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Social Acceptance as a Prerequisite for Social Sustainability
Abstract
Of the three dimensions of sustainability—environmental, economic, and social—the social aspect is often the least well understood. However, social acceptance is a prerequisite to social sustainability: if a technology is rejected by a society or its members, it is not viable. Social acceptability can be studied using well-known survey techniques, and the information gathered can inform further efforts to understand the social sustainability of technologies. Eco-toilets (composting and urine diversion toilets) provide an excellent example of a technology that appears to be environmentally and economically sustainable, according to various measures, but might not be socially viable. In this research, preliminary analyses of some economic and environmental measures were followed by a household questionnaire to examine the social acceptability of eco-toilets. The questionnaire instrument was designed specifically for this purpose and queries attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs surrounding eco-toilets themselves as well as other related areas, such as risk and sensitivity to disgust. This instrument was implemented in a case study in coastal Massachusetts, where eco-toilets have been proposed as one potential solution to environmental pollution problems caused in large part by household sewage waste. Data collected with this questionnaire provide critical insight into factors influencing social acceptance of environmentally promising technologies. These insights can inform further efforts toward increasing social acceptance in the hope that eco-toilets could become a socially sustainable sanitation solution, or efforts toward inventing or selecting and evaluating alternative technologies that could sustainably meet household sanitation needs.
... Although the principles of the ETS are not entirely novel, such sanitation system is perceived as a new environmental technology [16]. The ETS is not always socially accepted in some communities since "flush and discharge" type became the norm, like in the Philippines. ...
Death due to diseases from poor sanitation is a serious global issue and it has become one of the priorities of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (i.e., SDG6). This SDG6 aims to provide adequate improved sanitation facilities to over 2.3 billion people around the world who have no or limited access to sanitation, wherein more than two-thirds of these un-served people live in rural areas. One of the strategies for addressing this global issue is through emerging sustainable sanitation technologies such as the Eco-Toilet System (ETS), which uses small amounts of water or is even waterless and recovers nutrients from human waste thereby promoting water-energy conservation, improved sanitation and supplement nutrients essential to plant growth. Social acceptance, however, remains a key barrier in deploying the ETS. A social perception study on the use of the ETS was conducted in a rural community in Mulanay, Philippines. The researchers analyzed the proposed combined technology acceptance model and theory of planned behavior (C-TAM-TPB) using multiple linear regression and the Mann-Whitney U-test to evaluate the perceptions and attitudes of a rural community towards the use of the ETS. The results showed that more than 50% of the respondents are aware of the nutrient value of human excreta and believe that it is usable as fertilizer; however, less than 25% prefer to utilize it for food production. Results also indicate that the behavior of the users is driven by their attitude (β = 0.420, p-value < 0.010). Moreover, the Mann-Whitney U-test results revealed that people who are knowledgeable of the nutrient value of human excreta and are willing to collect them have more positive attitude towards the ETS.
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) play an indispensable role in the process of urbanization and sustainable development, while their construction often faces challenges due to diverse public opinions. Therefore, strategies to improve public acceptance of WWTPs are essential for their implementation and the planning of wastewater system. To resolve this dilemma, publicly accessible WWTPs designed in conjunction with public spaces have emerged globally. In order to validate its effectiveness, this research investigated the public acceptance of publicly accessible WWTPs and the determinants of public acceptance in China, where an online questionnaire survey was launched with 3,000 responses and hypothesis testing was conducted using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The results indicated that compared to conventional WWTPs, publicly accessible WWTPs were much more preferred by the majority of respondents (92.3%). Moreover, this study revealed that factors including perceived benefit, perceived risk, and public spaces directly impact public acceptance, while trust and perceived fairness indirectly influence it. What’s more, this research highlighted and validated the significant role of public spaces in enhancing public acceptance of WWTPs, and enriched the understanding of how multiple factors influence public acceptance, providing practical implications for the site selection, design and management of publicly accessible WWTPs.
Le développement durable et, plus précisément, l’acceptabilité sociale ont pris une importance majeure dans la réalisation de tout projet. En effet, le succès d’un projet va au-delà des trois dimensions du Triangle d’or (échéancier, coûts et portée) pour prendre en compte la « Triple Bottom Line » incluant les aspects sociaux, environnementaux et économiques de leur réalisation et de leurs livrables. Ainsi, l’acceptabilité sociale se place comme un levier pour favoriser la motivation et la participation des parties prenantes à tout projet et facilite leur réalisation. Bien que de nombreuses études aient été menées sur l’acceptabilité sociale des projets dans les dernières années, le concept reste encore flou et mal défini, sans parler des nombreuses contradictions qui entravent la compréhension des facteurs influençant l’acceptabilité sociale des projets. Ce chapitre vise à approfondir les connaissances sur le sujet et à éclaircir les facteurs contribuant à l’acceptabilité sociale dans le contexte de projets. En s’appuyant sur les résultats d’une recension de littérature systématique, ce chapitre vise à contribuer aux connaissances sur le développement durable et l’acceptabilité en classant les facteurs d’acceptabilité sociale en quatre groupes : organisationnels, contextuels, individuels et propres au projet. Cette catégorisation permettra de comprendre les enjeux d’acceptabilité sociale des projets et d’identifier des pistes pour assurer l’adhésion et l’engagement des parties prenantes.
