretical
and empirical research.
... While the high rates of marriage migration may be attributed to the lack of alternative legal immigration options, this immigration path has also been subject to further legal restrictions in recent years (Aybek et al., 2014). Research has shown that the likelihood of engaging in marriage migration is associated with the sociodemographic, cultural, and family characteristics of both partners in Europe and in Turkey (Abdul-Rida & Baykara-Krumme, 2016;Baykara-Krumme & Fuß, 2009;González-Ferrer, 2007;Milewski & Hamel, 2010). Marriage migration is a highly relevant issue in the study of migrant fertility, as migration for the purposes of family formation leads to elevated migrant fertility, at least among women (e.g., Kulu et al., 2019;Milewski, 2007). ...
This paper addresses the fertility behavior of Turkish men in Europe from a context of origin perspective. Men of the first and subsequent migrant generations are compared with “stayers” from the same regions of origin in Turkey. We pay special attention to the men’s reasons for migration by distinguishing between work and nonwork motivations for migration. We use data from the 2000 Families Study, which was conducted in 2010 and 2011 in Turkey and in western European countries; the sample consists of about 3,500 men. We analyze the transitions to fatherhood as well as to second and third births using event-history analyses; and we investigate the cumulated number of children using Poisson regression analysis. As the men were aged 18–92 at the data collection, we carry out separate models for birth cohort groups. Our findings provide support for the hypothesis of the interrelatedness of events. First-generation migrant men show elevated first birth transitions, which are closely linked to marriage and migration. However, in contrast to the pattern that is often found for women, this effect is observed for labor as well as for nonwork migrants. The rates of transition to a second and a third birth differ less from those of stayers. Analyses of cumulated fertility at age 41 or older further suggest that the migrants’ overall numbers of children are smaller than those of the stayers in Turkey. Thus, our findings indicate that there are dissimilation processes and crossover trends among emigrant men characterized by higher rates of transition to family formation linked to migration but lower overall fertility.
... This position generally leads to female minority members marrying at a young age, experiencing high levels of social control, moving in with the in-law family, and choosing a co-ethnic partner. Literature from the 1990s shows that a gendered adaptation process has developed in which highly educated women are more likely to engage in a transnational marriage; the opposite is true for men (Abdul-Rida & Baykara-Krumme, 2016;Autant, 1995;Lievens, 1999a;Liversage, 2012;Timmerman et al., 2009). By choosing a transnational partner, highly educated minority women may gain more autonomy and power within the relationship because they are not subject to the generally strong influence of their in-laws and because their partner is new to the residence country. ...
The chapter begins with a discussion of certain turning points in the history of the Alevi movement in Europe over the last three decades that helped Turkish‑origin Alevis gradually gain more public visibility there. I then examine the transnational effects of this visibility for the Alevi movement in Turkey, addressing how the socio‑political achievements of Alevi civil society in Europe and their transnational social networks have shaped the Alevis’ struggle for recognition at home in Turkey. In conclusion, I argue that without the transnational Alevi politics in Europe, it would have been very difficult, if not impossible, for Alevis in Turkey to gain the visibility they have acquired over the last three decades.
This introductory chapter begins with a brief outline of key aspects of the current state of research on the family-migration-nexus, subsequently identifying key knowledge gaps. From this, we develop some more general thoughts about the kind of data are needed to fill existing research gaps, and then use the German Emigration and Remigration Panel Study (GERPS) as an example to describe a data set that already meets essential requirements for innovative research at the interface of family and migration. Finally, we provide a brief profile of German emigrants and an overview of the six empirical chapters of this volume, which clearly demonstrate the existing potential of the GERPS data for research on transnational family relationships of (German) migrants.
In this chapter we look at patterns and trends transnational marriage among British Pakistani Muslims and British Indian Sikhs, explore attitudes towards transnational marriage and look at how participants own marriages came about. Labour Force Survey data shows a clear downward trend in the popularity of transnational marriage. They also show transnational marriage is less common among those with higher education. We explore the possibility that the opportunity for migration might be ‘exchanged’ for educational capital so that transnational marriage could provide British South Asians access to more educated partners in India or Pakistan. The LFS figures show that educational homogamy (spouses having the same level of education) is the dominant pattern in both transnational and intranational marriages. We nevertheless find evidence of educational selectivity in transnational marriages, with migrant spouses’ educational profiles comparing very favourably to those in the origin countries. The qualitative data from the MMI study shows that educational similarity constitutes just one aspect of understandings of compatibility which make transnational marriage attractive for some, and undesirable for others. Family considerations, such as care for parents as they age, and for British Pakistanis the possibility of marriage between cousins, also appear in these accounts, alongside the opportunities to meet marriage partners presented by the transnational social field.
In this paper we make use of data from the official statistics to analyze transnational marriage among immigrants in Germany. Pooling all currently available Scientific Use Files of the German Microcensus between 1976 and 2004, we are able to contribute empirical findings that are unique in their scope and their degree of differentiation. We look at the five most common groups of former labour migrants and study group-specific trends over generations and time. Our empirical analysis is guided by four basic expectations, which are anchored in a more general theoretical framework of immigrants’ marriage behaviour. We find, as expected, large group differences in the propensity to select a spouse from one’s own country of origin. Assumed effects of the opportunity structure, however, can only be confirmed for women. Central derivations from a general assimilationist view are also only partly supported: A general increase in transnational marriages among ex-Yugoslav and Turkish women over marriage cohorts, and the absence of any effects of structural assimilation on the propensity toward transnational marriages are the most puzzling results.
