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SUDAN DYES AND THEIR POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS

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  • PCSIR complex lahore

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Sudan dyes are synthetic, oil-soluble, red coloured azo dyes which are not permitted by the authorities in Switzerland, Japan, Europe, and the United States for the purpose of food colouring. Sudan dyes I, II, III, IV, and their degradation products are considered harmful to human health due to their teratogenicity, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity which leads to cancer. Many experimental studies on animal specimen have confirmed the formation of tumour due to the presence of different Sudan dyes in food products. Sudan dyes are described to have sensitising characteristics; they easily get absorbed through dermal route and airways and causes health problems. This paper discusses the harmful effects of Sudan dyes on human health which is now greatly used in foodstuffs.
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Pak. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2016; 49(1): 29-35
Review
SUDAN DYES AND THEIR POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS
*1Alim-un-Nisa, 2Naseem Zahra, 3Yasha Nazir Butt
1, 2 Food and Biotechnology Research Centre (FBRC)
PCSIR Laboratories Complex, Ferozepur Road Lahore-54600, Pakistan
3Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of the Punjab, Lahore.
Abstract: Sudan dyes are synthetic, oil-soluble, red coloured azo dyes which are not permitted by the
authorities in Switzerland, Japan, Europe, and the United States for the purpose of food colouring. Sudan
dyes I, II, III, IV, and their degradation products are considered harmful to human health due to their
teratogenicity, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity which leads to cancer. Many experimental studies on animal
specimen have confirmed the formation of tumour due to the presence of different Sudan dyes in food
products. Sudan dyes are described to have sensitising characteristics; they easily get absorbed through
dermal route and airways and causes health problems. This paper discusses the harmful effects of Sudan dyes
on human health which is now greatly used in foodstuffs.
Keywords: Sudan dyes, Illegal, Health effects
Received: January 11, 2016 Accepted: February 15, 2016
*Author for Correspondence: nisaalim64@yahoo.com
Introduction
For food industries, colour is the most distinguished
and significant characteristic of food products.
Many colorants are often added to different foods
for the enhancement of visual aesthetics and
promotion of sales. Colour additives are widely
used for the reinforcement and uniformity of foods
which already have some colours present in them.
Sudan dyes are industrial synthetic azo dyes which
are traditionally used in waxes, drugs, plastics, oils,
food, clothing, polishes, and are also used in
histochemical analysis 1. The International Agency
for Research on Cancer has classified these dyes as
Class-III carcinogens and it has now banned Sudan
dyes worldwide; however, many countries still
utilize azo-dyes like Sudan dyes illegally in their
food products 2. Although animal studies have
proven Sudan dyes as carcinogenic substances,
these colorants have recently been found in various
food products in some European countries. These
colouring agents are added to different foods
including chili powder to intensify, mimic, and
prolong good appearance which are similar to the
natural red colours. In the United Kingdom, more
than six hundred food products containing Sudan
dyes have been found such as Worcestershire sauce,
pizza, noodle soup, and fish sauce. These food
additives are considered illegal to use in food stuffs
according to the FAD and EU. The European
commission now demands the product
documentation in order to confirm the absence of
harmful Sudan dyes. A detection limit of 0.5 to 1
mg/kg has been set by the EU for Sudan dyes. Any
food material which contains dyes above the
permissible limits is completely withdrawn from
market. The European Food Safety Authority
(EFSA) initiated a review in 2005, regarding the
toxicology of various dyes found illegally in food
products. EFSA concluded their research with the
strong evidence of genotoxicity and carcinogenicity
caused by several dyes especially Sudan I. Since
Sudan-I structurally resembles all other Sudan dyes,
the larger group is found to have the same harmful
effects 3. Illegal dyes create major economic
consequences for public health and food industries;
therefore, there must be some rapid, inexpensive,
simple, and reliable analytical method to minimize
adverse effects of azo-dyes. Many researchers are
working on these analytical methods, but still there
is dire need of more quantitative methods for better
analysis 4-6. Sudan dyes are widely used in textile
industry and as a result waste water produced from
textile industries damages aquatic life. It may also
prove to be of deleterious effect for humans who
consume seafood which lives in dye contaminated
water 7, 8.
