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Pobreza, desigualdad y aprovechamiento de recursos naturales: Aproximaciones metodológicas desde la economía
Abstract
El presente documento describe algunas de las metodologías que se utilizan en economía para abordar la relación entre el aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales y la pobreza y desigualdad. Se utilizan datos para una muestra de hogares representativos de la región Sur- sureste de México para ilustrar tanto el uso de las metodologías como la interpretación de los resultados obtenidos. El objetivo es que el lector interesado se familiarice con estas metodologías para que en caso de estar interesado pueda hacer uso de ellas en su propio análisis. En la medida de lo posible se incluyen a lo largo del documento detalles sobre los comandos que se utilizan en el software Stata (versión 12) para obtener los resultados aquí mostrados.
... Al utilizar la notación de Stark, Taylor y Yitzhaki (1986). La ecuación (1) se reescribe como una expresión del coeficiente de Gini que capta la contribución a la desigualdad de cada uno de los k componentes del ingreso (Cerón, 2012;López, 2015). ...
Las sociedades, a lo largo de su historia, han identificado como un problema la prevalencia de pobreza y desigualdad entre los miembros que la conforman. A pesar de los grandes esfuerzos del gobierno de México en materia de combate a la pobreza, los resultados entre 2008-2016 no son los esperados. A diez años de la primera medición de pobreza multidimensional, la proporción de población pobre parece inmutable. ¿Qué han hecho las familias para hacer frente a esta situación? Los hallazgos de esta investigación apuntan a una diversificación de las fuentes de ingreso por parte de los hogares más pobres hacia fuentes de financiamiento ajenas al trabajo subordinado y más cercano o dependientes de las transferencias gubernamentales. Además, se han hallado elementos que permiten inferir que el diseño y la implementación de la política social (particularmente la destinada a los grupos más vulnerables) no es adecuada.
... Al utilizar la notación de Stark, Taylor y Yitzhaki (1986). La ecuación (1) se reescribe como una expresión del coeficiente de Gini que capta la contribución a la desigualdad de cada uno de los k componentes del ingreso (Cerón, 2012;López, 2015). ...
En épocas de severas depresiones económicas, como la que se vive internacionalmente desde el año 2007, diversas transformaciones que inician en el ámbito económico de las naciones se transfieren hacia su estructura productiva e inevitablemente, hacia los mecanismos que determinan la distribución de la riqueza nacional. En el año 2010 se vive una nueva depresión que viene desde la esfera financiera (con los “Hegde funds” y los derivados financieros detrás de la crisis) de los mercados europeos, pero que traerá repercusiones hacia la distribución de la riqueza dentro de los países. Cuando estas depresiones ocurren también se presentan diversas modificaciones en la estructura social. La pobreza en las naciones más vulnerables aumenta invaria-blemente. Para analizar esas modificaciones, que se presentan en los sectores más frágiles de la estructura social, deben utilizarse instrumentos de medición adecuados. Las medidas de pobreza que se emplean en la literatura internacional no responden de igual forma al captar en sus índices las transformaciones sociales que se presentan durante las crisis económicas. Este estudio muestra los cambios que ocurren con las medidas usualmente empleadas en la literatura internacional para cuantificar la pobreza como respuesta a modificaciones en la estructura distributiva del ingreso. Finalmente se concluye que, el índice Sen capta de manera más adecuada lo que ocurre con los más pobres de un país.
The paper develops a new approach to determining the marginal impact of various income sources on overall income inequality. We show that each source's contribution to the Gini coefficient may be viewed as the product of the source's own Gini, its share of total income, and its correlation with the rank of total income. Applying the approach to the 1980 U.S. distribution of income yields several interesting results, including the finding that spouse's earnings had a larger marginal impact on inequality than did property income.