Dunlap and Van Liere's New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) Scale, published in 1978, has become a widely used measure of proenvironmental orientation. This article develops a revised NEP Scale designed to improve upon the original one in several respects: ( 1 ) It taps a wider range of facets of an ecological worldview, ( 2 ) It offers a balanced set of pro- and anti-NEP items, and ( 3 ) It avoids outmoded terminology. The new scale, termed the New Ecological Paradigm Scale, consists of 15 items. Results of a 1990 Washington State survey suggest that the items can be treated as an internally consistent summated rating scale and also indicate a modest growth in pro-NEP responses among Washington residents over the 14 years since the original study.
Centralized waterborne sanitation faces serious social, economic and environmental sustainability challenges. Dry sanitation (DS) may ease some of those, but it is not known whether DS can be a viable solution at large scales and in urban settings. We assessed DS viability in a broad range of large scale and urban contexts in Mexico. Here, we synthesize the operational and structural barriers encountered across a diversity of sites, provide an understanding of how and why those barriers arose and propose a set of strategies through which those barriers can be addressed. We include reference to other large-scale and urban experiences outside Mexico.
Ecological sanitation, or ecosan, refers to a range of sanitation technologies in which human excreta is recovered and retained on-site, and eventually reused. However, when a culture does not have a tradition of reusing or handling human waste, what would motivate a household within that culture to recycle and reuse their waste? More specifically, how do the agricultural value of the material from an ecosan toilet and user perspectives on ecosan systems influence households' adoption of ecosan toilets? On average, households in the study area produce 4 kilograms of nitrogen and 0.6 kilograms of phosphorous per year from urine collected in the skyloo toilet, the type of urine-diverting ecosan toilet available in the study area in the Nyanza Province, Kenya. These nutrients are the equivalent of a cost savings of about US 1 100). About two-thirds of the households reuse the processed feces and urine in household gardens. Users reported additional major benefits such as the absence of foul odors, inexpensive construction costs (partly due to a materials subsidy by the promoting NGO), and the aesthetic value/social status that the facility brings to the owners' homes.
In the 4 studies presented (N = 1,939), a converging set of analyses was conducted to evaluate the item adequacy, factor structure, reliability, and validity of the Disgust Scale (DS; J. Haidt, C. McCauley, & P. Rozin, 1994). The results suggest that 7 items (i.e., Items 2, 7, 8, 21, 23, 24, and 25) should be considered for removal from the DS. Secondary to removing the items, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the DS taps 3 dimensions of disgust: Core Disgust, Animal Reminder Disgust, and Contamination-Based Disgust. Women scored higher than men on the 3 disgust dimensions. Structural modeling provided support for the specificity of the 3-factor model, as Core Disgust and Contamination-Based Disgust were significantly predictive of obsessive- compulsive disorder (OCD) concerns, whereas Animal Reminder Disgust was not. Results from a clinical sample indicated that patients with OCD washing concerns scored significantly higher than patients with OCD without washing concerns on both Core Disgust and Contamination-Based Disgust, but not on Animal Reminder Disgust. These findings are discussed in the context of the refinement of the DS to promote a more psychometrically sound assessment of disgust sensitivity.
Household-centered technologies such as urine source separation (NoMix technology) could induce a paradigm change in urban wastewater management, hereby improving water pollution control and resource management. Technological innovations need real-world application for further development. The Swiss research project Novaquatis accompanied five pilot projects from 1997 on. We give a systematic overview of our experience, summarizing various important aspects, a fundamental one being a clearly defined goal. Early stakeholder involvement is crucial, because the still imperfect NoMix technology depends on people's goodwill. We reference data sheets, legal documents, etc. and make suggestions for installation, maintenance, and technology improvement. We identify areas for future research necessitating pilot projects and discuss their requirements to optimize the cost-benefit factor. This paper is intended as support to wastewater professionals to avoid the most serious pitfalls when conducting NoMix pilot projects. It contributes to increased interaction between research and real-world application of urban European household innovations.