Zusammenfassung
In diesem Beitrag verwenden wir Daten der amtlichen Statistik, um transnationale Ehen bei Immigranten in Deutschland zu analysieren. Die Zusammenführung aller verfügbaren Scientific Use Files des deutschen Mikrozenus zwischen 1976 und 2004 liefert empirische Befunde, die in ihrer Breite und in der Tiefe ihrer Differenzierung bislang einzigartig sind. Wir betrachten die fünf am weitesten verbreiteten Gruppen ehemaliger Arbeitsmigranten und untersuchen gruppenspezifische Trends über die Generationen und über die Zeit. Unsere empirische Analyse wird von vier Grundannahmen geleitet, die in einem allgemeineren theoretischen Rahmen des Heiratsverhaltens von Migranten verankert sind. Wie erwartet finden wir hinsichtlich der Neigung, eine(n) Partner(in) aus dem jeweils eigenen Herkunftsland zu wählen, große Unterschiede zwischen den Gruppen. Die vermuteten Effekte der Opportunitätsstruktur werden jedoch nur für die Frauen bestätigt. Zentrale Schlussfolgerungen aus einer allgemein assimilationistischen Sichtweise zeigen sich ebenfalls nur teilweise: Zu den erstaunlichsten Ergebnissen unserer Studie gehören die allgemeine Zunahme transnationaler Ehen von Frauen aus dem ehemaligen Jugoslawien und der Türkei sowie die Abwesenheit von Effekten der strukturellen Assimilation auf die Neigung zur transnationalen Ehe.
Migration is a life-changing experience not only for the migrants themselves but also for those left behind. Using a novel 'origins of migration' approach, this fascinating book reveals the true impact of migration across multiple aspects of migrants' lives by comparing three generations of Turkish migrants to Europe to their non-migrant counterparts in Turkey. Working with unique and exciting information on 2000 Turkish families and their 50,000 family members, the authors examine three generations-worth of complex migration trajectories and dense webs of transnational connections, taking in migration, settlement, return migration, friendships, marriages and visits. They evaluate change and continuity over 50 years, from the first labour migration of the 1960s to the present. Whilst in socio-economic terms migrants have gained from migration, and their attitudes and practices show some adjustment to the European context, the picture also reveals substantial continuity with their peers who remained in their country of origin.
This article surveys contemporary theories of international migration in order to illuminate their leading propositions, assumptions, and hypotheses. It hopes to pave the way for a systematic empirical evaluation of their guiding tenets. The authors divide the theories conceptually into those advanced to explain the initiation of international migration and those put forth to account for the persistence of migration across space and time. Because they are specified at such different levels of analysis, the theories are not inherently logically inconsistent. The task of selecting between theories and propositions thus becomes an empirical exercise, one that must occur before a truly integrated theoretical framework can be fully realized. -Authors
ANTECEDENTES DE LA CUESTIÓN Y OBJETIVOS PROPUESTOS El objetivo fundamental de la misma es analizar en profundidad el componente familiar de la migración internacional y su impacto sobre la naturaleza y composición de los flujos así como sobre la ulterior integración de los inmigrantes en las sociedades de acogida. En concreto, la tesis pretende: 1) Determinar la importancia numérica y la secuencia temporal de la inmigración de tipo familiar – generada tanto por la reagrupación familiar como por la importación de cónyuges. 2) Examinar qué factores hacen que los inmigrantes aceleren o difieran en el tiempo la reagrupación de sus familiares más cercanos (cónyuge e hijos) en el país de destino 3) Analizar cuáles son las características individuales y las condiciones contextuales que hacen más probable que un(a) inmigrante soltero(a) elija como esposa(o) a un nativo, a otro inmigrante o a un co–nacional que aún reside en el país de origen y que es “importado” al país de destino a raíz del matrimonio. 4) Investigar si el tipo de familia y la secuencia migratoria dentro de la misma tienen algún impacto sobre la estructura del hogar (nuclear vs. extenso) y la participación laboral de las mujeres inmigrantes en el mercado de trabajo receptor.
The substantial numbers of incoming spousal migrants from Pakistan is a notable feature of contemporary British immigration. This article argues for the utility of viewing such marriages, which are commonly between cousins, not only in terms of migration strategies or kinship obligations, but as part of the negotiation of the risks of marriage in a transnational context. Focusing on matches between British women and men from Pakistan, it explores conceptualizations of marriage and risk, relatedness and place, and closeness and distance, to explain the appeal of transnational close kin marriage. But while these arrangements hope to reduce some risks, they also produce others, generated both by the incentives of migration, and by internal logics of marriages between relatives. Marital choices among British Pakistanis, and resulting migration, can thus be seen as a consequence of a culturally-grounded dialogue on risk and how best it can be managed.
