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Food Uses of Sunflower Oils
Abstract
The seeds of sunflower are produced within an achene and consist of a shell, composed mainly of lignin and cellulose material, and the kernel, which accounts for 80% of the total weight of the seeds and is rich in oil. Sunflower oil is one of the most desirable oils in the world, and in some countries, it is preferred over other vegetable oils such as soybean, cottonseed, and rapeseed oils. Sunflower produces oil rich in linoleic acid and vitamin E that is very appreciated by consumers all over the world. Thus, it has typically been one of the oils most used for retailing and for domestic consumption. In industry, regular sunflower has been used for frying, showing similar performance to other oilseeds such as soybean and canola; for the production of emulsions and sauces; and in margarine formulations. The high stearic-high oleic sunflower oils can be fractionated to produce fractions with high levels of solids and different melting profiles that can be used in broad variety of food formulations, including fillings, spreads, coatings, and confectionary products.
... Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is an important industrial plant grown for oil production. The oil is rich in linoleic acid (55-70%) and it is mainly used for human consumption [1][2][3] or biofuel production [4,5]. This plant species is cultivated on a huge scale over the world, according to the FAOSTAT database, with roughly 27.37 million hectares cultivated in 2019 and a total seed production of 56.07 million tons [6]. ...
... For the above-mentioned reasons, it is crucial to optimize the control of this weed. Thus, the objectives of this study were: (1) to assess the impact of Johnsongrass on sunflower growth, yield, and quality under various control treatments, (2) to evaluate Johnsongrass control with the herbicides fluazifop-p-butyl, quizalofop-p-ethyl, and fluazifop-p-butyl + imazamox, and (3) to examine the regrowth of Johnsongrass in various control treatments. ...
Sunflower is an important industrial crop since it is grown all over the world for oil production, while Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.) is characterized by great competitiveness and can severely impair plant growth and crop productivity. Thus, a two-year field experiment was conducted to evaluate the impact of Johnsongrass control practices on plant growth, seed yield, and oil content of sunflower crop. The results indicated that Johnsongrass competition negatively affected sunflower growth and productivity as the lowest values of height, dry biomass, seed, and oil yields were recorded at the weed-infested treatment, followed by the weed infested for 30 days after sowing. All the other treatments had a positive effect on vegetative and yield parameters. Moreover, fluazifop-p-butyl, quizalofop-p-ethyl, and the combination of fluazifop-p-butyl and imazamox effectively controlled Johnsongrass. Specifically, in 2020, the lowest dry weight of Johnsongrass was observed in the plots where fluazifop-p-butyl + imazamox were applied. Thus, the results of this study clearly showed that the use of the above-mentioned herbicides can improve the seed and oil yield of a sunflower crop by managing Johnsongrass, while the competition of this rapidly growing weed for a short period of 30 days can significantly reduce crop yield.
... Sunflower oil is mainly composed of linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fat, oleic acid, a monounsaturated fat, and saturated fats [41][42][43][44]. High linoleic sunflower oil is traditional sunflower oil and it contains approximately 68% linoleic acid, 21% oleic acid, and 11% combined saturates (palmitic acid and stearic acid). ...
... ppm and 5.236-5.276 ppm clearly indicates the presence of two CH 2 , one CH of the triglyceride unit respectively which is a common part of all vegetable oils [41][42][43][44]. Other peaks at 5.308-5.416 ...
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy has been employed to study the triglyceride transesterification process and characterizes the triglyceride, fatty acid methyl esters, and valorized products from biodiesel waste. Detailed NMR studies such as ¹H, ¹³C, DEPT-135, HMBC (¹H-¹³C), HMQC (¹H-¹³C), and COSY (¹H-¹H) have been performed to analyze the transesterification reaction mixture and the products. Both unused sunflower oil and used sunflower oil (waste cooking oil) were used as a triglyceride source for transesterification reaction. Zero-waste valorization of biodiesel waste is successfully demonstrated and the low-value byproduct is purified into a high-value glycerol product. Neutralization of the byproduct with hydrochloric acid produces a significant amount of salt that has been separated, washed with an organic solvent, and recrystallized to white crystalline potassium chloride. Free fatty acids and fatty acid esters have also been isolated from the acidified byproduct and utilized for surfactant preparation. Reduced pressure distillation of the aqueous glycerol layer followed by passing the distilled liquid through the resin column resulted in an odorless transparent viscous liquid. The zero-waste valorization of biodiesel waste realizes a holistic approach for resource management and sustainable development for future generations.
... In sunflower (Helianthus annuus), WEs are minor components of the economically relevant sunflower oils (Broughton et al., 2018). Sunflower oil is one of the most widely used seed oils (Salas, Bootello and Garcés, 2015) and its waxes are partially removed during oil refining as they tend to crystallize at room temperature and make the oil turbid (Chalapud et al., 2017). The main crude wax components obtained from refined sunflower seed oil are WEs with carbon chains between C38-C54, predominantly C42 (Garcés et al., 2023;Kanya et al., 2007;Kleiman et al., 1969). ...
... Their deshelled seeds are responsible for 80% of the total fruit weight and has a high oil content up to 55% w/w [3,4]. Thus, these oils have a high lipids content, where most of them are triglycerides composed mainly of long-chain unsaturated fatty acids with different unsaturation, being linoleic acid (59%, polyunsaturated omega 6) the most important [5,6]. In addition, it should be noted the presence of other fatty acids as oleic acid (30%, monounsaturated omega 9), stearic acid (6%, saturated) or palmitic acid (5%, saturated). ...
Nowadays, the combination of fingerprinting methodology with friendly environmental and economical analytical instrumentation are becoming increasingly relevant in the food sector. In this study, a highly versatile portable analyser based on Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy (SORS) to obtain the edible vegetable oils (sunflower and olive oils) fingerprints was used to evaluate the capability of such fingerprints, obtained quickly, reliable and without any sample treatment, to discriminate/classify the analysed samples. After data treatment, not only HCA and PCA as unsupervised pattern recognition techniques but also SVM, kNN and SIMCA as supervised pattern recognition techniques, showed that the main effect over the discrimination/classification was associated to those regions of RAMAN fingerprint related to the free fatty acids content, especially oleic and linoleic acid. These facts allowed the discrimination attending to the original raw material used in the oil's elaboration. In all the model established, reliable qualimetric parameters were obtained.
... Its deshelled seeds are responsible for 80% of the total fruit weight and have a high oil content up to 55% w/w [3,4]. These oils have a high lipid content, most of which are triglycerides composed mainly of long-chain unsaturated fatty acids of different unsaturation, with linoleic acid (59%, polyunsaturated omega 6) being the most important [5,6]. In addition, the presence of other fatty acids such as oleic acid (30%, monounsaturated omega 9), stearic acid (6%, saturated), and palmitic acid (5%, saturated) should be noted. ...
Currently, the combination of fingerprinting methodology and environmentally friendly and economical analytical instrumentation is becoming increasingly relevant in the food sector. In this study, a highly versatile portable analyser based on Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy (SORS) obtained fingerprints of edible vegetable oils (sunflower and olive oils), and the capability of such fingerprints (obtained quickly, reliably and without any sample treatment) to discriminate/classify the analysed samples was evaluated. After data treatment, not only unsupervised pattern recognition techniques (as HCA and PCA), but also supervised pattern recognition techniques (such as SVM, kNN and SIMCA), showed that the main effect on discrimination/classification was associated with those regions of the Raman fingerprint related to free fatty acid content, especially oleic and linoleic acid. These facts allowed the discernment of the original raw material used in the oil’s production. In all the models established, reliable qualimetric parameters were obtained.
... It might be a result of corn flour's high starch content. This is related statement [16] that starch is quickly bind to water and easily release water. It follows that the product's water content will increase as the quantity of corn flour increases. ...
The results of the Indonesian Nutrition Status Study (SSGI) in 2021, conducted by the Ministry of Health, the stunting rate in Indonesia in 2021 was 24.4 percent or decreased by 3.3 percent compared to 2019 (27.7 percent). However, when compared to countries in the ASEAN region, the prevalence of stunting in Indonesia is still higher than Vietnam (23%), Malaysia (17%), Thailand (16%) and Singapore (4%), only better than Myanmar (35%). Currently, Indonesia is experiencing what is called the triple burden of malnutrition. The triple burden of malnutrition is not just a matter of malnutrition, but also excess, and imbalance in nutritional intake. For this reason, snacks are made in the form of healthy flakes which can be used as an alternative to overcome the stunting problem in Indonesia. The purpose of this research is to produce healthy flake products rich in nutrients for stunting sufferers. The experimental design in this study consisted of two factors. The first factor was the proportion of corn flour: cowpea flour (50:50 ; 60:40 ; 70:30) and the second factor was the addition of 4% sunflower seed oil respectively. The result showed that the flake aproximately has 2,46-2,88% moisture content, 1,46-1,76% ash content, 3,76-5,91% fat content, 6,87-7,24% protein content, and 81,4-84,85% carbohydrate content.
... Like other vegetable source oils, Sunflower oil is part of a healthy diet containing unsaturated fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins. Sunflower oil is rich in linoleic acid, an essential n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (Salas et al., 2015). ...
In this study, the essential oil chemical compounds of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) and its antioxidant activity on the oxidation stability of refined sunflower oil (RSO) were investigated by the Rancimat method. The plant material was obtained from Afyonkarahisar Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Center/Turkey. Based on the GC/FID-MS analysis result, 1,8-Cineole (15.18%), Camphor (11.39%), Borneol (11.39%), Germacrene D (11.12%), Carvacrol (11.05%), α-Pinene (6.01%) and p-Cimene (3.07%) were identified as the major constituents of rosemary essential oil. The total antioxidant activity of rosemary essential oil was determined using the DPPH method. The EC50 value was measured as 3.35 mg mL-1. While the induction time of RSO is 1.57 hours on average,the induction time of RSO with 1 g of 100 g-1 rosemary added was 1.68 hours on average, and the induction time of RSO with 5 g of 100 g-1 rosemary added was 1.79 hours on average. According to the results, rosemary, as an economic medicinal and aromatic plant, significantly increased the oxidation stability of RSO. Therefore, rosemary can be recommended as a natural antioxidant to extend the shelf life of edible fixed oils.