Sudan Dyes - Basic Facts
Sudan dyes are of red-orange colours which are very
often used for colouring purposes in food to enhance
the quality and hence to promote sales 9. Foods are
usually assessed on the basis of their colour and texture
10. The effect of azo-dyes not only brings about harmful
effects to human health but it also leaves adverse
environmental effects. Due to the formation of dyestuff
for textile industry, wastewater has largely
contaminated sea water hence causing damage to
marine life 11, 12. Naphthylamine is another
degradation product of Sudan dyes which aggravates
metabolism and causes potential risk to health 13.
Figure 1: Sudan Dyes
30 Sudan dyes potential health effects
It was mid-19th century when all colouring agents
and dyes were obtained from natural sources including
plants and animals. Later, in the beginning of 20th
century it got replaced by synthetic colours
manufactured in industries. Today we find many
pigments and dyes which are synthetic in nature and are
produced commercially. Each year new coloured
compound agents hits the market and is utilized to
enhance the appearance of various food and household
items 14.
Various sorts of Sudan Dyes
A variety of Sudan dyes include Sudan I, Sudan II,
Sudan III, Sudan IV, Sudan Black B, Sudan Orange G,
Sudan Red B, Sudan Red G, and Sudan Red 7B 15.
Sudan I and IV dyes are reported to be present in
sauces, curry, chili powders, spice mixtures, and
seasonings. Sudan dye I is often formed as an impurity
when preparing sunset yellow colour. It also widely
attributes to the release of metabolic substances
including 1-amino-2-napthol and aniline which
aggravate the incidence of carcinoma 16. An experiment
on mice specimen fed on food comprising Sudan I
concluded the occurrence of spleen tumour 17.
Although European Union strictly banned the usage
of Sudan Dyes, but around 20 cases per year were
reported due to the consumption of imported food
products containing Sudan dyes 18. Studies have shown
that Sudan dye II cause SIV local and bladder
carcinoma in mice 19. Sudan dye II, III, and IV
resemble Sudan dye I structurally and hence they all
contribute to genotoxicity 20. In an experimental study,
Sudan Red 7b and Deep black BB were used to stain
the termites and as a result a very low mortality rate of
termites was seen which were stained with Sudan Red
7B 21.
Sudan Dyes - Food Issues
Many food products were detected by EU including
chili samples which were found contaminated with
synthetic dyes. Other contaminated foodstuffs included
chutneys, number of relishes, and seasonings. Since
synthetic dyes count as risk to human health, they are
prohibited in many countries 22. These dyes produce
biologically active compounds which cause intense
harm to body since they act as harmful toxins 23. In
United Kingdom warnings have been provided by Food
Standards Agency (FSA) regarding the presence of
Sudan dye I in frozen meat products, spices, and chips
24. Sudan dyes are mostly absent in fresh food products
like fresh chilies; however, the addition of Sudan dyes
bring about genotoxic effects and carcinogenicity of
bladder and liver of mammals 25.
Table 1. Statuary Basis for Permissible LimitsThe Federal Office of
Public Health has set the standard permissible limits for the Sudan dyes.
Federal Office of Public health, 2004 37
Sudan Dyes - Health Effects
Not only Sudan dyes but also their degradation products
are quite carcinogenic, teratogenic, and harmful to
human health. Studies have proven that the exposure of
synthetic dyes along with sodium benzoate
preservatives cause hyperactivity in 3 years old and 8-9
years old children. Sudan dyes present in food products
leave adverse effect on the attention, behaviour, and
activity of children 26. Sudan dyes reduce to form their
corresponding amines when in taken orally. This
reduction is caused mainly by the extra hepatic tissues,
gastrointestinal microbes, and liver cystolic reductase
27.