In adoption decisions for decentralized sanitation technologies, two decision makers are involved: the public utility and the individual homeowner. Standard life cycle cost is calculated from the perspective of the utility, which uses a market-based discount rate in these calculations. However, both decision-makers must be considered, including their differing perceptions of the time tradeoffs inherent in a stream of costs and benefits. This study uses the discount rate as a proxy for these perceptions and decision-maker preferences. The results in two case studies emphasize the dependence on location of such analyses. Falmouth, Massachusetts, appears to be a good candidate for incentivizing decentralized sanitation while the Allegheny County Sanitary Authority service area in Pennsylvania appears to have no need for similar incentives. This method can be applied to any two-party decision in which the parties are expected to have different discount rates.
Household wastewater, especially from conventional septic systems, is a major contributor to nitrogen pollution. Alternative household wastewater management technologies provide similar sewerage management services but their life cycle costs and nitrogen flow implications remain uncertain. This paper addresses two key questions: (1) what are the total costs, nitrogen mitigation potential, and cost-effectiveness of a range of conventional and alternative municipal wastewater treatment technologies, and (2) what uncertainties influence these outcomes and how can we improve our understanding of these technologies? We estimate a household nitrogen mass balance for various household wastewater treatment systems and combine this mass balance with life cycle cost assessment to calculate the cost-effectiveness of nitrogen mitigation, which we define as nitrogen removed from the local watershed. We apply our methods to Falmouth, MA, where failing septic systems have caused heightened eutrophication in local receiving water bodies. We find that flushing and dry (composting) urine-diversion toilets paired with conventional septic systems for greywater management demonstrate the lowest life cycle cost and highest cost-effectiveness (dollars per kilogram of nitrogen removed from the watershed). Composting toilets are also attractive options in some cases, particularly best-case nitrogen mitigation. Innovative/advanced septic systems designed for high-level nitrogen removal are cost-competitive options for newly constructed homes, except at their most expensive. A centralized wastewater treatment plant is the most expensive and least cost-effective option in all cases. Using a greywater recycling system with any treatment technology increases the cost without adding any nitrogen removal benefits. Sensitivity analysis shows that these results are robust considering a range of cases and uncertainties.
Sustainable management of water and wastewater infrastructure is essential to ensure future water quantity and quality goals are achieved. In self-sustaining decentralized wastewater management, toilet wastewater (blackwater) which contains a majority of organic material, pathogens and nutrients is separated from remaining wastewater. High organic loading in concentrated blackwater makes anaerobic digestion a feasible option for treatment. Decentralized management of blackwater using advanced reactor technologies is often considered for application in new developments and re-development projects due to localized benefits provided to the end user. Decentralized anaerobic treatment of blackwater stands out in its ability to extract and conserve green water and energy resources from blackwater and promote reuse of these resources at a local level. A demonstration scale, 95 L, upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor was constructed on the Foothills Campus of Colorado State University (CSU) to treat blackwater produced in an academic research building. This demonstration scale project is a follow up to a planning study which outlined options for sustainable wastewater treatment for the CSU Foothills Campus. Results from this study intend to demonstrate the treatability of research campus blackwater in a UASB reactor and sustainable benefits ensuing from anaerobic digestion of blackwater. Treatment efficiency of the UASB was monitored in respect to reductions in chemical oxygen demand (COD), pathogens, and suspended solids. Sustainable aspects of this study include potential to offset energy input into the UASB through use of biogas produced as fuel, nutrient recovery and reuse, and disinfected effluent reuse. Data provided in this study will provide further insight into the effectiveness and safety of decentralized management of blackwater and reuse of resources contained within blackwater. It is anticipated that data will also be useful as guidance for the basis of regulations on applying advanced decentralized wastewater management systems in sustainable development projects. Such data is vital to encourage incorporation of sustainable treatment technologies as aging and failing infrastructure is rapidly becoming in need of replacement and new developments are constructed. This research is in line with recent study efforts put forth by the USEPA attempting to develop technologies and methods for new and existing developments to achieve both water and energy independence from typical centralized grid systems.
Decision making in sanitation planning is often complex, with inherent trade‐offs among sociopolitical, environmental, technical and economic factors. The selection of appropriate and sustainable sanitation systems for municipal wastewater treatment involves multiple criteria with conflicting stakeholder preferences. To fulfil conflicting yet complementary objectives, one of the best known and most widely used multi‐criteria analysis (MCA) approaches called the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) has been employed as a decision support tool to aid decision makers in sanitation planning process in developing countries. AHP, in combination with life cycle assessment (LCA) and a proposed set of multidimensional criteria, has worked as an effective decision support tool for the sustainability assessment and selection of appropriate wastewater treatment system with a capacity of 1200 m3/day, in a case study in Toan Thang, a small town in Vietnam. Results from this case study have indicated that the public's understanding of trade‐offs is critical in gaining public support for long‐term sustainability of the solution. The findings from this study have also shown AHP as an effective and flexible communication tool for group decision making in sanitation planning.