... In 2014, 15.8 million tons of sunflower oil were produced by top producers Ukraine, the Russian Federation, Argentina, and Bulgaria (Adeleke and Babalola, 2020; Rahoveanu et al., 2018). Sunflower oil is widely used in the food industry for purposes such as frying oil, margarine, sauce, emulsion, and confectionary fats (Salas et al., 2015). In addition, all the aforementioned vegetable oils are also used in the production of biodiesel (Celante et al., 2018;Jang et al., 2012;Qaim et al., 2020;Vahid and Haghighi, 2017). ...
The production of commodity and specialty vegetable oils is increasing every year to fulfill the ever-increasing demand where the trading of oils occurs primarily via sea shipping. Spills of vegetable oil into the aquatic environment may result in detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems. Environmental degradation of vegetable oil spills occurs mainly via microbial activity, chemical oxidation, wave and wind actions. However, the polymerization of oils can hinder their ability to naturally degrade. Thus, human intervention in the form of both short- and long-term remediation, is desirable to reduce the effects of vegetable oil spills on aquatic ecosystems. Studies have been conducted to determine how the type and concentration of the vegetable oil contamination influence its toxicity on various organisms. Some studies show that the effect of vegetable oil spills is found to be relatively short-lived and to a certain extent increase the survivability of certain organisms. However, the integrated effect of vegetable oil spills on aquatic organisms and their environment is still being researched. This review summarizes the existing knowledge on the reported occurrences of vegetable oil spills, their degradation, and their toxicity towards the surrounding aquatic environment which would be helpful in the knowledge transfer of remediation of vegetable oils.
... Sunflower seeds contain phenolic compounds, flavonoids, vitamins, antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, wound healing properties resulting in popularization of the crop around the globe (Fowler, 2006). In addition to cooking/ food, sunflower oil is also used for production of emulsions and margarine formulations (Salas et al., 2015). The non-edible industrial significance of sunflower oil includes lubricants, biodiesel, vegetable-oil based inks; some of the by-products obtained are hulls, soapstocks, lecithins, tocopherols, waxes and meals (Grompone, 2005). ...
Evaluation of plant growth promoting bacteria and the associated metabolites under saline conditions can be a potential eco-friendly remediation and productivity enhancement strategy. Salt-tolerant Pseudomonas entomophila PE3 was isolated from saline soil and screened for plant growth promoting (PGP) traits. The isolate produced indole acetic acid (IAA), gibberellic acid (GA), exopolysaccharides (EPS) and siderophore along with the potential to solubilize potassium (K), zinc (Zn) and phosphorus (P). Maximum stimulation of PGP attributes was recorded at 2% NaCl concentration. To determine the role of EPS their composition was analyzed (at different salt concentrations) and comparison was done to determine the changes upon exposure to salinity. EPS was found to be rich in carbohydrates, proteins and phenolic compounds. The extracted EPS were also found to possess salt-tolerance properties including antioxidant, hydroxyl scavenging activity, reducing power, emulsification and flocculation potential, and Na⁺ accumulation ability. Interestingly, the salt tolerance properties of EPS were enhanced upon exposure to salinity (2% NaCl). Finally, EPS based bioformulation of isolate PE3 was checked through field assay in saline soil. With promising results on growth promotion and improved salinity tolerance attributes of inoculated sunflower plants, the bioformulation of PE3 amended with EPS can be a breakthrough for remediation of saline-agroecosystems.
... The saturated fatty acids palmitic and stearic are also common components of these oils, although in lower proportions, as it happens with some C20 and C22 saturated or unsaturated species. Sunflower oil is one of the most appreciated seed oils due its light flavor, pale color and balanced composition of fatty acids (Salas et al., 2015). The major fatty acids present in common sunflower oil are oleic and linoleic, which are found in different proportions depending mainly on the temperature during seed filling and maturation. ...
Vegetable oils are usually rich in unsaturated fatty acids which are susceptible to oxidation. The oxidation of vegetable oils has been one of the most widely studied fields within lipid chemistry, because it alters their properties and nutritive value, inducing the formation of harmful compounds and off-flavors. Moreover, oxidized vegetable oils display altered physical and chemical properties which are conferred by the newer oxygenated compounds they contain. This is the case of ozonized oils. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent that mainly acts on olefinic compounds which generate ozonides and other peroxidic species that can decompose into carbonilic fragments. The action of the oxidant and the later reactions depend on the chemical environment of the reaction as well as the carbonyl termination products resulting from peroxide cleavage. In recent years, sunflower oils with different fatty acid compositions have been developed by breeding and mutagenesis. They displayed higher contents of oleic, stearic or palmitic acids, which mainly alters their triacylglycerol composition. Therefore, four different sunflower oils, common, high oleic, high stearic-high oleic and high palmitic-high oleic, were oxidized with ozone and the progress of the reaction was monitored by measuring the level of oil peroxygenation and the changes in the oils’ fatty acid compositions. The peroxidated species formed during ozonation were studied by FT-IR spectroscopy. The main conclusions of this work were that ozonation caused linear oxidation rates that were similar in all the oils assayed. The addition of water accelerated oxidation, which tended to occur in linoleic polyunsaturated fatty acid The FT-IR pointed to the presence of ozonide-derived peroxides as the major oxygenated species.
... This mutant line has been subsequently inbred to produce several commercial varieties available worldwide. [16] Molecular genetic engineering Molecular genetic engineering techniques allow the stable -inheritable -insertion of short DNA or RNA segments into a recipient organism through vector systems (viruses, bacterial plasmids) or through techniques such as microinjection, micro-encapsulation, biolistic method, pollen tube pathway method, direct spray, electroporation, liposomemediated or polyethylene glycol-assisted transformation of protoplasts and silicon carbide-mediated transformation. [17] Basically, genetically engineered-GE -plants approved for agricultural use have been developed through recombinant DNA technology or in vitro mutagenesis. ...
Plant biotechnologies have demonstrated to be a resource to cope with world population growth and environmental sustainability by increasing yield and partially reducing reliance upon agrochemicals. Nevertheless, despite several nutritionally enhanced crops have been obtained through genetic manipulation, their deployment in agriculture – to date – still remains marginal. In this article, we discuss the different GM approaches effectively employed to produce nutritionally improved food crops, as well as the future perspectives to overcome the barriers preventing the wide cultivation/commercialization of these products.
... For instance, sunflower stalks are agricultural waste from the production of sunflower oil, confectionaries and ornamentals. Sunflower oil does not command high prices just like other edible oils, but it is adjudged to be very good quality oil rich in vitamin E and linoleic acid and is preferred for retailing and domestic use (Bootello and Garcés 2015;Inturrisi 2015;Sánchez-Muniz et al. 2016;Seiler and Gulya 2016). This has recently increased the world production of sunflower seeds to 107 million tonnes annually (Cantamutto and Poverene 2007). ...
Cellulose nanomaterials have properties that make them renewable materials of choice for various applications. However, the utilization of concentrated alkaline, acids, oxidizing or reducing agents in their production presents significant challenges to the environment. To mitigate this challenge and ensure the efficient industrialization of cellulose nanomaterials, lignocellulose nanofibers (LCNFs) were prepared through an easy, feasible and environment friendly method relative to conventional techniques. 1–3% Sulphuric acid was used in combination with ball milling and ultrasound to produce cellulose nanofibers containing about 92% of the original lignin content. The microstructure and morphology of the nanofibers were studied while thermal analysis showed that the LCNFs can withstand between 225–251 °C and lose only 5% of their weight. Interestingly, despite the binding force of lignin, the nanofibers showed high electrostatic repulsion up to − 47 mV between the fibers. The translucent nanofilms produced from the LCNFs are less hydrophilic having water contact angles around 76°–62°. These LCNFs were synthesised without passing through any pre-treatment process and their hydrophobic properties have been found to be better than conventional cellulose nanomaterials while their thermal properties are comparable.
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... Sunflower oil is one of the most widely used seed oils (Salas, Bootello, & Garcés, 2015). This oil is extracted from sunflower seeds and is composed of triacylglycerols (TAGs) plus minor components that confer additional nutritional value, such as tocopherols and phytosterols (Verleyen et al., 2002). ...
Wax esters (WEs) and steryl esters (SEs) are minor components of sunflower oils formed by the esterification of long chain fatty alcohols and sterols to fatty acids. These compounds have similar carbon numbers and polarities making them difficult to separate using conventional chromatographic methods. In this study, electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) allowed the rapid and accurate profiling of WEs and SEs acyl moieties in total ester fractions of common and mutant sunflower oils with different fatty acid profiles. The acyl composition of both WEs and SEs partially reflected that of the oil and the high oleic background displayed the lowest level of crystallisable waxes. ESI-MS/MS complemented by GC–MS analyses revealed that SEs contain 17–30% of previously unreported methylsterol moieties. We demonstrated that these compounds are overlooked by official sterol analytical methods which may have consequences for quality control and authentication of vegetable oils prior to commercialisation.
Featured Application
The findings of this study provide valuable insights for the optimization of cold-pressing processes in the production of high-oleic sunflower oil. By understanding the impact of hull and impurity content on pressing efficiency and pressing oil yield, manufacturers can improve oil extraction methods, enhance production efficiency, and maintain high product quality. The developed predictive models offer a practical tool for optimizing seed preparation and processing parameters, supporting sustainable and cost-effective industrial oil production. These results can be applied in the edible oil industry to refine mechanical pressing techniques, reduce waste, and improve the yield and stability of high-value oils.