Based on available register data and social surveys, an overview on changes in migrant families in Germany during the last 40 years is provided. Three major issues are selected, namely marriage behavior, fertility behavior and intergenerational relations. With regard to marriage, special emphasis is given to bi-national marriages, for which the typical U-curve shape is observed for Germany, too. Major changes have occurred in the nationalities of foreign marriage partners and in the willingness of immigrants to accept bi-national marriages. The fertility behavior is characterized by a fast decline of births of higher parity, depending in its speed on the migration career and formal education. Intergenerational comparisons show high level differences in acculturation between first and second generation immigrants. However, these generations are linked and pass the acculturation process as a convoy, thus maintaining intergenerational bonds.
Zusammenfassung
Der Beitrag basiert auf amtlichen Statistiken und Ergebnissen sozialwissenschaftlicher Umfragedaten und gibt einen Überblick über den Wandel in Migrantenfamilien in den letzten 40 Jahren. Dabei werden drei Themen herausgegriffen: Heiraten, generatives Verhalten und Generationenbeziehungen. Bezüglich der Heirat wird der Wandel in den bi-nationalen Ehen nachgezeichnet, für die sich auch für Deutschland der typische U-kurvenförmige Verlauf zeigt. Das generative Verhalten ist durch einen starken Rückgang der Geburten höherer Parität gekennzeichnet, wobei die Geschwindigkeit von der Migrationskarriere und dem Bildungsniveau der Migrantinnen abhängt. Vergleiche zwischen den Generationen zeigen starke Niveauunterschiede in der Akkulturation der ersten und zweiten Migrantengeneration. Jedoch sind diese Generationen stark miteinander verbunden, durchlaufen den Akkulturationsprozess als Konvoi und erhalten sich so ihre intergenerationalen Bindungen.
This chapter gives an overview about the well-being of immigrant children in Western countries. It refers to research results concerning the social background, the physical and mental health of the immigrant children, and their health-care utilization patterns. It also takes a look at how the migration experience affects the family relationships and the well-being of the children. Language fluency and early education patterns are further indicators that are considered. Moreover, the school performance of immigrant children is examined, and explanations are provided for possible variations between the different groups and different countries. Poverty, as a key indicator of child well-being, is also included in this overview, as well as children who migrate alone, the so-called unaccompanied minors. Overall, regarding some indicators, the results are mixed, and no generalizations are possible, while in terms of some other indicators, much more stable patterns are found. On the one hand, it is barely possible to state that immigrant children do generally worse in terms of mental or physical health. On the other hand, immigrant children have lower educational attainments in almost every considered country. Several reasons have been found for this stable pattern: one of them is the educational and social background of the children’s parents, and another one refers to institutional arrangements within as well as outside the educational systems. A quite stable pattern has also been found regarding the poverty indicators; as in most countries, immigrant children have higher risks to live in poverty than native children. As will be shown, national antipoverty programs can play a crucial role to reduce these risks. Regarding the legal treatment of unaccompanied minors, significant differences have been found between the USA and the EU, as in the latter the laws are developed and applied following the principle of the best interest of the child, while in the USA, unaccompanied minors are treated rather as unauthorized immigrants, although some improvements have taken place in the last years.
Transnational marriages of migrants in Western Europe tend to be seen as hampering integration. In response, policies have been tightened, despite little knowledge on transnational marriages and the effects of such measures. This paper investigates the role of individual preferences and contextual factors such as family reunification policies, group size and development levels of the regions of origin in partner choice of the children of Turkish and Moroccan immigrants. We draw on a novel dataset collected in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden. Our findings suggest that transnational marriages are partly associated with contextual factors such as a rural origin and family reunification policies. The analysis indicates higher rates of transnational marriages under open family reunification policies, providing tentative evidence of policy effects. On the individual level, the choice of a partner from the parents' origin country is associated with religiosity. Full text is available here: https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/247280
Marriage migration has become the most common form of immigration from Turkey to the Netherlands. The Dutch government increasingly pursues restrictive admission policies for the immigration of partners from non-EU countries. This article shows that the tightened income and age restrictions were to some extent successful in limiting Turkish marriage migration. It is also demonstrated, however, that the power of the state to control this migration flow is constrained by two main factors: coping strategies of Turkish couples and international obligations, including the Association Agreement.
Employing longitudinal data from Thailand to replicate studies of cumulative causation, we extend current knowledge by measuring
frequency of trips, duration of time away, level of network aggregation (village or household), and sex composition of migrant
networks to estimate a model of prospective migration among men and women in Thailand. We find that trips and duration of
time away have distinct influences upon migration; that household level migrant networks are more influential than village
level migrant networks; that female migrant networks and male migrant networks have different influences upon migration outcomes;
and, that migrant social capital influences men and women's migration differently. Our elaboration provides significant quantitative
evidence as to how gender and family variously imbue migration dynamics.