This paper examines variation in dependence on forest resources among rural households in Chilimo, Ethiopia, and the income-equalizing effects of such resources. Data were collected through a systematic questionnaire survey of 102 households, randomly selected from two peasant associations in the area. Forest income contributed 39% of the average household income, roughly equal to agriculture, which contributed 40%. Forest income was more important than all other income sources combined for the poorest 40% of households and contributed more to household income than agriculture for 65% of households. While forest income represents 59% of the total household income for the poorest quintile, the contribution drops to 34% for the wealthiest quintile. On the other hand, the rich households derive a larger absolute income from forest resources than the poor households. Forest resources have an important income-equalizing potential among the rural households. Reduced access to forest resources would greatly affect the welfare of the rural population and increase wealth differentiation among rural households in the study area.
Tropical forests may contribute to the well-being of local people by providing a form of ``natural insurance.’ ’ We draw on microeconomic theory to conceptualize a model relating agricultural risks to collection of non-timber forest products. Forest collection trips are positively correlated with both agricultural shocks and expected agricultural risks in an event-count model of survey data from the Brazilian Amazon. This suggests that households rely on forests to mitigate agricultural risk. Forest product collection may be less important to households with other consumption-smoothing options, but its importance is not restricted to the poorest households.
"This paper provides a global review of the link from forests to poverty alleviation. Definitions are clarified and the key concepts and indicators related to livelihoods and poverty reduction and prevention are explored - distinguishing between the analysis (using broader welfare elements) and the measurement of poverty (using more tangible, traditional indicators). Reviewing the macro-level literature on the relationship between economic growth, inequality and poverty, we find that economic growth usually does trickle down to the poor and that poverty reduction without growth is in practice very difficult to achieve."
This paper examines coping strategies in response to covariate flood shocks and idiosyncratic health shocks among riverine peasant households in the Amazonian tropical forests. An assessment of coping strategies reveals that although precautionary savings (food stock and livestock) are important for both types of shocks, ex post labor supply responses in the form of upland cropping and resource extraction (fishing and non-timber forest product gathering) are more common to cope with the flood shock depending on local environments. A bivariate probit model examines what factors shape households' adoption decisions of gathering and fishing as a coping strategy. The analysis reveals an important insurance role of non-timber forest product gathering for the asset poor who have limited options for coping with flood risk. Targeted interventions and programs for the poor to promote sustainable forest resource use are discussed.
This paper examines the effects of household- and village-level characteristics on environmental reliance and participation in resource extraction decisions. Unlike previous analyses that used case studies or regional samples, I use a nationally representative sample of rural households: rounds I and II of the Mexico National Rural Household Survey (ENHRUM). Econometric results show that participation in resource extraction follows an inverted U-shaped relationship with income and that environmental reliance decreases with income. Beyond income, results show that relatively wealthy households in rural Mexico are less likely to participate in resource extraction and have lower reliance than those with less wealth. There is also clear evidence that natural resources provide some sort of insurance for households that are subjected to negative agricultural shocks.
Previous studies of rural households in developing countries have tended to find that the dependence of these households on common-pool resources declines with income. Our study of households in Jhabua, India, finds a more complex relationship. Using the share of resource income in total long-run or “permanent” income as our dependence measure—which we argue is more appropriate than the short-run income-based measure commonly used in the literature—we find that for households that collect any resources at all, dependence exhibits a U-shaped relationship with income. That is, the poorest and richest households depend more on resources than households with intermediate incomes. The poorest and richest households are also found to be least likely to collect, however, indicating that resource use at the income extremes is bimodal—either zero or above average. Moreover, the observed trends for resources as a whole are not mirrored in those for individual resources. Dependence on fuelwood and dung declines with income, for example, while dependence on fodder and construction wood increases. These findings suggest that common-pool resources are a productive source of income not just for the poor but also for the rich, and that improvements in the stocks of these resources can potentially form the basis of poverty reduction efforts in these economies.