Abstract
This study investigates the effects of hull and impurity content on the efficiency of cold-pressing high-oleic sunflower seeds using a screw press. High-oleic sunflower oil is valued for its oxidative stability and health benefits, and optimizing pressing conditions is crucial for maximizing yield and maintaining oil quality. The identification of high-oleic sunflower oil was performed by analyzing its fatty acid composition, iodine value, and refractive index. Eleven seed samples with varying hull and impurity contents were processed to assess their impact on cake composition, pressing efficiency, and pressing oil yield. Oil yield ranged from 39.24% to 76.52%, with higher hull content contributing to increased yield due to its role in facilitating oil drainage. Multiple linear regression models were developed to predict moisture and oil content in the cake, as well as pressing efficiency, based on hull and impurity content, demonstrating strong predictive accuracy. These parameters were selected as they represent economically significant indicators, given that moisture and oil content indirectly reflect the protein content in the cake, while sunflower cake is primarily used as animal feed. Additionally, pressing efficiency indicates oil yield during pressing, which is the most critical economic parameter of the cold-pressing process. Cluster analysis identified three sample groups with distinct characteristics, revealing interactions between seed composition and pressing performance. The results highlight the significance of seed preparation in optimizing cold-pressing efficiency and provide insights for improving oil extraction processes. These findings support the industrial application of high-oleic sunflower seed pressing and contribute to the development of sustainable, high-quality oil production methods.
Four adult female alpacas from the same property in Loomis, CA developed clinical signs of recumbency, lethargy, anorexia, and had abdominal pain at least 48 h after incidental ingestion of a large volume of black oil sunflower seeds. One alpaca died, one was euthanized and necropsied, and two alpacas were treated by Loomis Equine Medical Center. The necropsied alpaca was found to have ingested numerous black oil sunflower seeds along with erosion and ulceration of the distal esophagus, C1, and C2 chambers. Ancillary tests performed were without significant findings. Treatment for the suspected acute toxicity in two alpacas included IV fluids, injectable antibiotics, and activated charcoal by orogastric tube. Sunflower seeds and lipid containing fluid were recovered from one of the alpacas that was euthanized due to poor prognosis. Overall, three of the four alpacas died or were euthanized, and one survived with outpatient treatment.
Our current case series shows significant morbidity and high mortality from the ingestion of highly available lipid, in the form of easily shelled black oil sunflower seeds. The large amount of lipid inhibits the activity of the forestomach bacteria and coats the fibrous feed, overwhelming the body's ability to metabolize unsaturated lipids. We also surmise that the seed hulls are traumatic to the camelid's esophagus and forestomach mucosa causing mucosal ulceration and eventual sepsis. We conclude that excessive levels of lipid may be fatal in alpacas, and that diets with high lipid content such as black oil sunflower seeds should not be fed to camelids.
Edible oils and fats are derived from plants and animals and have several health benefits. Edible oils and fats consist of many health-promoting bioactive compounds such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyphenols, flavonoids, phytosterols, vitamins, and inorganic compounds. The chemical compounds present in edible oils and fats are known for their possible health risks such as coronary heart disease and metabolic diseases, which is why there is a need to check the quality, purity, and safety of edible oils and fats. Bioactive Compounds of Edible Oils & Fats: Health Benefits, Risks, and Analysis provides an overview of different edible oils and fats, health benefits, associated risks, and analytical techniques for qualitative and quantitative guidelines for ensuring their quality and safety using modern analytical tools and techniques. This book will provide an important guideline for controlling quality, safety, and efficacy issues related to edible oils and fats.
Key Features:
Provides a detailed overview of different edible oils and fats of plant and animal origin, chemistry, and identification methods.
Describes their health benefits, risks, and the use of different analytical techniques in quality control.
Describes the applicability of sophisticated analytical techniques such as GC-FID, GC-MS, and HPLC for quality control of edible oils and fats.
Emphasizes the use of recent techniques such as LC-MS and FTIR-chemometrics in the analysis and quality control of edible oils and fats.
Bioactive natural compounds possess several health benefits in humans. Edible oils and fats are a major source of bioactive compounds, and these compounds are mainly categorized into triglycerides, saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, polyphenolics and phenolic acids, flavonoids, phytosterols, phospholipids, vitamins, minerals, etc. These bioactive compounds have several health benefits in humans; however, excess consumption of saturated and trans fatty acids poses a risk for cardiovascular diseases. Unsaturated fatty acids such as omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acids specifically linoleic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are known for their cardioprotective, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activities. Edible oils and fats are obtained from seeds of many plant species such as olive oils, peanut oils, canola oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, flaxseed oil, corn oil, mustard oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and linseed oil, and animal products such as fish oils, ghee, and butter also contain edible oils and fats. The current book chapter comprehensively compiles data on different plant and animal sources of edible oils and fats. The chapter also focuses on different classes of bioactive compounds present in these edible oils and fats.
Sunflowers have emerged as a significant global crop with extensive economic, agricultural, and nutritional significance. This article presents a comprehensive analysis of sunflower production in the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, Serbia, delving into key trends, challenges, and opportunities within the industry. Serbia, being a prominent player in the European sunflower market, has been influenced by its diverse agricultural landscape and its commitment to sustainable practices, shaping the dynamics of sunflower cultivation and oil production. The study thoroughly investigates production statistics, regional disparities, and the influence of external factors on sunflower farming and market dynamics in Vojvodina. Data from reputable sources such as the FAO, USDA, and COCERAL at the European level are utilized, along with information on sunflower production and oil prices obtained from the Statistical Yearbooks of the Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. The findings of the study revealed a notable rise in harvested areas, yield, and overall production during the observed period, concurrent with shifts in the global market. Additionally, the price of sunflower oil demonstrated an upward trend, reflecting these market dynamics.
Sunflower is the fourth most important oil plant worldwide and the second most important oil crop in Europe, along with rapeseed. Due to its high content of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids as well as vitamin E, sunflower oil is the preferred type of oil in human nutrition in Europe. That is why, as opposed to other different vegetable oils, circa 90% of the total sunflower oil produced is used for food, while 10% is exploited for biodiesel production and other industrial purposes. In human nutrition, sunflower oil is used for cooking, frying, and preparing salads, while in industry, it is used in the frying process and for margarine production. Maintaining secure and sustainable sunflower production is, therefore, of utmost importance. Sunflower breeding led to a significant increase in oil content and change in oil composition, thus increasing both oil quantity and quality. Nowadays, different biotechnological techniques are used to accelerate the creation of superior sunflower genotypes that will be productive in climate changing environments and still be of high quality. The conventional and molecular methods used in sunflower breeding for improved nutrition quality will be addressed in this chapter.KeywordsHelianthus annuus L.OilBreedingMarker-assisted selectionGenomic selectionNew techniques
In the present work, the influence of temperature, moisture content, and dehulling on the kinetic parameters of the oil extraction of high stearic high oleic (HSHO) sunflower seeds is analyzed. A modified Fick's diffusion model that considers extraction as the sum of two components (diffusion and washing) is used. The washing fraction ( M 0 / M ∞ ) and diffusion coefficients ( D eff ) are calculated taking into account the number of terms appropriate to each case. The statistical analysis shows a dependence of the washing fraction on temperature in the 40–50 °C range, while no statistical differences are detected in the 50–60 °C range. Although there are changes in the model parameters with the moisture content of the seeds (7.8%, 6.9%, and 4.8% dry basis), no specific trend is evidenced. The effective diffusion coefficient for the dehulled sample (1.48 ± 0.13 × 10 ⁻¹² m ² s ⁻¹ ) is 60% higher than that of the unshelled sample (0.95 ± 0.05 × 10 ⁻¹² m ² s ⁻¹ ). The extraction kinetics of tocopherols at 50 °C is also analyzed.
Practical Applications : The manuscript performs an analysis of different factors that influence the extraction of oil from high stearic high oleic (HSHO) sunflower seeds, which directly affect the efficiency of the oil extraction process. The results of this study provide useful information for a joint evaluation of oil extraction yields and costs resulting from the processing of a non‐conventional sunflower hybrid, promoting, in addition, the development of healthy high value‐added oils.
In this study, Pelvetia canaliculata L. macroalga, collected from the Atlantic Portuguese coast, was used as a source of bioactive compounds, mostly antioxidants, to incorporate them in sunflower oil with the aim of increasing its biological value and oxidative stability. The lyophilized alga was added to the oil, and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) was performed. Algae concentration and UAE time varied following a central composite rotatable design (CCRD) to optimize extraction conditions. The following parameters were analyzed in the oils: oxidation products, acidity, color, chlorophyll pigments, carotenoids, flavonoids, total phenolic content, antioxidant activity by DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) assays, and sensory analysis. Extraction conditions did not affect the acidity and the amount of oxidation products in the oil. Chlorophylls and carotenoid contents increased with algae concentration, while flavonoid extraction did not depend on algae content or UAE time. Total phenolics in the oil were highly related only to FRAP antioxidant activity. Storage experiments of supplemented oil (12.5% algae; 20 min UAE) were carried out under accelerated oxidation conditions at 60 °C/12 days. Antioxidant activity (FRAP) of supplemented oil was 6-fold higher than the value of non-supplemented oil. Final samples retained 40% of their initial antioxidant activity. The presence of algae extracts contributed to the increased oxidative stability of sunflower oil.