Many laboratory experiments on animals have
shown mutagenic and carcinogenic effects due to the
release of amines. These carcinogenic amines make
Sudan dyes as potential health hazards 28. The
experimental studies were done on rats fed on feed
containing Sudan dye I which gave way to high level of
neoplastic liver nodules formation causing lymphoma
and leukaemia. Moreover, the implantation of Sudan I
dye inside the urinary bladder of animal specimen
caused bladder carcinoma. Henceforth, Sudan dyes are
mutagenic and carcinogenic both Invivo and invitro 29.
Sudan dyes have also been found to cause genotoxic
effect in colon and stomach of mice 30.
Sudan dyes may take access to body through skin
when hair dyes containing Sudan dyes are applied. This
may be quite harmful since it results in carcinogenic
amines 31, 32. Sudan dyes activate P1-450 associated
enzymes which are found in animals hence aggravating
immunotoxic effects. Sudan dyes are indirect
carcinogens (classified as category 3 carcinogens by
IARC) and are therefore proscribed from the use in
foods 33, 34. The invitro experimental analysis has
demonstrated that Sudan dyes present in human
microsomes creates DNA adduct. The peroxisomes also
get activated by Sudan dyes to produce Protein, DNA,
and RNA adducts 35, 36.
The illegal presence of Sudan dye I in food products in
EU was first reported in May, 2003. A decision against
the usage of Sudan dyes was given by EU as a reaction
to the occurrence of Sudan dyes in red chili which was
first imported from India in France 38. It was observed
that chili powder and all those food products containing
chili powder contained Sudan dyes. Since then, many
EU Member States through Rapid Alert System for
Food and Feed (RASFF) notified regarding the
presence of Sudan dye I and IV in sumac, curcuma, and
palm oil. Many notifications of Sudan II and III dyes
were also received for the similar range of food
products. It was discovered that the food products
Factor
Evaluation
Sudan 2
0.1 mg/kg (limit
value)
Sudan 3
0.1 mg/kg (limit
value)
Sudan 4
0.1 mg/kg (limit
value)
Nisa et al. 31
containing Sudan dyes were manufactured from the
contaminated raw products obtained from countries
outside the EU including India, Ghana, Egypt for raw
spices, Nigeria, Pakistan, and West Africa for palm oil.
The primary origin of Sudan dyes include the raw
materials which are used as important ingredients by
the EU for the production of processed food products
39.
Measures for prevention
There are a number of steps which can be
taken in order to prevent Sudan from entering the food
chain resulting in spice adulteration. If there is any
product which comprises of Sudan dyes beyond
permissible limits, should be destroyed. Contaminated
raw materials should be avoided because failure to
remove dyes from supply chain would result in
amelioration of contamination. Many health sectors and
companies are working with local authorities and food
industries to avoiding foods containing Sudan dyes by
removing products from sale in the retail outlets.
Companies should familiarize themselves with the
vendors and control the amount of Sudan dyes in raw
materials. For that, the certificate warrants must be
ensured and strict action must be taken if adulteration
of Sudan dyes is done with spices. In order to maintain
the integrity of supply-chain, we need to have
surveillance programs as well as system for solid
inspection. Laws must be enforced to minimize the
utilization of many foods which contain these
carcinogenic dyes 40.
The production and application of Sudan dyes adds
insoluble dye agents in the effluents when industries
remove them as unwanted matter. However, scientists
have initiated experiments to identify and isolate some
bacterial species which help in reducing these azo-dyes.
Many other microbial strains must be used to
decontaminate raw materials before they are used to
produce fine products. 41.
Conclusion
Synthetic dyes are known to be highly stable to oxygen,
light, and pH; they are scarcely contaminated by
microbes, have low production cost, and provide good
colour uniformity. Despite of all good characteristics
these dyes must not be used due to their carcinogenicity
and teratogenicity. As an alternative, natural dyes
which are quite expensive and unstable may be
processed further and utilized to prevent any potential
health hazard.