In this paper we make use of data from the official statistics to analyze transnational marriage among immigrants in Germany. Pooling all currently available Scientific Use Files of the German Microcensus between 1976 and 2004, we are able to contribute empirical findings that are unique in their scope and their degree of differentiation. We look at the five most common groups of former labour migrants and study group-specific trends over generations and time. Our empirical analysis is guided by four basic expectations, which are anchored in a more general theoretical framework of immigrants’ marriage behaviour. We find, as expected, large group differences in the propensity to select a spouse from one’s own country of origin. Assumed effects of the opportunity structure, however, can only be confirmed for women. Central derivations from a general assimilationist view are also only partly supported: A general increase in transnational marriages among ex-Yugoslav and Turkish women over marriage cohorts, and the absence of any effects of structural assimilation on the propensity toward transnational marriages are the most puzzling results.
The European-raised children of Turkish immigrants often marry spouses from their parents' home country. This article investigates the interplay between gender and residency when such transnational couples develop the culture of their newly formed households. While migration scholars state that such household culture is constructed as a ‘bricolage’ of elements from both the country of cultural origin and the present host country, they pay little attention to the influence of both gender and power on this process. Drawing on a body of life-story interviews, the article compares the narratives of one male and one female marriage migrant to Denmark, both of whose marriages ended in divorce. Life in these households, as well as their processes of dissolution, shows how Danish residency may empower the European spouse, regardless of gender. Although ethnic minority women raised in Europe may seek to use this power to shape their household culture into a more gender-equal ‘bricolage’, they may remain embedded within the broader patriarchal structures of the immigrant community.
We examine the partner choice patterns of second-generation Turks in 13 European cities in seven countries. We not only compare intermarriage versus endogamous marriage, but also explicitly include the choice of a second-generation partner of the same origin and of a partner of other migrant origin as important alternatives. In Europe, populations are made up increasingly of migrants and their descendants resulting in new alternative partner options not open before. Findings suggest that second-generation Turks who choose a second-generation partner seem to be located between the partner choice of a first-generation and native partner in terms of family values and contact to non-coethnic peers. The choice of a partner of other migrant origin hardly differs in these characteristics from the choice of a native partner. Context variables such as group size and type of integration policies seem to play a role for the likelihood of having a first-generation versus a second-generation partner of Turkish origin but not for the likelihood of exogamous partner choice. A second-generation partner is the most popular choice in Germany but represents a minor option in the other countries. Furthermore, a partner of other migrant origin is more common among men but is in some countries more popular than a native partner among Turkish second-generation men and women.
Trotz der hohen Relevanz von Heiratsmigration bei türkeistämmigen Migranten existieren bislang kaum fundierte Kenntnisse über die Mechanismen, die dieser Art der Partnerwahl zu Grunde liegen. Im Zentrum dieses Beitrags steht die Rolle von struktur-, status- und einstellungsbezogenen Merkmalen bei der Entscheidung zwischen einem Ehepartner aus der eigenethnischen Migrantenpopulation in Deutschland und einem transnational gewählten Ehepartner aus der Türkei. Als Datengrundlage dient die repräsentative Zusatzbefragung des Generations and Gender Survey (2006) unter türkischen Staatsangehörigen in Deutschland. Die empirischen Befunde verweisen auf geschlechtsspezifische Muster, wonach männliche Migranten deutlich jüngere Frauen aus der Türkei heiraten und Migrantinnen ihren Partner vor allem dann aus der Türkei nachholen, wenn sie in einem mittleren Alter heiraten sowie eine eher westlich orientierte Einstellung zu familialen Normen vertreten. Der Einfluss des Bildungsniveaus ist eher gering, zumindest partiell kann jedoch eine positive Bildungsselektion bei den transnational gewählten Ehemännern festgestellt werden. Der Beitrag diskutiert die Befunde vor dem Hintergrund existierender Ergebnisse und zeigt den weiteren Forschungsbedarf auf.
The aim of this study is to analyze the role of educational qualification in the process of partner choice in “digital marriage markets”. Using unique interaction data of individuals participating in an online dating site, we are able to reconstruct early processes of partner choices of men and women. Our results show that there is a clear tendency towards educational homophily. Individuals therefore have a strong preference for partners with the same educational level. This is particularly true for women. Our results also support the exchange theoretical hypothesis that educational homophily is stronger the higher the level of education is. If we analyze heterophile contact behavior, it is obvious that women are still reluctant to contact men with lower educational degrees. They clearly prefer men with higher educational qualification. For men it is still quite usual to contact women with lower educational degrees. Our findings therefore underline that partner choice today is still dominated by quite traditional gender preferences. Overall, our results show that digital marriage markets do not reduce social distances between social groups. Rather, the high level of homophily seems to close relationships between social groups.
This article examines the dynamics and causes of the shift in the gender composition of migration, and more particularly, in women's access to migration opportunities and decision-making. Our analysis focuses on Albania, a natural laboratory for studying international migration where out-migration was essentially nonexistent from the end of World War II to the end of the 1980s. Interest in the Albanian case is heightened because of the complex layers of inequality existing at the time when migration began: relatively low levels of inequality within the labor market and educational system-a product of the Communist era-while household relations remained heavily steeped in tradition and patriarchy. We use micro-level data from the Albania 2005 Living Standards Measurement Study, including migration histories for family members since migration began. Based on discrete-time hazard models, the analysis shows a dramatic increase in male migration and a gradual and uneven expansion of the female proportion of this international migration. Female migration, which is shown to be strongly associated with education, wealth, and social capital, appears responsive to economic incentives and constraints. Using information on the dependency of female migration to the household demographic structure as well as the sensitivity of female migration to household-level shocks, we show how household-level constraints and incentives affect male and female migration differently. Throughout this period, however, women's migration behavior appears more directly aligned with household-level factors, and there is little evidence to suggest that increased female migration signals rising behavioral independence among Albanian women.