Regular sunflower oil is rich in linoleic acid. To improve its properties for different applications several genotypes with modified fatty acid compositions have been developed. Amongst them, the most remarkable have been high oleic and high stearic types. High stearic sunflower lines reported to date have been produced by traditional methods of breeding and mutagenesis. The mutations affected the expression of enzymes responsible for stearate desaturation in developing seeds. This trait has been combined with standard and high oleic backgrounds, giving high stearic lines with high contents of linoleic or oleic acids and thus different physical properties, increasing their functionality and potential applications. Nevertheless, for applications requiring plastic or confectionery fats, the oils have to be fractionated to obtain derived fats and butters with higher levels of solids. In the present review we present recent advances for the above mentioned topics related to high stearic sunflower oils.
Refined sunflower oil has dissimilar shelf life compared to cold-pressed sunflower oil, which increases the use of refined oil, and it is more abundant in the diet. On the other hand, the production of cold-pressed oils does not require chemical processing. Moreover, these oils contain significant amounts of bioactive components with a beneficial health effect. Breeders are trying to create new sunflower hybrids for the production of cold-pressed oil with improved oxidative characteristics. This study aims to examine the rancidity of 24 cold-pressed sunflower oils of new hybrids under accelerated thermal stability test conditions (Rancimat and Schaal oven tests) and to compare the obtained results with refined sunflower oil. According to investigated oxidative parameters, the most similar to refined sunflower oil was the H20 sample with the induction period determined by the Rancimat test of 9.55 ± 0.00 h, compared to 9.49 ± 0.00 h, obtained in refined sunflower oil. The total oxidation value of the H20 sample amounted to 3.26 ± 0.12, while in refined sunflower oil this value was 2.12 ± 1.73.
This chapter provides an overview of the production of the most relevant vegetable oils and oilseeds, focusing on soybeans, rapeseeds, sunflower seeds, palm fruits, and the oils derived thereof. It discusses the production quantities and trade of other common oilseeds such as groundnuts, maize, or sesame seeds as well as novel sources for oil production that are expected to soon gain an increased industrial relevance. Production and consumption of coconut oil is expected to increase in coming years and production of virgin coconut oil shows potential for improving coconut farm incomes by five to eightfold over traditional copra production. Several unconventional raw materials are emerging as promising alternatives to conventional oilseeds for the production of edible oil for use in food, feed, and other industrial applications. These include, but are not limited to insects, microorganisms such as bacteria or microalgae, and seaweed.
Good health comes from good diet is a well-recognized fact by consumers. Lipids are crucial constituents of the human diet therefore, have significant benefit to consumers and food industry. Seed oils are one of the important parts of the human diet due to the occurrence of important essential oils, tocopherols and phytosterols. Chia seeds, flaxseeds and sunflower seeds have gained the attention of nutritionists and are emerging plant-derived nutraceuticals because of presence of various constituents i.e. dietary fibre, proteins, vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, phenolic compounds and indispensable nutrients and recognized as important functional foods, use to make products as seed and oil to supplement foodstuffs with linolenic acid. This review mainly provides an insight into role of different seeds in food industry; their health benefits and industrial applications.
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is an important agricultural crop grown for its seeds worldwide. Globally, sunflower is the fourth largest source of vegetable oil next to soybean, palm and rapeseed. Besides edible oil, it is grown for its fruits both for human and livestock consumption. Production of sunflower seed has increased over the years because of the increasing demand for its healthful oil. The health benefits of sunflower seeds and oil are attributed to its proteins, antioxidant (vitamin E), phytonutrients, minerals like selenium and magnesium and healthy lipid profile. Thus, sunflower seeds have multifaceted therapeutic benefits including attenuation of some of the widespread chronic diseases like cardiovascular (CVDs) and inflammatory diseases. In this chapter, the proximate composition of sunflower seed and oil, health benefits and food applications will be discussed in detail.
Cold pressed sunflower oils (CPSO), in addition to their production process, have specific composition, quality, nutritive value, oxidative stability, and shelf life. Therefore, these oils have a significant place in the production of edible (unrefined) oils using green technologies, that is, they are all more represented in the production of functional foods. Sunflower seeds are mostly used for the production of crude oil, which is then refined by chemical or physical processes. The obtained functional product, CPSO, has specific sensory properties, as do the sunflower seeds, and preserved bioactive compounds in the native form as in the seed. The cake is a by-product of the production of CPSO. The quality of CPSO, the composition of the cake, and the efficiency of pressing (yield) depends on the quality of sunflower seeds, as well as on the seed preparation for pressing and pressing conditions.
Although the production of cold pressed oil of sunflower seeds appears simple, this is in many ways not so. Manufacturers of these oils often do not notice all potential problems. Securing raw materials of high quality is one of the biggest obstacles. This chapter is intended to make at least a small positive contribution in this regard.
Rambutan oil is a promising source of fatty acids rich in saturated long‐chain fatty acids and in monounsaturated long‐chain fatty acids. The C20 fatty acid content is of 37.1%. The enzymatic hydrolysis of the triacylglycerols from the rambutan oil provides a new pathway for the use of these fatty acids. The physical separation of the monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and saturated fatty acid (SFA) families, at 40°C by a freeze/thaw process involving centrifugation, gives two enriched fractions. The fluid fraction at 40°C is enriched in MUFA (C18:1, 55.0%, and C20:1, 9.0%) representing 68.9% of total content. The solid fraction at 40°C is enriched in saturated fatty C20:0, C22:0, and C18:0, giving a SFA content of 46.2%. The thermal properties of these fractions, the MUFA fraction of low melting temperature, and the SFA fraction of high melting temperature, open new possibilities for using rambutan fatty acids in oleochemistry. Rambutan oil is of great interest to food industry and the chemical industry. The free fatty acid fractions rich in MUFA and in SFA represent a new pathway in oleochemistry to produce low melting and high melting temperature lipids. C20‐C22 acids can provide reinforcing power in the manufacture of margarine. Fluid fractions enriched in monounsaturated fatty acids (C18:1 and C20:1) give opportunities to produce oils presenting a low melting temperatures to be involved in shortening oily systems with the presence of C20:1, which is enriched up to 9.0%. They are also suitable for the manufacture of cooking oils and chocolates, without having to resort to hydrogenation.
Sunflower stearins obtained by the fractionation of high‐oleic–high‐stearic sunflower oil (HOHS) can be used for cocoa butter equivalents (CBE). The main objectives of this work were: (1) Compare the performance of two sunflower stearin‐based CBE (palm‐free and palm‐containing) with commercial CBE and cocoa butter (CB) in terms of heat stability, hardness, and microstructure and (2) Test these sunflower stearin‐based CBE in milk chocolate and compound‐coating formulations to understand the evolution of their crystalline structure and the bloom development during storage. Sunflower stearin‐based CBE exhibited different polymorphic behaviors, as well as a smaller and more compact microstructure than commercial CBE and CB. Although sunflower stearin‐based CBE contain less‐saturated fatty acids than commercial ones, they had more solids at high temperature and higher hardness and could work as a CB improver. On the other hand, the use of increasing levels of sunflower stearin‐based CBE formulated and tested in this work on chocolate and compound‐coating formulations favored a faster crystallization into a more stable polymorph, and influenced the bloom evolution of these confectionery products.
This chapter describes the research related to the crystallization behavior of high stearic high oleic sunflower oil (HSHO-SFO) fractions for use as shortenings and cocoa butter alternatives as well as the blend of sunflower oil with other fats. It describes the chemical composition and crystallization behavior of HSHO-SFO stearins. The chapter also describes crystallization and polymorphic behaviors of stearins of HSHO-SFO crystallized under different processing conditions. The crystallization behavior of soft stearin (SS) and hard stearin (HS) fractions was evaluated by measuring the equilibrium solid fat content (SFC) using the pretreatment (tempering) described in the American Oil Chemists' Society (AOCS) official methods. The chapter then focuses on the use of different processing conditions to change the crystallization behavior of various milk fat/sunflower blends. The fats described in the chapter are good alternatives to trans-fats in different food applications.
The effect of blending and interesterification on the physicochemical characteristics of fat blends containing palm oil products was studied. The characteristics of the palm-based blends were tailored to resemble oil blends extracted from commercial reduced fat spreads (RFS). The commercial products were found to contain up to 20.4% trans fatty acids, whereas the palm-based blends were free of frans fatty acids. Slip melting point of the blends varied from 26.0-32.0°C for tub, and 30.0-33.0°C for block RFS. Solid fat content at 5 and 10°C (refrigeration temperature), respectively, varied from 10.9-19.7% and 8.5-17.6% for tub, and 28.2-38.6% and 20.8-33.5% for block RFS. Melting enthalpy of the tub RFS varied from 35.0-54.3 J/g and that of block RFS varied from 58.0-75.4 J/g. To produce block RFS, 65% palm oil (PO) and 18% palm kernel olein (PKOo) could be added in a ternary blend with sunflower oil (SFO), but only 47% PO and 10% PKOo are suggested for tub RFS. Higher proportion of PO, i.e., 72% for block RFS and 65% for tub RFS, could be used after the ternary blend was interesterified. Although a ternary blend of palm olein (POo)/SFO/PKOo was not suitable for RFS formulation, after interesterification as much as 90% POo and 26% PKOo could be used in the block RFS formulation. For tub RFS a maximum of 30% POo was found suitable.
Tropical fats and butters are characterized by their high contents of saturated fatty acids, which confer to them melting points and rheological properties adequate for the production of high valuable food commodities. We can distinguish 3 groups of tropical fats: those having medium chain fatty acids, like coconut or palm kernel oils, those rich in palmitic acid, like palm oil and its fractions, and those rich in stearic acid like cocoa butter. Modern biotechnology has provided with alternatives to these species in engineered common oil crops enriched in saturated fatty acids and processes aimed to enrich common oils in disaturated TAGs by enzymatic transesterification. The present and future of these new sources of saturated fats are discussed in this work.