There is a great impact of illegal dyes on public
health therefore accurate, sensitive, and selective
methods should be introduced so that to detect and
quantify the synthetic food dyes in different foods. All
the raw materials and finished products must be
labelled clearly if they contain azo-dyes in them. Those
items which contain Sudan dyes must be discarded as
hazardous waste products. The amount of consumption
of synthetic dyes plays a great role in risks for cancer.
Occasional and very low consumption of Sudan dyes
through foods which are rarely consumed might not be
as much risky as continuous and high doses but risk still
exist. Experts give their opinion to keep the exposure of
Sudan dyes quite low to attain the safety level and
avoid health relating risks.
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... In the food industries, colour is the most distinguished and significant characteristic of food products [1]. Many colouring agents are often added to different foods to make them visually appealing and for promotion of sales [2]. The colouring matter in food may be natural or synthetic [1]. ...
... Sudan dyes are a family of compounds in the class of azo dyes that are used for different industrial and scientific applications [4]. They find applications in the industries and analytical research [3] and are used in paints, cosmetic products, for colouring plastics and other synthetic materials [2]. Examples of sudan dyes include Sudan I, Sudan II, Sudan III and Sudan IV, Sudan red B, Sudan red 7B, Sudan red G, Sudan orange G, Sudan black, Dimethyl yellow, Para red [3]. ...
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... Their genotoxicity can be presumed because they caused abnormalities in chromosomes in the root cells of Allium cepa (Khan et al., 2020). Sudan I dye which, despite being illegal, is still used in food materials, is known to be transformed into cancer-causing aromatic amines by enzymes in the intestine of animals and humans (Nisa et al., 2016). Both the azodyes and their metabolized components are capable of causing cancer because mutations favor carcinogenesis and the effects of these dyes manifest with time. ...
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Life on earth is dependent on clean water, which is crucial for survival. Water supplies are getting contaminated due to the growing human population and its associated industrialization, urbanization, and chemically improved agriculture. Currently, a large number of people struggle to find clean drinking water, a problem that is particularly serious in developing countries. To meet the enormous demand of clean water around the world, there is an urgent need of advanced technologies and materials that are affordable, easy to use, thermally efficient, portable, environmentally benign, and chemically durable. The physical, chemical and biological methods are used to eliminate insoluble materials and soluble pollutants from wastewater. In addition to cost, each treatment carries its limitations in terms of effectiveness, productivity, environmental effect, sludge generation, pre-treatment demands, operating difficulties, and the creation of potentially hazardous byproducts. To overcome the problems of traditional methods, porous polymers have distinguished themselves as practical and efficient materials for the treatment of wastewater because of their distinctive characteristics such as large surface area, chemical versatility, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. This study overviews improvement in manufacturing methods and the sustainable usage of porous polymers for wastewater treatment and explicitly discusses the efficiency of advanced porous polymeric materials for the removal of emerging pollutants viz. pesticides, dyes, and pharmaceuticals whereby adsorption and photocatalytic degradation are considered to be among the most promising methods for their effective removal. Porous polymers are considered excellent adsorbents for the mitigation of these pollutants as they are cost-effective and have greater porosities to facilitate penetration and adhesion of pollutants, thus enhance their adsorption functionality. Appropriately functionalized porous polymers can offer the potential to eliminate hazardous chemicals and making water useful for a variety of purposes thus, numerous types of porous polymers have been selected, discussed and compared especially in terms of their efficiencies against specific pollutants. The study also sheds light on numerous challenges faced by porous polymers in the removal of contaminants, their solutions and some associated toxicity issues.
... The International Agency for Research on Cancer has categorised Sudan (I-IV) as a category three human carcinogen (DiDonna et al., 2004). However, imported food products such as paprika, chilli powder and curry pastes continued to contain Sudan dyes (Nisa et al., 2016). ...