This article analyses the factors leading single immigrants in Germany to marry a native partner, a co-national immigrant
residing in Germany, or a co-national residing in the country of origin. Assimilation hypothesis and the importance of numerical
constraints within the marriage market are generally confirmed for the case of mixed marriages. In contrast, the practice
of importing spouses and its relation with integration reveals more complex. Differences between men and women in their propensity
to import partners from origin, and how these propensities relate to education are particularly puzzling. While the practice
of importing a partner is related to low educational levels for men, this does not seem to be the case for women. The Lievens’
hypothesis, which suggests that immigrant women may use traditional forms of marriage to achieve modern goals such as living
independently from their own and their in-law relatives after getting married, is not able to account for this result.
In this paper, we examine whether the causes and patterns of Mexican rural female migration differ significantly from rural male migration. A number of hypotheses are discussed to explain why female migration may differ from male migration, with a particular emphasis on the role of migrant networks. Using data from a national survey of rural Mexican households in the ejido sector, significant differences between the determinants of male and female migration are found. While evidence suggests that networks play an important role in female migration, we find that, contrary to case study evidence, female networks are not more influential than male networks in female migration. In fact, female and male networks are found to be substitutes, suggesting they serve similar functions in female migration. Although female migrant networks do not play a special role in the female migration decision, the destination of female migrants is strongly influenced by the location of female network migrants.
This article compares the impact of family migrant and destination-specific networks on international and internal migration. We find that migrant networks are more important for international moves than for internal moves and that female networks are more important than male networks for moves within Mexico. For moves to the United States, male migrant networks are more important for prospective male migrants than for female migrants, and female migrant networks lower the odds of male migration, but significantly increase female migration. We suggest that distinguishing the gender composition and destination content of migrant networks deepens our understanding of how cumulative causation affects patterns of Mexican migration.
This article examines the intensity and trends of marriages of Turks and Moroccans living in Belgium to partners from their countries of origin (‘imported partners’) and the motives for marrying such partners. Using data from the 1991 Belgian census, we show that large proportions of the migrant groups choose a partner from the country of origin and that marrying such a partner is certainly not dying out. Furthermore, the results of logit analyses reveal that marrying an imported partner is more than merely an act of traditional behavior: women may marry an imported partner in order to satisfy ‘modern’ goals.
In Turkey and Morocco, as in most regions of the Muslim world, consanguineous or kin marriage is part of a long-standing tradition of matrimonial practices. As modernisation brings with it higher levels of education, urbanisation and an increasing geographical mobility, these practices are coming under pressure. Similarly, it could be expected that the support of young people for kin marriages would decline through migration to Europe and the integration in their host society. However, a comparison of the prevalence of consanguineous marriages in the immigrant communities in Belgium and the countries of origin provides evidence of the contrary.
Through an in depth analysis of the evolution of kin marriages over different migrant and minority cohorts in Belgium, explanations are sought for this unexpected development. The analyses reveal that consanguineous marriages are often crossborder marriages and thus intimately linked to the facilitation of new migrations. In the new setting created by migration and restrictive migration policies, a new logic or rationale seems to support the practice of kin marriages. Once more a proof is found that matrimonial strategies and practices are highly adaptable to changing contexts and opportunities.
Together with the increasing number of kin marriages among Turks and Moroccans, the analyses disclose an apparently opposing trend, i.e. that of a declining number of marriages with friends of the family (practical kin). It is argued that the trade-off in marriages between practical kin and relatives is a first indication of the weakness of cross-border matrimonial practices; practices that link marriage to migration and immigrants to their regions of origin.
The analyses are based on log-linear techniques. The data come from two representative surveys of Turks and Moroccans in Belgium, and the household records of the Demographic and Health Surveys for Turkey and Morocco.
With explanatory covariates, the standard analysis for competing risks data involves modeling the cause-specific hazard functions via a proportional hazards assumption. Unfortunately, the cause-specific hazard function does not have a direct interpretation in terms of survival probabilities for the particular failure type. In recent years many clinicians have begun using the cumulative incidence function, the marginal failure probabilities for a particular cause, which is intuitively appealing and more easily explained to the nonstatistician. The cumulative incidence is especially relevant in cost-effectiveness analyses in which the survival probabilities are needed to determine treatment utility. Previously, authors have considered methods for combining estimates of the cause-specific hazard functions under the proportional hazards formulation. However, these methods do not allow the analyst to directly assess the effect of a covariate on the marginal probability function. In this article we propose a novel semiparametric proportional hazards model for the subdistribution. Using the partial likelihood principle and weighting techniques, we derive estimation and inference procedures for the finite-dimensional regression parameter under a variety of censoring scenarios. We give a uniformly consistent estimator for the predicted cumulative incidence for an individual with certain covariates; confidence intervals and bands can be obtained analytically or with an easy-to-implement simulation technique. To contrast the two approaches, we analyze a dataset from a breast cancer clinical trial under both models.