Palm stearin (POs) with an iodine value of 41.4, sunflower oil (SFO) and palm kernel olein (PKOo) were blended in various ratios according to a three-component mixture design and subjected to chemical interesterification (CIE). Triacylglycerol (TAG) and solid fat content (SFC) profiles of the chemically interesterified (CIEed) blends were analyzed and compared with those of the corresponding non-CIEed blends. Upon CIE, extensive rearrangement of fatty acids (FA) among TAG was evident. The concentrations of several TAG were increased, some decreased and several new TAG might also have been formed. The changes in the TAG profiles were reflected in the SFC profiles of the blends. The SFC of the CIEed blends, except the binary blends of POs/PKOo which experienced an increase in SFC following CIE, revealed that they were softer than their respective starting blends. Randomization of FA distribution within and among TAG molecules of POs and PKOo led to a modification in TAG composition of the POs/PKOo blends and improved miscibility between the two fats, and consequently diminished the eutectic interaction that occurred between POs and PKOo.
The effect of a commercial emulsifier, sucrose ester, on the crystallization kinetics of hydrogenated sunflowerseed oil was
studied by means of an optical method. Induction times were measured for hydrogenated oil with the addition of 0.01, 0.05,
and 0.1 wt% sucrose ester. This emulsifier delayed nucleation, thus affecting the formation of critical nuclei and prolonging
induction times. Kinetics of the β’→β polymorphic transition was followed by X-ray diffractometry. Addition of the emulsifier
delayed the appearance of the signal at 4.6 Å. Moreover, longer times were needed to complete the transition. The kinetic
model chosen to describe the transition process was based on the theory of Avrami. Avrami’s exponentn was approximately 1 in all cases. Then value was in agreement with the fact that only one β’ pattern was found. The β form could not be obtained directly from the
melt, and it is unlikely that the β’→β transition occurred through a melt-mediated mechanism. Transition was hindered by the
rigidity of the sucrose ester structure.
Lard and high-oleic sunflower oil (Trisun® Extra) were interesterified at 55°C for 24 h with SP435 lipase from Candida antarctica to produce plastic fats. As the amount of trisun increased, percentage free fatty acid, unsaturated fatty acid/saturated
fatty acid value, oxidizability, and the amount of 18:1 found at the sn-2 position of triglyceride products increased. Differential scanning calorimetry showed that the low-melting components in
the product contained more 18:1 than the high-melting components. A 60:40 (w/w) ratio of lard to trisun had the widest plastic
range (3–26°C). The scaled-up reaction to produce this blend resulted in a product that had 60.1% 18:1 at the sn-2 position compared to 44.9% for the physical blend. The solid fat content of the 60:40 interesterified mixture resembled
soft-type margarine oil.
The antipolymerization effects of α- and γ-tocopherols were compared in model systems composed of purified high-oleic sunflower
triacylglycerols at 180°C. γ-Tocopherol was much more effective as an antipolymerization inhibitor than α-tocopherol, partly
due to lower oxidizability/disappearance. Purified triacylglycerols of sunflower, rapeseed, and high-oleic sunflower oils
were less stable than their nonpurified forms containing tocopherols. Results confirmed that tocopherols per se can act as antipolymerization agents in high-oleic oils at frying temperatures. No synergism was observed when α- and γ-tocopherols
were present together although larger amounts of residuals were left for both tocols. Results suggested that high-oleic/high-γ-tocopherol
oils (such as high-oleic canola and high-oleic soybean oils) may provide better frying oils than high-oleic/high-α-tocopherol
oils (such as high-oleic sunflower oil).
Fractionation of fats and oils makes it possible to generate products with specific properties from natural fats that contain
a variety of triacylglycerol (TAG) species. High-oleic high-stearic (HOHS) sunflower oils contain high levels of saturated
fatty acids, mainly stearate, on a high-oleic background. Accordingly, HOHS oils could be a source of disaturated TAGs appropriate
for cocoa butter equivalent formulations. We examined the kinetics of HOHS oil crystallization, paying special attention to
the influence of crystal seeding and temperature on the process and the composition of the final fractions. This oil was fractionated
at 18°C, and seeding increased the amount of disaturated TAGs recovered in the precipitate from 23% to up to 30%. The experimental
data collected were fitted using the models of Gompertz and Avrami to study how well these models fitted the data and their
utility in predicting the progress of crystallization. At seeding additions above 0.25% there was a change in the crystallization
mechanism that improved the process of fractionation. The effect of temperature was also studied, showing important increases
in the maximum rates of crystallization when fractionations were carried out at lower temperatures. Finally, the melting profiles
of the fractions enriched in saturated fatty acids were studied, showing amounts of solids intermediate between the initial
oil and cocoa butter.
KeywordsHigh-stearic sunflower mutant–Dry fractionation–Gompertz model–Avrami model–DSC analysis
Sunflower oil (SO) and high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) were used to prepare fried potatoes by either discontinuous or continuous
laboratory frying. Fried potatoes that had been fried in oils of differing quality were stored at 60°C for up to 30 d and
evaluated for polar compounds, polymers, peroxide value, oil stability index, and α-tocopherol content. Results obtained through
the various methods applied were consistent and indicated that the length of the induction period could not be explained only
on the basis of the degree of unsaturation or polar compound levels in fried potatoes before storage. α-Tocopherol content
also had a significant influence as potatoes fried in HOSO, with 16% polar compounds and only 10 mg/kg α-tocopherol at the
starting point of storage, were oxidized more rapidly than potatoes fried in SO with a comparatively higher degradation level,
19% polar compounds, and 100 mg/kg α-tocopherol.
Fat blends, formulated by mixing fully hydrogenated soybean oil with nine different commonly used vegetable oils in a ratio
of 1:1 (w/w), were subjected to interesterification (also commonly referred to as rearrangement or randomization) with sodium
methoxide catalyst. Fatty acid composition and triacylglycerol molecular species of each fat blend and the interesterified
product were determined and correlated with the following physical properties: melting, crystallization characteristics and
solid fat content. The differences in the endothermic and exothermic peak temperatures, total heat of fusion and crystallization
(β and β′ crystalline content) and solid fat content among the fat blends clearly showed the effect of the composition of
each oil on the physical properties. Oils that contained a considerable amount of palmitic acid had a favorable influence
on the crystallization and polymorphic form of interesterified fat blends.
Pan-frying is a popular frying method at home and in many restaurants. Pan-frying stabilities of two frying oils with similar
iodine values (IV)—mid-oleic sunflower oil (NuSun oil; IV=103.9) and a commercial canola oil (IV=103.4)—were compared. Each
oil sample was heated as a thin film on a Teflon-coated frying pan at ∼180°C to a target end point of ≥20% polymer. High-performance
size-exclusion chromatography analysis of the mid-oleic sunflower and canola oil samples indicated that the heated samples
contained 20% polymer after approximately 18 and 22 min of heating, respectively. The food oil sensor values increased from
zero to 19.9 for the canola sample and from zero to 19.8 for the mid-oleic sunflower sample after 24 min of heating. The apparent
first-order degradation rate for the mid-oleic sunflower sample was 0.102±0.008 min−1, whereas the rate for the canola sample was 0.092±0.010 min−1. The acid value increased from approximately zero prior to heating to 1.3 for the canola sample and from zero to 1.0 for
the mid-oleic sunflower sample after 24 min of heating. In addition, sensory and volatile analyses of the fried hash browns
obtained from both oils indicated there were no significant differences between the two fried potato samples.
Changes in DSC melting properties of palm oil (PO), sunflower oil (SFO), palm kernel olein (PKOo), and their belends in various
ratios were studied by using a combination of blending, and chemical interesterification (CIE) techniques and determining
total melting (ΔH
f
) and partial melting (ΔH
i°C
) enthalpies. Blending and CIE significantly modified the DSC melting properties of the PO/SFO/PKOo blends. PO and blends
containing substantial amounts of PO and PKOo experienced an increase in their DSC ΔH
f
and ΔH
i°C
following CIE. The DSC ΔH
f
and ΔH
i°C
of PKOo, blends of PO/SFO at 1∶1 and 1∶3 ratios, and all blends of PKOo/SFO significantly decreased after CIE. The DSC ΔH
f
and ΔH
i°C
of SFO changed little following CIE. Randomization of FA distribution within and among TAG molecules of PO and PKOo led to
modification in TAG composition of the PO/PKOo blends and improved miscibility between the two fats and consequently diminished
the eutectic interaction that occurred between PO and PKOo.
Thermoxidative stability was evaluated in triaclyglycerols (TAG) from the oils of the mutant sunflower lines CAS-3, CAS-4,
and CAS-8 (with a high percentage of stearic acid), CAS-5 (with a high percentage of palmitic acid), all from standard highlinoleic
genetic backgrounds, and the mutant sunflower line CAS-12 (with a high percentage of palmitic acid), from a high-oleic genetic
background. These oils contained unusually high contents of TAG molecular species with one or two saturated fatty acids at
the sn-1,3 positions. Purified total TAG devoid of tocopherols were subjected to controlled thermoxidative treatment at 180°C. Polymerized
TAG were determined at 2-h intervals for 10 h. After this time, total polar compounds, oxidized TAG monomers, TAG dimers,
and TAG oligomers were determined. TAG from highly saturated sunflower oils with levels of linoleic acid similar to those
found in conventional sunflower oils (40–50%) showed enhanced thermal stability. In these TAG, the amount of polar compounds
formed during the thermoxidative treatment was similar to that formed in the high oleic acid line. Excellent results were
obtained for the TAG of the CAS-12 oil, which had the highest thermal stability, producing half the amount of polar compounds
as the conventional line and less than two-thirds that of the high-oleic line.
Fatty acid composition and physical properties (melting point, solid fat index, titer) of the fractions obtained from the Uruguayan beef tallow by industrial dry cooling process were determined. Products obtained on the laboratory by transesterification of these fractions and interesterification of them with sunflower oil were also studied. With these results it is better understanding their behaviour and potential end-use applications. The selection among different products with similar physicochemical properties depends not only upon economical factors (raw material cost, operation costs, etc.) but technical (stability to rancidity, etc.) as well. © 1991 CSIC Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas. All rights reserved.