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According to Qur’an, every Muslim must ensure that their food comes from Halal sources. In addition, being taught to be conscious that food and goods must be Halal, Muslims must also be cognizant of the quality. The rest of the world is gradually beginning to see the significance of the Muslim need for Halal food and other consumables. For example, Malaysia, a diverse Muslim country, has a broad selection of Halal products and services and a high standard for food quality. As a result of the expansion of the food industry, societies now have access to a wide range of food products, including common foods, confections, desserts, and snacks. Despite the recent reduction in the permissible amount of synthetic colourants for consumer health reasons, many distinct synthetic food dyes continue to be widely utilised due to their low cost, high efficiency, and outstanding stability. Industry and customer awareness of Halal food and its quality should be evident. Hence, this paper aims to understand the issue and Halal concept in food. Focusing on food colourants sources and acknowledging the Halal standard in Malaysia. Based on the finding from this study, the concept of Halal should be combined with safety and health for consumer health, and there is a need for research into new resources for Halal colourants, particularly from natural colourant pigments compared to synthetic colourants.
... The intense red color of PO is typically used to appraise its quality [9,11]. Color is one of the most conspicuous organoleptic attributes of food products, easily appraised without necessarily purchasing the product [12]. Therefore, food vendors frequently add dyes to PO to enhance its color [9,10]. ...
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Palm oil (PO), the most utilized vegetable oil, continues to be the object of adulteration, especially with Sudan-IV dye (S4D), notwithstanding the health implications of such acts. This study investigated the effects of S4D-adulterated PO on tissue damage/function and inflammatory status. Thirty male albino rats were grouped into five (- n=6); Control, PO, PO+S4D (100 mg/kg), PO+S4D (250 mg/kg), and S4D (250 mg/kg) and treated for 21 days. Exposure to S4D occasioned significant (p < 0.05) elevations in the serum activities of ALT, AST, ALP, and LDH. Contrastingly, the activities of these enzymes were reduced in the liver and kidneys. Serum levels of uric acid, BUN, and creatinine were also elevated in the serum of S4D-exposed rats. Gene expression analyses revealed upregulated expression of CRP and COX-2 in the liver of S4D-exposed rats, while the expression of IL-10 and BAX were downregulated compared to the control group. In the kidneys, exposure to S4D upregulated the expressions of TNFα, IL-1β, and KIM-1 compared to control. Our resultspresent empirical evidence of the adverse effects of adulterating PO with S4D, highlighted by the impaired hepatic and renal function, as well as pro-inflammatory responses elicited in rats exposed to S4D, via PO and alone.
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Alkaloids are considered major secondary plant metabolites and are found mostly in plants. Some alkaloids are used as a spice in foodstuffs such as fenugreek, black pepper, and long pepper. These spices have large quantities of alkaloidal compounds. Trigonelline is a major alkaloidal compound present in fenugreek seeds, and piperine is present in peppers. Black pepper has a long history of usage in traditional medicines all throughout the world as well as food and condiments (Kaltner et al., 2020). In the Piperaceae, or pepper family, there are about 2,000 species in the Piper genus (Durant-Archibold et al., 2018). Only a few spices from the genus Piper include alkaloids, the biggest class of nitrogenous natural chemical substances. The two species that are most well-known are Piper longum and Piper nigrum, also known as pippali and black pepper, respectively. This genus contains piperidine-type alkaloids (Martha Perez Gutierrez et al., 2013). Numerous traditional medical systems, including traditional Chinese medicine, the Indian Ayurvedic system, and folkloric medicines of Latin America and the West Indies, have used plants from the genus Piper as a cure (Zaveri et al., 2010). Another alkaloid-containing species we have included in this chapter is a short-living and annual medicinal herb Trigonella foenum-graecum belonging to the Fabaceae family. Its major alkaloids are Trigonelline and 4-hydroxy-isoleucine (Nagulapalli Venkata et al., 2017). This chapter provides an overview of food spices containing alkaloids as major chemical compounds. The major focus is on the sources, traditional uses, and phyto-pharmacological properties of food spices containing alkaloids.