Analysis of rural households and environmental resources is beset by inadequate data, especially in Africa. Using purpose-collected panel data from Zimbabwe, we demonstrate seven empirical regularities in the rural poverty-environment relationship. Most important, environmental resources make a significant contribution to average rural incomes. Poorer households also depend heavily on these resources, which contribute c.40% to their incomes. Richer households, however, use greater quantities of environmental resources in total. Finally, considerable differentiation exists in the economic characteristics of environmental goods. These results demonstrate the considerable economic significance of environmental resources to rural households. Surveys which ignore them miscalculate rural incomes and welfare.
This article describes a user-written command, descogini, that decomposes the Gini coefficient by income source and allows the calculation of the impact that a marginal change in a particular income source will have on inequality. descogini can be used with bootstrap to obtain standard errors and confidence intervals. Copyright 2006 by StataCorp LP.
Poverty has been defined variously at different times in different countries. An early attempt in 1899 in Britain was based on resources necessary for survival. This subsistence standard definition has been used as a measuring rod in one form or another in different countries. For example, less than half the average income has been used as a measure in Britain, and minimum wage or multiples of it in Latin America, and so on. Unless a proper definition of poverty can be agreed attempts at its alleviation can have no target to aim for. Alleviation of poverty, though championed by political leaders of all types has proven to be difficult because equitable division of the national budget requires consensus which is not always forthcoming when the "haves" control the levers of power and the "have nots" must make do with what they get. Measuring collective poverty on a global scale has been attempted by several international agencies. The definition used by the World Bank is stark - "people who live on US 1 or less per day, and 2.7 billion on less than US $2 per day. Now that more than half the world's population is living in cities, urban poverty is presenting a challenge in most developing countries. Within the physical environment of deprivation there develops a culture of poverty with its prevalence of disease, social disruption, violence in the home and outside, and dependence on drugs and alcohol. In the mind set of the urban poor risk taking behaviour is common. The main victims of deprivation are women and children, the aged and the infirm. Evidence is presented to show the stultifying effects on children growing up in poverty. Remedial action is an uphill task, expensive and not always successful. An awakening of social conscience globally brought about by the stark realities of the urban poor living cheek by jowl in close vicinity of affluence and conspicuous consumption has led enlightened world leaders and economists to mobilise public opinion. A meeting of world leaders held at UN headquarters in the Year 2000 proposed and agreed Millennium Development Goals. The goals address not only poverty per se but also its effects. The target date for achieving the Millennium Development Goals is set at Year 2015. Progress towards the target has been patchy and depends upon national political maturity.
We develop attractive functional forms and simple quasi-likelihood estimation methods for regression models with a fractional dependent variable. Compared with log-odds type procedures, there is no difficulty in recovering the regression function for the fractional variable, and there is no need to use ad hoc transformations to handle data at the extreme values of zero and one. We also offer some new, robust specification tests by nesting the logit or probit function in a more general functional form. We apply these methods to a data set of employee participation rates in 401(k) pension plans. Copyright 1996 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
How to improve healthcare access for Chinese migrants? We show that the social network is a major key. It uses a 2006 dataset from a survey of rural migrant workers conducted in five cities amongst the most economically advanced. We use a fixed effect logit model and we control for the non-exogeneity of the health insurance. The empirical findings support the hypothesis of return to the hometown for migrant workers with deteriorated health. The residence registration system and the importance of family/relative support in the outcome of the treatment incent them to then leave the city. Besides the level of income, the social integration of migrant workers is such a decisive criteria of the access to healthcare. Politicies aiming at improving the latter should involve organisations working at the local level, such as the resident committees.
The potential importance of natural resources for the livelihood of poor rural households has long been recognized but seldom quantified and analyzed. In this paper, we apply poverty and inequality measures to national and community level data sets to explore the impacts of resource extraction on rural welfare. Our findings suggest that natural resource extraction reduces both income inequality and poverty. Results from a simulation analysis at the community level indicate that poverty may be reduced, in the short-run, by increases in the price of a non-timber forest product.
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