Biotechnology has been defined by various groups and broadly includes technologies that utilize living organisms or parts of biological systems. The nurture of man and animals, and provision of replenishable industrial materials, typically includes: (1) growing selected species or their genetic modifications; (2) harvest, preprocess storage, conversion into useful products, and protection until use; and (3) utilization or disposal of by-products and wastes in the most beneficial or least-cost manner. Specific actions may be taken to suppress residual enzymes and contaminating microorganisms that could degrade product value. Also, remediation (restoration) of air and water used in processing to near-pristine condition often is mandated today.
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) seeds contain alpha-tocopherol as the major tocopherol derivative, which accounts for more than 900 g kg(-1) total tocopherols. However, four sources of high gamma-tocopherol content (> 850 g kg(-1)) have been developed. First studies on the lines LG-17 and T2100 concluded that the trait in both lines was determined by recessive alleles at the Tph2 locus. The objectives of the present research were (i) to conduct an allelic study on the other two lines, IAST-1 and IAST-540, (ii) to identify markers linked to the Tph2 gene, and (iii) to map this gene. Plants of T2100 were crossed with plants of the other three lines, which resulted in F-1 and F-2 populations with uniformly high gamma-tocopherol content in the seeds, indicating the presence of tph2 alleles in the four lines. Genetic mapping of the Tph2 gene was conducted with an F-2 population from the cross between CAS-12, with standard tocopherol profile, and IAST-540. F-2 seeds segregated following a 3 low to 1 high gamma-tocopherol ratio. Bulked segregant analysis identified two simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers on linkage group (LG) 8 linked to Tph2. A large linkage group was constructed by genotyping additional markers. Tph2 mapped between markers ORS312 (3.6 cM proximal) and ORS599 (1.9 cM distal). The availability of closely linked PCR-based markers and the location of the Tph2 gene on the sunflower genetic map will be useful for marker-assisted selection and further characterization of tocopherol biosynthesis in sunflower seeds.
Due to health concerns, the food industry now aims to replace partially hydrogenated oils by other products having similar techno‐functional properties. There is a growing interest to produce trans‐free fats through interesterification technology. Enzymatic interesterification (EIE) has received considerable attention in recent years to replace chemical interesterification (CIE). Increased interest for EIE is related to the production of margarines and shortenings and also to the design of other innovative food fats.
The influence of temperature on the oil content and composition of sunflower was studied on plants grown under field conditions and in a range of controlled environments. Traces of oil were detectable in cypsela (seed) almost immediately after pollination. Much of this appeared to be present in the hull (pericarp), which is well developed at this stage. Significant production of oil commenced with the development of the embryo about 150 day-degrees after pollination, and the oil content reached a maximum value just prior to physiological maturity of the seed. Linoleic acid constituted the major component of the oil at all stages of seed development, and under favourable temperature conditions increased from c. 50% soon after pollination to over 70% at physiological maturity. High temperature during the development of the seed was associated with a reduction in total oil yield. However, under field conditions this effect was variable owing to confounding with other environmental factors such as moisture stress, which also influence the yield of oil through their effects on growth and development of seed. Elevated temperatures, and in particularly high night temperatures, caused a marked reduction in the percentage of linoleic acid, apparently due to the effect of temperature on the activity of the desaturase enzymes which are responsible for the conversion of oleic to linoleic acid.These results support the hypothesis that reduced yields and altered composition of sunflower oil from crops matured under high temperature conditions in midsummer are due to the effects of heat stress on the biosynthesis of fatty acids.
Lipase-catalyzed acidolysis of sunflower oil (SO) with a mixture of palmitic–stearic acids (SPFA) was performed in a batch bioreactor to produce structured lipids (SLs). Fractional factorial methodology was used to screen between three immobilized lipases. Lipozyme RM IM resulted in the highest incorporation so it was used in further studied. Saturated fatty acid (SFA) incorporation was higher when reactions were carried out without added water, in the presence of solvent, working with Lipozyme RM IM at 8% (w/w) of total reactants with a substrate molar ratio (SPFA:SO) of 6:1. SLs yield was maximum at that conditions. Incorporation was higher at reaction temperature in the range of 50–60°C and reaction time between 24 and 48h. Melting profiles of SLs obtained at these conditions were different to that of SO. Acyl migration was positively influenced by substrate molar ratio, temperature and time of reaction, principally.
The acidolysis of high oleic sunflower oil (containing >70% triolein) with 11 different stearic–palmitic acid mixtures at an oil:acid ratio of 1:1.3 (w/w) has been performed using a 1,3 regiospecific lipase (Rhizopus oryzae), to produce specialised fats with a high disaturated triacylglycerol (TAG) content (∼40%). The final conversions corresponded well to predictions from a probability model. The variation of TAG composition with time was also measured to study the reaction kinetics. Initially, a reaction scheme was formulated allowing all possible acidolysis reactions of TAGs with stearic, palmitic and oleic fatty acids at the 1 and 3 TAG positions. It was found that a first order scheme produced good fits to data and that reactions involving stearic and palmitic reactions in equivalent positions produced very similar fitted rate constants. When these rate constants were constrained to be equal, acceptable fits were also obtained. As the acidolysis reactions occur via the formation of diacylglycerols (DAGs) by hydrolysis (7.1–10.9%), a further scheme was tested whereby all possible reactions involving DAGs were included (with equal rate constants for equivalent reactions with palmitic and stearic acid to limit the number of fit parameters). This produced only a small increase in goodness of fit. Assuming a single value of rate constant for all reactions produced poor fits.
Developing seeds from sunflower high palmitic acid mutants (CAS-5 and CAS-12) showed high levels of palmitic acid at early stages. The stearic acid content of high stearic mutants (CAS-3, CAS-4, and CAS-8) increased from low or medium initial values until it reached the maximum level at 16 days after flowering. All mutant lines increased palmitic acid content at high growth temperature with CAS-5 having the maximum increase (5.7%). At the same time, all but CAS-3 increased stearic acid content at low temperature with CAS-8 showing the maximum increase (9.6%). The unsaturation level in the mutants had a different linoleic/oleic ratio than the control line, but always with a ratio higher than 1 at low temperature. Only mutant CAS-5 maintained a similar desaturation level at any temperature, being 3.5−11 times higher than that of the other lines. The temperature affects the polar lipids in a similar way. Keywords: Sunflower; oilseed; mutant; temperature
High-oleic sunflower seed oils containing varying levels of oleic acid were evaluated in comparison to conventional sunflower and olive oils, under both thermoxidative and frying conditions. Analytical determinations included quantitation of triglyceride species and polar compound level and distribution. Total polar compounds were significantly lower in high-oleic sunflower oils as compared to conventional sunflower oil. This was essentially attributable to oxidized and polymeric compounds. No differences were found between high-oleic sunflower oils and olive oil, which could not be anticipated on the basis of fatty acid composition but might be otherwise related to differences in triglyceride distribution. After drying, oils and lipids extracted from fried potatoes did not differ significantly in polar compounds. Overall, results showed an excellent behavior of high-oleic sunflower oils with regard to thermoxidation and frying.
The fatty acid and triacylglycerol composition of a vegetable oil determine its physical, chemical and nutritional properties. The applications of a specific oil depend mainly on its fatty acid composition and the way in which fatty acids are arranged in the glycerol backbone. Minor components, e. g. tocopherols, also modify oil properties such as thermo-oxidative resistance. Sunflower seed commodity oils predominantly contain linoleic and oleic fatty acids with lower content of palmitic and stearic acids. High-oleic sunflower oil, which can be considered as a commodity oil, has oleic acid up to around 90%. Additionally, new sunflower varieties with different fatty acids and tocopherols compositions have been selected. Due to these modifications sunflower oils possess new properties and are better adapted for direct home consumption, for the food industry, and for non-food applications such as biolubricants and biodiesel production.
Regiospecificity is one of the major advantages of using lipase technology for the modification of oils and fats to produce high-value added products, such as cocoa butter equivalents, human milk fat substitutes, and other specific-structured lipids. Due to the high cost of biocatalysts, the mainstream applications of lipases for normal oils and fats are still limited. Therefore, positional specificity of lipases has the priority and will be the target property to be exploited for commercial and industrial developments, because no chemical method has such a specificity and is promising or possible for this task. In this paper, encouraging products resulting from this regiospecificity are reviewed together with the critical evaluation of their reaction schemes, side reactions and by-products, sources of substrate oils and acyl donors, and production processes.
The operational stability of a commercial immobilized lipase from Thermomyces lanuginosa (“Lipozyme TL IM”) during the interesterification of two fat blends, in solvent-free media, in a continuous packed-bed reactor, was investigated. Blend A was a mixture of palm stearin (POS), palm kernel oil (PK) and sunflower oil (55 : 25 : 20, wt-%) and blend B was formed by POS, PK and a concentrate of triacylglycerols rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (55 : 35 : 10, wt-%). The bioreactor operated continuously at 70 °C, for 580 h (blend A) and 390 h (blend B), at a residence time of 15 min. Biocatalyst activity was evaluated in terms of the decrease of the solid fat content at 35 °C of the blends, which is a key parameter in margarine manufacture. The inactivation profile of the biocatalyst could be well described by the first-order deactivation model: Half-lives of 135 h and 77 h were estimated when fat blends A and B, respectively, were used. Higher levels of PUFA in blend B, which are rather prone to oxidation, may explain the lower lipase stability when this mixture was used. The free fatty acid content of the interesterified blends decreased to about 1% during the first day of operation, remaining constant thereafter.
Cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) are fats with a similar composition and melting profile as cocoa butter (CB), which are usually prepared by blending mid-palm fractions and stearate-rich tropical butters. In this regard, high stearic–high oleic sunflower oil contains disaturated triacylglycerols typically present in CBEs, albeit at a lower concentration than that required to produce a solid fat. Here we have assessed a means to fractionate this oil in order to produce solid fractions that can be used as stearic acid-rich butters appropriate for CBE formulations. Solvent fractionation of high stearic–high oleic sunflower oil was optimised in function of the oil/solvent ratio and temperature. Sunflower stearins with similar melting profiles as cocoa butter were obtained from oils of either 17% or 20% stearic acid in a single step. Different stearin products can be obtained by controlling the oil/solvent ratio and the temperature of fractionation. The use of these fractions as CBE components or confectionery fats is discussed in function of their melting profiles.
Extraction, refining and processingVegetable oils: Production, consumption and tradeSome topical issuesReferences
The glycerolipid composition of a high-palmitoleic acid sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) mutant accumulating up to 20% of n-7 fatty acids was studied. This line produces oil with a complex triacylglycerol (TAG) composition, containing species that have not been previously identified in sunflower. In this regard, palmitoleic acid was esterified in an unexpected way in the three positions of the TAG molecules. The polar glycerolipid composition of the mutant was also studied, in order to identify and quantify the changes in membrane lipids imposed by the sunflower enzymatic machinery during the accumulation of the unusual n-7 fatty acids. The high-palmitoleic mutant accumulated important quantities of n-7 fatty acids in the polar lipid fraction, especially in the phosphatidylcholine lipid class. However, the total polar lipid content of these lines was not affected. On the other hand, the mutations responsible for the n-7 lipid accumulation induced an important decrease in the oil yield of the new mutant.
High-oleic high-palmitic sunflower oil (HOHPSO) has been obtained from field-grown mutant sunflower seeds CAS-12. The fatty acid and triacylglycerol compositions, the thermo-oxidative stability and the physical properties of the HOHPSO were determined and compared with those of the conventional and high oleic sunflower oils and those of a liquid fraction of palm oil (olein). The major fatty acids of the HOHPSO were monoenes (57.7% oleic, 7.3% palmitoleic) and palmitic (27, 8%), while the content of linoleic acid was low (2.3%). The saturated fatty acids were almost absent from the sn-2 position and, thus, the major triacylglycerol (TAG) molecular species were those with one or two saturated fatty acids at the sn-1, 3 positions and oleic acid at the sn-2 position (mainly POO and POP). Total polar compounds and their distribution in oxidised TAG monomers and TAG polymers were determined after 10 h at 180 °C. The HOHPSO showed enhanced thermal stability, producing half the amount of total polar compounds, and much less TAG polymers, as the palm olein. The stability index (Rancimat) of the HOHPSO was unusually high (19 h at 120 °C). The thermal properties of the HOHPSO (determined from the differential scanning calorimetry thermograms) were different from those of the palm olein. The HOHPSO presents lower solid fat con-tents than the palm olein above 15 °C and hence remains liquid at common working temperatures.
In a major pathway of the autoxidation of methyl linolenate, peroxyl radicals of the internal hydroperoxides undergo rapid 1,3-tyclisation to form hydroperoxyepidioxides. Because linolenate hydroperoxides are relatively unstable, free radical antioxidants are much less effective in linolenate oils than in linoleate oils. Tocopherols and carotenoids effectively inhibit photosensitised oxidation of vegetable oils. Direct gas chromatographic analyses of malonaldehyde do not correlate with the TBA test. Model fluorescence studies indicate that malonaldehyde may not be so important in crosslinking with DNA. In contrast to oxidised methyl linoleate, oxidised trilinolenin does not form dimers. Although trilinolein oxidises with no preference between the 1(3)-and 2-triglyceride positions, the n-3 double bond of trilinolenin oxidises more in the 1(3)- than in the 2-position. Synthetic triglycerides oxidise in the following decreasing relative rates: LnLnL, LnLLn, LLnL, LLLn (Ln = linolenic and L = linoleic). To estimate the flavour impact of volatile oxidation products their relative threshold values must be considered together with their relative concentration in a given fat.
The historical development of fractionation, from the use of fractionated tallow in Mège-Mouriès' margarine to the modern dry fractionation process used to produced steep-melting palm fractions for cocoa butter equivalents, is described.
The principles of fractionation by fractional crystallisation are explained. The fractionation process is carried out in two stages: firstly, a crystallisation stage; secondly, a separation stage. Crystallisation may be effected without any solvent (dry fractionation) or in the presence of a solvent. It can be shown that the efficiency of separation of triglycerides is more or less independent of the solvent so that dry fractionation is, in principle, capable of giving as good a fractionation as solvent fractionation. However, separation of the solid phase (crystals) from the liquid phase is easier in the presence of a solvent, which dilutes the oil and lowers the viscosity. It is mainly developments in separation over the last 25 years that have led to the improved effectiveness of dry fractionation so that it can achieve results that rival solvent fractionation. The concept of ‘entrainment’ is explained with reference to the different separation methods and to their different efficiencies.
Today, hydrogenation is in decline, due to nutritional concerns about trans fatty acids and to environmental concerns about nickel catalysts and their disposal. Increasingly, oils with reduced linolenic acid (C18:3) can be produced agriculturally so that stable frying oils may be produced without hydrogenation. With the decline in hydrogenation, interesterification has seen a renaissance, although it is only partially able to replace hydrogenation. Additionally, interesterification suffers from the ‘chemical’-process image and environmental drawbacks of hydrogenation.
Fractionation is a purely physical process which satisfies today’s increasing environmental and health concerns. It is the main modification process used for palm oil, whose production is still increasing rapidly and which is likely to become the world’s most-produced oil within 10 years. If hydrogenation is to be avoided, then only palm stearins can supply the higher solid fat content components required to produce the margarines and shortenings essential to produce the bread, pastries and cakes we like to eat. Fractionation is therefore set to become the dominant modification process of the 21st century.
Blends of high-oleic sunflower oil and fully hydrogenated canola oil were subjected to enzymatic and chemical interesterification using Candida antarctica lipase (5%) and sodium methoxide (0.3%), respectively. The effect of each interesterification process was determined by comparing the triacylglycerol (TAG) composition, solid fat content (SFC) profiles and thermal properties of the blends before and after interesterification. Interesterification resulted in a decrease in the concentration of triunsaturated and trisaturated TAG and an increase in the proportion of mono- and disaturated TAG. These alterations in TAG composition and the presence of a greater variety of TAG species upon interesterification was correlated with a broader melting transition by differential scanning calorimetry and, ultimately, a lower melting point for the interesterified blends. Much broader ranges in plasticity were observed for the interesterified blends (chemically and enzymatically) compared to the physical blends. Even though ideal solubility of stearin in oil was observed, the value predicted by the Hildebrand model was higher than the actual amount. Crystallization kinetic parameters (Avrami index and rate constant) were similar for the non-interesterified, enzymatically interesterified and chemically interesterified blends when compared as a function of SFC. Results from this work will aid in the formulation of more healthy fat and oil products and address a critical industrial demand in terms of formulation options for spreads, margarines and shortenings.
High-oleic, high-palmitic sunflower oil (HOHPSO) is a seed oil from a new mutant sunflower line characterized by increased
levels of both oleic acid (>50%) and palmitic acid (>25%) and a high oxidative stability. In this study, its performance at
frying temperature was compared with that of palm olein in thermoxidative assays (4 h, 180°C). Also, industrial discontinuous
frying of almonds, peanuts, and sunflower seeds (200 kg of each product) was carried out to define both the performance of
HOHPSO and the main changes undergone by the foods. The evaluation of polar compounds and their distribution in the main groups,
i.e., polymers, oxidized monomers, and DAG, as well as changes in tocopherols and oxidative stability, demonstrated the excellent
behavior of HOHPSO during thermoxidation and frying. The increase in polar compounds and the loss of tocopherols and stability
were much lower for HOHPSO than for palm olein under identical heating conditions. Only 1.3% polar compounds were formed during
industrial discontiuous frying for 4 h and the oil stability increased, probably due to the formation of antioxidant compounds.
As for the foods, the FA composition of the surface oil was clearly different from that corresponding to the internal oil,
the former denoting the presence of HOHPSO in high concentration, particularly in fried sunflower seeds. Changes in oil stability
of the foods attributable to the frying process clearly demonstrate the interest in using a highly stable oil such as HOHPSO
to protect the surface against oxidation during food storage.
Interesterification changes the distribution of the fatty acids among the glycerides of fats or mixtures of fats from what
was present originally. This affects the physical nature and behavior of fats. A discussion of this process from the standpoints
of mechanism, catalysts, methods of monitoring the reaction and applications will be presented.
The rates of autoxidation of oleic acid, ethyl oleate, linoleic acid, 10,12-linoleic acid, ethyl linoleate, trilinolein, pentaerythritol
linoleate, dipentaerythritol linoleate, elaidolinolenic acid, linolenic acid, ethyl linolenate, trilinolenin, and methyl arachidonate
have been studied by oxygen uptake in a Warburg respirometer and the results are compared with the rates of enzymatic oxidation
of lipoxidase substrates.
The increase in the number of double bonds in a fatty acid by one increases the rate of oxidation of the fatty acid or its
esters by at least a factor or two.
Earlier findings that acids oxidize more rapidly than their esters have been confirmed.
The initial rates of lipoxidase oxidation of ethyl linoleate, ethyl linolenate, and methyl arachidonate were found to be essentially
the same.
Crystal structures formed during solidification of hydrogenated cottonseed oil, sunflowerseed oil and their blends were analyzed
by using an X-ray diffraction technique, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and polarized light microscopy. Temperatures
and times of crystallization under conditions which tend to produce β′ type structures were determined in terms of refrigeration
parameters. Microscopy with polarized light also helped clarify some aspects of the tridimensional network of crystals that
contribute to the consistency of products made from hydrogenated oils.