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Azo dyes represent the major class of dyestuffs. They are metabolised to the corresponding amines by liver enzymes and the intestinal microflora following incorporation by both experimental animals and humans. For safety evaluation of the dermal exposure of consumers to azo dyes from wearing coloured textiles, a possible cleavage of azo dyes by the skin microflora should be considered since, in contrast to many dyes, aromatic amines are easily absorbed by the skin. A method for measuring the ability of human skin flora to reduce azo dyes was established. In a standard experiment, 3x10(11) cells of a culture of Staphylococcus aureus were incubated in synthetic sweat (pH 6.8, final volume 20 mL) at 28 degrees C for 24 h with Direct Blue 14 (C.I. 23850, DB 14). The reaction products were extracted and analysed using HPLC. The reduction product o-tolidine (3,3'-dimethylbenzidine, OT) could indeed be detected showing that the strain used was able to metabolise DB 14 to the corresponding aromatic amine. In addition to OT, two further metabolites of DB 14 were detected. Using mass spectrometry they were identified as 3,3'-dimethyl-4-amino-4'-hydroxybiphenyl and 3, 3'-dimethyl-4-aminobiphenyl. The ability to cleave azo dyes seems to be widely distributed among human skin bacteria, as, under these in vitro conditions, bacteria isolated from healthy human skin and human skin bacteria from strain collections also exhibited azo reductase activity. Further studies are in progress in order to include additional azo dyes and coloured textiles. At the moment, the meaning of the results with regard to consumer health cannot be finally assessed.
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1-Phenylazo-2-hydroxynaphthol (Sudan I, C.I. Solvent Yellow 14) is a liver and urinary bladder carcinogen in mammals. We compared the ability of hepatic microsomal samples from different species including human to metabolize Sudan I. Comparison between experimental animals and human cytochromes P450 (CYP) is essential for the extrapolation of animal carcinogenicity data to assess human health risk. Human microsomes generated the pattern of Sudan I metabolites reproducing that formed by hepatic microsomes of rats. Using hepatic microsomes of rats pretreated with specific CYP inducers, microsomes from Baculovirus-transfected insect cells expressing recombinant human CYP enzymes, purified CYP enzymes, and selective CYP inhibitors, we found that rat CYP1A1 and recombinant human CYP1A1 are the most efficient enzymes metabolizing Sudan I. Microsomes from livers (the target of Sudan I carcinogenicity) of different human donors were used to estimate whether authentic human CYPs oxidize Sudan I. Using Western blot analysis and NH(2)-terminal sequencing, we were able to detect and quantify CYP1A1 in human hepatic microsomes. The sequence of nine amino acids of the protein band cross-reacting with antirat CYP1A1 in human microsomes, LFPISMSAT, matched the sequence of human CYP1A1 perfectly (residues 2-10). CYP1A1 expression levels varied significantly among the different human microsomes (0.04-2.4 pmol/mg protein), and constituted <0.6% of the total hepatic CYP complement. All of the human hepatic microsomal samples oxidized Sudan I to C-hydroxymetabolites. Moreover, using the nuclease P1-enhanced version of the (32)P-postlabeling assay, we found that human microsomes were competent in activating Sudan I to form adducts with DNA. The role of specific CYP enzymes in the human hepatic microsomal metabolism was investigated by correlating the CYP-catalytic activities (or CYP contents) in each microsomal sample with the levels of individual metabolites and/or Sudan I-DNA adducts formed by the same microsomes, and by examining the effects of agents that can inhibit specific CYP in Sudan I metabolism. On the basis of these studies, we attribute most of Sudan I metabolism in human microsomes to CYP1A1, but participation of CYP3A4 cannot be ruled out. These results, the first report on the metabolism of Sudan I by human CYP enzymes, strongly suggest a carcinogenic potency of this rodent carcinogen for humans.