This article presents selected results from the analysis of marriage migration processes from Turkey to Germany, based on fieldwork and interviews conducted with intraethnic transnational couples. The findings indicate that the relationships of these transnational couples are marked by specificities due to the spatial distance between them and the legislation regulating spousal immigration to Germany. The marriage rituals differ from local marriages as the temporal spacing of events is adapted to the steps that have to be taken in order to obtain a family unification visa. The period during which the marriage migrant attends a language course in Turkey to prepare for the obligatory exam is particularly stressful. By combining the analysis of temporal aspects of marriage processes with perceptions and evaluations of individuals who are engaged in these relationships, the article provides a fine-grained picture of the dynamics of transnational intimate relationships in the premigration period.
Arranged marriages are common in countries like Turkey, but almost non-existent in the Western European destination contexts of Turkish migrants. For a better understanding of marital change in migration, this paper maps the prevalence of arranged marriages versus couple-initiated marriages among Turkish migrant families in Europe and stayer families in Turkey. The paper applies the ‘dissimilation perspective’ with a focus on change across marriage cohorts and between family generations. The database used for this study is the 2000 Families study (conducted from 2010 to 2012), which includes three-generational data of migrant and stayer families from five regions of origin in Turkey. Findings suggest a high similarity between migrants and stayers in terms of a strong decline of the arranged marriage mode over time, from well over 80% to about a third of all marriages. At the same time, the percentage of arranged marriages is lower among migrants. The three-generational data suggest multiple patterns of intergenerational change between grandparents, parents and children, both from couple-initiated to arranged marriages and vice versa. Overall, intergenerational transmission is stronger in stayer and weaker in migrant families. This contributes, together with lower starting levels among migrants, to the lower shares of arranged marriages among migrant children.
The paper compares the prevalence and development of consanguineous marriages between Turkish migrants in Western Europe and stayers from the same regions of origin in Turkey. Analyses draw from three-generational family data of the 2000 Families study. Findings suggest a decline of kin marriage over generations and time in both groups, but a higher prevalence of kin marriage among migrants. Parental impact was influential, but effects of transmission were lower among migrants. Kin marriage was strongly linked with cross-border partner choice. The results support previous findings and indicate the specific effect of migration on seemingly traditional patterns of marriage.
The most basic economic theory suggests that rising incomes in developing countries will deter emigration from those countries, an idea that captivates policymakers in international aid and trade diplomacy.A lengthy research literature and recent data suggest something quite different: that over the course of a “mobility transition”, emigration generally rises with economic development until countries reach upper-middle income — at least until countries reach upper-middle income level, like Algeria or El Salvador. Only thereafter, as countries become even richer, do emigration rates typically fall.This note quantifies the shape of the mobility transition in every decade since 1960. It then briefly surveys 45 years of research, which has yielded six classes of theory to explain the mobility transition and numerous tests of its existence and characteristics in both macro- and micro-level data.This evidence suggests that donors to low income countries have little hope of using assistance to deter migration, unless the determinants of migration undergo rapid change in the future. Policy research might be better directed toward understanding how to shape rising migration flows for mutual gain. The note concludes by suggesting five questions that require further study.
This article examines the intensity and trends of marriages of Turks and Moroccans living in Belgium to partners from their countries of origin (`imported partners') and the motives for marrying such partners. Using data from the 1991 Belgian census, we show that large proportions of the migrant groups choose a partner from the country of origin and that marrying such a partner is certainly not dying out. Furthermore, the results of logit analyses reveal that marrying an imported partner is more than merely an act of traditional behavior: women may marry an imported partner in order to satisfy `modern' goals.
This article reports a decline in transnational marriages among Turkish Belgians between 2001 and 2008 and explains the changing trends through a qualitative study of Turkish Belgians’ current partner preferences and union formation practices. Young people prefer a local marriage because it enables upward social mobility, and the possibility of premarital relationships and lower parental involvement seem to further add to the declining popularity of transnational marriages. Despite these changes, however, a considerable percentage of people continues to marry a partner from the country of origin. By identifying four ‘types’ of transnational marriages we highlight the changes and diversification with regards to transnational marriages.
The migration literature has identified various feedback mechanisms which explain why, once started, migration processes tend to become partly self-perpetuating, leading to the formation of migrant networks and migration systems. However, existing theories on the internal dynamics of migration processes are characterised by three fundamental weaknesses. First, their focus on migrant networks coincides with a neglect of indirect feedback dynamics that operate through the impact of migration on the sending and receiving contexts, changing the initial conditions under which migration takes place. Second, existing theories are unable to explain why most initial migration moves do not lead to network migration and migration system formation. Third, their largely circular logic reveals an inability to conceptualise which migration-undermining feedback mechanisms may counteract migration-facilitating feedback dynamics and which may explain the endogenous decline of established migration systems. By drawing on various disciplinary strands of migration theory and by applying insights from the critical social capital literature, this paper proposes a conceptual framework on the internal dynamics of migration processes by elaborating a set of hypotheses on the various migration-facilitating and migration-undermining feedback mechanisms at play in the various trajectories and stages of migration system formation and decline.