The seed lipids from five sunflower mutants, two with high palmitic acid contents, one of them in high oleic background, and
three with high stearic acid contents, have been characterized. All lipid classes of these mutant seeds have increased saturated
fatty acid content although triacylglycerols had the highest levels. The increase in saturated fatty acids was mainly at the
expense of oleic acid while linoleic acid levels remained unchanged. No difference between mutants and standard sunflower
lines used as controls was found in minor fatty acids: linolenic, arachidic, and behenic. In the high-palmitic mutants palmitoleic
acid (16∶1n−7) and some palmitolinoleic acid (16∶2n−7, 16∶2n−4) also appeared. Phosphatidylinositol, the lipid with the highest
palmitic acid content in controls, also had the highest content of palmitic or stearic acids, depending on the mutant type,
suggesting that saturated fatty acids are needed for its physiological function. Positional analysis showed that mutant oils
have very low content of saturated fatty acids in the sn-2 position of triacylglycerols, between the content of olive oil and cocoa butter.
A program of work is in progress to establish the levels and ranges of fatty acids and other components present in the major
edible vegetable oils. Authentic samples from the major producing areas for such oil have been obtained and analyzed. In the
case of palm oil, ranges of the fatty acid composition and of the acids at the triglyceride 2-position, have been obtained
for about 40 samples. These data were used to calculate enrichment factors, and triglyceride carbon number compositions, using
a small computer program. Comparison with experimentally determined carbon number compositions were then made. Good correlations
were found for whole unadulterated oils, but not for oil fractions. Unfortunately, these differences were insufficient to
detect contamination of palm oil by 10 or 20% levels of other oils, or of palm fractions. Compositional ranges of sterols
and tocopherols have also been determined on a selection from the original set of palm samples. Work on sunflower seed and
groundnut oils has followed the same lines, particular attention having been paid to linolenic acid and, in the case of groundnut
oil, also erucic acid, levels. Some groundnut kernels were found to have an oil with a component which cochromatographed with
methyl erucate during fatty acid determination. This unknown constituent was studied by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry,
and is thought to comprise a mixture of epoxy fatty acids. Analysis of the triglyceride fraction isolated from groundnut oil
by thin layer chromatography removes this unknown constituent, and simplifies interpretation of the fatty acid composition
of groundnut oil.
A new sunflower mutant, CAS-12, was obtained, which has both high palmitic (≈30%) and high oleic acid contents, and also a
substantial amount of palmitoleic acid (≈7%). The mutant was selected after X-ray irradiation of dry seeds of the inbred line
BSD-2-423, which had normal palmitic (≈3%) and high oleic (≈88%) acid levels. The increase of palmitic and palmitoleic acids
occurred at the expense of the oleic acid content, which decreased to around 55% in respect to the original line. Linoleic
acid content is always under 5%. Palmitic and palmitoleic acid levels were similar to those of the high palmitic mutant CAS-5
obtained in a previous programme from a low oleic line isogenic to BSD-2-423 using a similar mutagenic treatment. In that
previous programme we also selected three high stearic acid mutants using chemical mutagenic treatment on the same sunflower
line (RDF-1-532). We attempted to obtain mutants in other lines but were unsuccessful. The isolation of similar mutants in
isogenic parental lines illustrates the importance of the genetic background in the development of specific mutants with an
altered seed oil fatty acid composition. The oil of this mutant will increase the range of potential uses of sunflower oil.
The objective of this work was to study the evolution of oxidation in sunflower oils differing in unsaturation degree during long-term storage at room temperature. For this purpose, a combination of adsorption and size-exclusion chromatographies was used for quantification of oxidized triacylglycerol (TG) monomers, dimers, and polymers. Conventional sunflower oil, genetically modified high-oleic sunflower oil, and a 1:1 mixture of the two were used. Results showed that oxidized TG monomers were the only group of oxidation compounds increasing during the early oxidation stage, and an excellent correlation was found between amounts of oxidized TG monomers and PV during the induction period, independently of the degree of oil unsaturation. Both the rate of formation and the amount of oxidized TG monomers accumulated at the end of the induction period increased as the unsaturation degree of the oils tested was higher. The end of the induction period was marked by the initiation of polymerization and exhaustion of tocopherol. Therefore, the concomitant determination of oxidized TG monomers and polymerization compounds provided a complete picture of the oxidation process.
Palm stearin with a melting point (m.p.) of 49.8°C was fractionated from acetone to produce a low-melting palm stearin (m.p.=35°C)
and a higher-melting palm stearin (HMPS, m.p.=58°C) fraction. HMPS was modified by interesterification with 60% (by weight)
of individual liquid oils from sunflower, soybean, and rice bran by means of Mucor miehei lipase. The interesterified products were evaluated for m.p., solid fat content, and carbon number glyceride composition.
When HMPS was interesterified individually with sunflower, soybean or rice bran at the 60% level, the m.p. of the interesterified
products were 37.5, 38.9, and 39.6°C, respectively. The solid fat content of the interesterified products were 30–35 at 10°C,
17–19 at 20°C, and 6–10 at 30°C, respectively. The carbon number glyceride compositions also changed significantly. C48 and C54 glycerides decreased remarkably with a corresponding increase of the C50 and C52 glycerides. All these interesterified products were suitable for use as trans acid-free and polyunsaturated fatty acid-rich shortening and margarine fat bases.
The objective of this study was to manufacture a shortening using chemical interesterification (IT) of tallow-sunflower oil
blends to replace fish oil in the present formulation, which is now in short supply in Chile. The significant variables of
the IT process were obtained by 24−1 fractional factorial design. The proportion of tallow (T) in the blend, catalyst concentration, and reaction temperature
had a significant effect on the melting point (mp) (P≤0.05). IT of tallow and sunflower oil blends (90∶10 and 70∶30) diminished the mp, dropping point, and refractive index compared
to tallow. However, a noninteresterified 90∶10 blend mp was not significantly different from tallow. IT produced a solid fat
content (SFC) profile of IT90∶10 blend that was appropriate for use in shortenings for the baking industry. Blending and IT
of the 90∶10 blend increased the melting profile of the tallow and the melting range from −40 to 60°C while the endotherms
of the middle-melting triacylglycerols (TAG) decreased. The IT90∶10 blend hardnesswas 70% lower than tallow hardness, and
the crystal network was composed of large spherulites in a network. IT resulted in an appropriate method to improve physical
properties of tallow, whereas blending did not significantly modify it. The interesterification changed the SFC profile of
IT90∶10, giving a more appropriate shortening for use in the baking industry.
The modification of a sunflower oil used for 75 repeated deep-fat fryings of potatoes, with a fast turnover of fresh oil during
frying, was evaluated by measuring the total polar components isolated by column chromatography. The total polar components
increased rapidly during the first 20 fryings from 5.09±0.21 (mean±SD) mg/100 mg unused oil to 15.99±0.40, followed by minor
but also significant changes until the thirtieth frying (17.99±0.41 mg/100 mg oil). The level did not increase further with
continued frying. Further, the polar fraction was examined by high-performance size-exclusion chromatography. Triglyceride
polymers increased from 0.10±0.01 mg/100 mg unused oil to 1.65±0.13 and 3.44±0.17 mg/100 mg oil at the twentieth and seventy-fifth
fryings, respectively. Triglyceride dimers also increased significantly from 0.75±0.12 mg/100 mg unused oil to 6.25±0.28 (mg/100
mg oil) at the twentieth frying and to 7.09±0.31 mg/100 mg oil at the thirtieth frying, with no further significant changes.
Oxidized triglycerides also significantly increased, but at the twentieth frying reached a near-steady state of 6.26 mg/100
mg oil. Diglycerides and free fatty acid levels, related to hydrolytic alteration, did not increase with continued fryings.
The results indicate that during deep-fat frying of potatoes with fast turnover of fresh sunflower oil, more thermoxidative
than hydrolytic processes take place. A dramatic leap of total polar content and a change of compounds related to thermoxidative
alteration of the oil were found during the first twenty fryings, followed by minor changes and by a tendency to reach a near-steady
state throughout the successive fryings.
Two high-palmitic acid sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) mutants, CAS-5 and CAS-12, have been biochemically characterised. The enzymatic activities found to be responsible for
the mutant characteristics are β-keto-acyl-acyl carrier protein synthetase II (KASII; EC 2.3.1.41) and acyl-acyl carrier protein
thioesterase (EC 3.1.2.14). Our data suggest that the high-palmitic acid phenotype observed in both mutant lines is due to
the combined effect of a lower KASII activity and a higher thioesterase activity with respect to palmitoyl-acyl carrier protein
(16:0-ACP). The level of the latter enzyme appeared to be insufficient to hydrolyse the produced 16:0-ACP completely. As a
consequence of this, three new fatty acids appear: palmitoleic acid (16:1 Δ9), asclepic acid (18:1 Δ11), and palmitolinoleic
acid (16:2 Δ9 Δ12). These fatty acids should be synthesised from palmitoyl-ACP or a derivative by the action of the stearoyl-ACP
desaturase, fatty acid synthetase II and oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine desaturase, respectively.
The relationships among composition, melting point, titer and solid fat index of beef tallow and its respective liquid and
solid fractions obtained by industrial dry fractional crystallization are determined. The relationships between composition
and titer do not permit one to distinguish beef tallow from the fractionated ones of the same melting range. On the other
hand, the relationships between melting point and titer are different: the oleomargarines have melting points lower than their
corresponding titers, and those of the beef tallow and oleostearins are higher. The fractionated fats have different contents
of oleic and stearic acids compared with the unfractionated ones, but their percentage of palmitic acid does not vary remarkably.
The dilatometric curves are displaced in a parallel relationship without important changes in their shape.