Article
An accurate method based on the use of reversed-phase (RP) liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry interfaced with electrospray (LC-ESI-MS/MS) was devised for the determination of Sudan I, Sudan II, Sudan III and Sudan IV in hot chilli food samples. A simple sample treatment procedure entailing the use of an extraction step with acetone without clean-up was developed. A C18 column with an aqueous formic acid/methanol mixture as the mobile phase was used under isocratic conditions. Mass spectral acquisition was done in positive ion mode by applying selected reaction monitoring of three fragmentation transitions per compound to provide a high degree of selectivity. The method was in-house validated in terms of detection limits (LOD), quantitation limits (LOQ), linearity, sensitivity, accuracy, recovery, and selectivity on two kinds of hot chilli sauces. Good results in the low ng/g level were obtained for LOD and LOQ of all analytes in matrices. Under both intra-day repeatability (R.S.D. between 1 and 13%) and intermediate precision (about 5-15% R.S.D. for both chilli sauce matrices) conditions, precision proved to be typical of determinations based on electrospray LC-MS and acceptable for routine monitoring purposes. Extraction recoveries for all four azo-dyes in chilli tomato sauce ranged from 92 to 103% at a spiking level of 5 microg/kg, whereas values between 72 and 97% were calculated in chilli tomato and cheese sauce at the same concentration level. The applicability of the method to the determination of Sudan azo-dyes in hot chilli products was demonstrated.
Article
Modulation of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1-mediated oxidative activation and detoxication of carcinogenic Sudan I by the heme-protein cytochrome b(5) (b(5)) was investigated. Another aim of the study was to examine the formation of Sudan I-DNA adducts in vivo. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet (UV) detection was employed for the separation of Sudan I metabolites formed by human recombinant CYPs and rat CYP1A1. The (32)P-postlabeling technique was utilized to determine Sudan I-DNA adducts. The capabilities of the most efficient CYP enzymes oxidizing Sudan I, human and rat recombinant CYP1A1, as well as of human recombinant CYP1A2, 2A6 and 3A4 were significantly increased by b(5), while reactions catalyzed by human CYP1B1, 2C8, 2C9 and 2E1 were insensitive to this heme protein. Sudan I oxidation catalyzed by CYP2B6, 2C19 and 2D6 was even decreased by b(5). The stimulation of the CYP1A1-mediated Sudan I oxidation was dependent on concentration of b(5). Likewise, the increase in CYP1A1-mediated formation of Sudan I-DNA adducts by b(5) was concentration dependent. Other proteins containing heme such as cytochrome c or myoglobin were without this effect. The major Sudan I-DNA adducts formed in vitro are also generated in vivo, in livers of rats treated with Sudan I. The data are the first report on the stimulation of CYP1A1-mediated oxidative reactions by b(5). In addition, the results demonstrating covalent binding of Sudan I to rat liver DNA in vivo indicate a genotoxic mechanism of Sudan I carcinogenicity in rats.
Banned Sudan dyes, Sudan I -IV in foodstuffs
Federal Office of Public Health: Memo No. 97: Banned Sudan dyes, Sudan I -IV in foodstuffs, Berne, 22.6. 2004
RASFF. Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) Annual Report of the Functioning of the RASFF
Commission decision (E.C) n. 460/2003 of 20 June 2003. Off. J. Eur. Union, L., 154, 114, 2003. 39. RASFF. Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) Annual Report of the Functioning of the RASFF 2004. Version 2 of 06-04-2005. Available on: http://europa.eu.int.comm/food/food/rapidalert/r eport2004_en.pdf accessed on 21 June 2005.
Commission decision (E.C) n. 460
Commission decision (E.C) n. 460/2003 of 20 June 2003. Off. J. Eur. Union, L., 154, 114, 2003.