Preface 1: Macrostructural Concepts 2: Formal Theory of Population Structure 3: Testing Theoretical Implications 4: Occupational Chances 5: Structural Context and Organizations 6: Social Exchange 7: Historical Developments Bibliography Author Index Subject Index
This article examines the role of migrant social networks in international migration and extends prior research by testing the strength of tie theory, decomposing networks by sources and resources, and disentangling network effects from complementary explanations. Nearly all previous empirical research has ignored friendship ties and has largely neglected extended-family ties. Using longitudinal data from the Migration between Africa and Europe project collected in Africa (Senegal) and Europe (France, Italy, and Spain), this article tests the robustness of network theory-and in particular, the role of weak ties-on first-time migration between Senegal and Europe. Discrete-time hazard model results confirm that weak ties are important and that network influences appear to be gendered, but they do not uphold the contention in previous literature that strong ties are more important than weak ties for male and female migration. Indeed, weak ties play an especially important role in male migration. In terms of network resources, having more resources as a result of strong ties appears to dampen overall migration, while having more resources as a result of weaker ties appears to stimulate male migration. Finally, the diversity of resources has varied effects for male and female migration.
Drawing on the rational choice approach and the economic sociology of migration, this article discusses the role of social networks in terms of location-specific social capital. It discusses relations between sociological and economic aspects of migration and outlines the influence of social capital on migration decision-making and chain migration processes. There have been various attempts to measure these effects through empirical migration research, and this article focuses on two such studies. The first example concerns an investigation of migration intentions among Bulgarians in the 2001 Bulgarian census. The second is return migration in the household context of Italian migrants in Germany, based on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel. The main finding is that social capital at the place of destination has positive impacts on emigration intentions and return migration, whereas social capital at the place of residence has negative impacts on return migration.
This paper examines the transition to a first union of descendants of Turkish immigrants in France. We use data from the project The Integration of the European Second Generation, 2007, and apply event-history techniques. We find that descendants of Turkish immigrants who grew up in France enter a first union earlier and more often in a direct marriage than do young adults without an immigrant background. We then describe the type of union in more detail and estimate the likelihood of a transnational partner choice, that is, between a young adult born in France of Turkish immigrant parentage and an immigrant from Turkey. We pay attention to social factors such as education, city of residence, and to cultural factors such as the rules of affinity in Turkey and the attachment to the norm of virginity at marriage as factors that orient partner choice. Finally, we discuss what anthropological methods could contribute to this research.
In this paper, we will investigate the popularity of marriage migration between Turkish communities in Western Europe and emigration regions in Turkey. Our focus here is specifically on the Belgian case, namely the ‘Emirdag connection’. In Belgium, the majority of immigrants with a Turkish background come from the region of Emirdag, in the province of Afyon. On the basis of quantitative research methodologies, we first consider the magnitude of the phenomenon and the socio-economic situation of those involved. Using the qualitative research techniques of participant observation and in-depth interviews, we analyze the mechanisms in an attempt to explain marriage migration between these regions. Why do so many young people, born and raised in Western Europe, opt for an unknown partner from a region that is largely unknown to them but which proves to be their parents', or even grandparents', region of origin? Why does migration remain such a valuable life project for many young people in these regions of origin, despite the real danger of many negative side effects? The popularity of marriage migration is often explained by its role in making migration possible. However, migration theories alone cannot explain this phenomenon. Here we will argue that the existence of a ‘culture of migration’ that binds the region of origin with the region of destination and in which ‘the family’ as an institution is capable of building a bridge between traditional praxis, as well as the challenges linked to international migration, are crucial for understanding the enduring popularity of marriage migration.
While a large literature has established that migration experience among an individual's family and community networks tends to encourage migration, there is little research investigating the mechanism by which networks exert such effects. This paper aims to determine the relative importance of three potential benefits provided by networks: information on border crossing, information on jobs, and credit. We develop empirical tests of these effects based on a simple model that allows individuals to choose between migrating alone or with the help of a border smuggler. Using a dataset of undocumented Mexican migrants to the United States, we find that larger family networks encourage both migration and coyote use, consistent with the job information hypothesis. In contrast, community networks appear to provide crossing information. The finding that family networks have a smaller impact for asset holders indicates that some of the benefit the family network provides is a source of credit. Copyright © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
International migration is costly and initially only the middle class of the wealth distribution may have both the means and incentives to migrate, which can increase inequality in the sending community. However, the migration networks formed lower the costs for future migrants, which can in turn lower inequality. This paper shows both theoretically and empirically that wealth has a nonlinear effect on migration, and then examines the empirical evidence for an inverse U-shaped relationship between emigration and inequality in rural sending communities in Mexico. After instrumenting, we find that the overall impact of migration is to reduce inequality across communities with relatively high levels of past migration. We also find some suggestive evidence for an inverse U-shaped relationship among communities with a wider range of migration experiences.
This paper uses data from the Mexican Family Life Survey (MxFLS) to examine the patterns of selection of male, Mexican migrants to the United States. We confirm previous findings that Mexican migrants are selected from the middle of the education distribution, but show that there is no evidence for selection of migrants on cognitive ability. We demonstrate that migrants are also selected from the middle of the observed skill distribution, as measured by predicted wages. However, controlling for proxies of the costs of migration, we find substantially less evidence of "intermediate selection" on observed skill. We find little evidence for selection on unobserved skill, with or without controls for the costs of migration. Finally, we show directly that the decision to migrate is highly correlated with differential returns to observable skill and the costs of migration. Overall, these findings are consistent with the predictions of the canonical model of migration.
In this paper we examine the circumstances and determinants of female migration between Mexico and the United States. Using data from the Mexican Migration Project, we considered the relative timing of males' and females' moves northward. We then estimated logit and probit models to study the determinants of male and female out-migration; among women we also estimated a multinomial logit model to uncover differences in the process of migration for work versus not for work. We found that women almost always followed other family members, either the husband or a parent; only a tiny minority initiated migration independently. Although males also are quite likely to be introduced to migration by a parent, nearly half of all male migrants left for the United States before or without a wife or a parent. Estimates of the determinants of migration suggested that males move for employment, whereas wives generally are motivated by family reasons. Daughters, however, display a greater propensity to move for work, and the determinants of their work-related moves closely resemble those of sons and fathers.
Family, friendship, and community networks underlie much of the recent migration to industrial nations. Current interest in these networks accompany the development of a migration system perspective and the growing awareness of the macro and micro determinants of migration. This article presents an overview of research findings on the determinants and consequences of personal networks. In addition, it calls for greater specification of the role of networks in migration research and for the inclusion of women in future research.
PIP
This article challenges the oversimplified image of an uneducated and undifferentiated immigrant labor force for Turks and Moroccans through the concept of selectivity. Using a combination of data from two Migration History and Social Mobility surveys carried out among Turkish and Moroccan men living in Belgium, selectivity is discussed with respect to region of origin and in terms of educational attainment. Analysis of selectivity with respect to region indicate that Turkish and Moroccan migrants in Belgium were not all the representative of their countries of origin. It was also noted that network-mediated migration accentuated the unequal distribution of immigrants in terms of their region of origin. Selection with respect to educational attainment analysis confirmed the heterogeneous composition of Moroccan immigrants. Those from the rural Rif and Souss were generally not as well educated as non-migrants. In addition, immigrants from urbanized parts of the country were generally more educated. In the selection process, an explanation for migration emerged, which states that network connections may be a factor for increasing one's possibility of migrating.
"Although many characteristics play a role in the choice of a spouse, sociologists have most often examined endogamy and homogamy with respect to race/ethnicity, religion, and socioeconomic status.... I summarize empirical research by answering four questions: (a) To what extent are groups endogamous and how do groups differ in this respect? (b) How has endogamy changed over time? (c) Which factors are related to endogamy? (d) How do various dimensions of partner choice coincide? [I then] discuss strengths and weaknesses of past research."
This article explores the role of migrant networks in Mexican rural out-migration focusing on how network composition influences rural-to-rural, rural-to-urban, and rural-to-international migration. Using data from rural Mexico, migration is considered in a multiple-choice context allowing for the possibility that rural Mexicans can migrate within Mexico for agricultural and non-agricultural employment as well as to the United States. Our principle result is that the parts are greater than the whole; using disaggregated measures of migrant networks highlights the complexity of network effects on migration decisions. When modelling the migration choice with aggregate measures, US migrant networks appear more important than Mexico migrant networks. Once networks are disaggregated, however, certain types of Mexico migrant networks become very important in the decision to migrate within Mexico. Further, the impact of migrant networks in the decision to migrate is not homogeneous; the closer the bond, the greater the impact on the migration decision.
Die Integration von zugewanderten Ehegattinnen und Ehegatten in Deutschland
- T Büttner
- A Stichs
Bü ttner, T. and Stichs, A. (2014). Die Integration von zugewanderten Ehegattinnen und Ehegatten in Deutschland. BAMF-Heiratsmigrationsstudie. Nü rnberg: BAMF.
Transnational marriage
- K Charsley
Charsley, K. (2012). Transnational marriage. In Charsley, K.
(Ed.) Transnational Marriage. New Perspectives from Europe
and Beyond. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 3-22.
Time matters. Temporal aspects of transnational intimate relationships and marriage migration processes from Turkey to Germany
- C M Aybek
Aybek, C. M. (2015). Time matters. Temporal aspects of transnational intimate relationships and marriage migration processes from Turkey to Germany. Journal of Family Issues, 36,
1529-1549.
D. candidate at Technische Universit€ at Chemnitz since 2010, main fields of research: migration sociology, family sociology, health, discrimination, identity, partner choice, arranged marriage . Last relevant publications
- Chadi Abdul-Rida Ph
Chadi Abdul-Rida Ph.D. candidate at Technische
Universit€ at Chemnitz since 2010, main fields of
research: migration sociology, family sociology, health,
discrimination, identity, partner choice, arranged marriage. Last relevant publications: Abdul-Rida, C. (2016).