In this chapter, we report on three psychometric scaling studies, summarized in Table 1. In each study, participants rated a given set of hazards on a range of risk characteristics and indicated the degree of risk reduction and regulation they desired. Based on this data, we explore the relationships among risk characteristics and a smaller number of dimensions (factors) derived from them. We also relate risk characteristics to people's perception of risk and their desire for risk reduction and regulation. Our work builds on and extends earlier studies with a smaller number of hazards and risk characteristics (Fischhoff et al., 1978).
Dry sanitation (DS) may be part of the solution to water scarcity, water quality deterioration and lack of resources to provide or maintain waterborne sewage systems. However, the worldwide paucity of large-scale, urban case studies makes assessment of DS as a potential urban water management strategy difficult. Urban DS viability depends in part on urban users' satisfaction with dry toilets (DTs) and whether they would accept them as long-term sanitation options. We analyze user acceptance and satisfaction with DS in five Mexican cities. When toilets functioned well (four out of five sites), users were highly satisfied. Similar levels of satisfaction were found under conditions of different DT models, types of DS program and income-level of the population. User motivation, choice and adequate support services were positively associated with satisfaction. Incentives such as indoor, aesthetic DTs, maintenance and end-product collection services, as well as higher water supply pricing, would encourage people to accept DS as a long-term option. We discuss reasons for dissatisfaction at one of the study sites.
Grey water consists of the discharges from kitchen sinks, showers, baths, washing machines and hand basins. Thorough characterization of 192 time proportional samples of grey water from 32 houses was conducted over a period of 14 months. COD concentrations were 724 ± 150 mg L− 1, of which 34% was present as suspended COD, 25% as colloidal COD and 38% as soluble COD. The maximum anaerobic biodegradability of grey water of 70 ± 5% indicates the possibility of recovering the COD as methane. However, the low hydrolysis constant makes the application of anaerobic treatment unsuitable. Surfactants accounted for 15% of the total COD. The concentrations of anionic, cationic and noninonic surfactants were 41.1 ± 12.1 mg L− 1, 1.7 ± 0.8 mg L− 1 and 11.3 ± 3.9 mg L− 1, respectively. Of the trace elements which were measured were present below limits suggested for irrigation. Only boron (0.53 ± 0.19 mg L− 1) in a few measurements exceeded the 0.75 mg L− 1 limit established for long term irrigation.Research Highlights►Grey water contains 724 mg L− 1 of total COD of which 34% was suspended, 25% colloidal and 38% soluble. ►The anaerobic degradability was 70 ± 5% with a hydrolysis rate constant of 0.02 ± 0.01 d− 1. ►Grey water contained 41 ± 12 mg L− 1of anionic surfactants, about 15% of the total COD. ►Concentrations of metals in grey water were below limits suggested for irrigation.
We describe the development of a reliable measure of individual differences in disgust sensitivity. The 32-item Disgust Scale includes 2 true-false and 2 disgust-rating items for each of 7 domains of disgust elicitors (food, animals, body products, sex, body envelope violations, death, and hygiene) and for a domain of magical thinking (via similarity and contagion) that cuts across the 7 domains of elicitors. Correlations with other scales provide initial evidence of convergent and discriminant validity: the Disgust Scale correlates moderately with Sensation Seeking (r= - 0.46) and with Fear of Death (r= 0.39), correlates weakly with Neuroticism (r = 0.23) and Psychoticism (r= - 0.25), and correlates negligibly with Self-Monitoring and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Extraversion and Lie scales. Females score higher than males on the Disgust Scale. We suggest that the 7 domains of disgust elicitors all have in common that they remind us of our animality and, especially, of our mortality. Thus we see disgust as a defensive emotion that maintains and emphasizes the line between human and animal.
Risk perceptions of a series of biotechnology applications were examined in a public (nonexpert) sample and an expert sample. Compared with the experts, the public perceived all biotechnology applications as more risky. Both groups perceived food-related applications to be riskier than medical applications. Compared with the public, experts perceived both food and medical applications as less harmful and more useful. Experts also judged the risks posed from medical biotechnology applications as more familiar and acknowledged by people and science. Lay estimates of the risk of food applications were predicted by potential harm, potential benefits, science knowledge, and familiarity; experts' estimates were predicted only by harm and benefits. Lay estimates of the risk of medical applications were predicted by potential harm; experts' estimates were predicted by potential benefits, number and type of people exposed, and science knowledge. We discuss the implications of the results for risk communication about and management of different types of biotechnologies.
This paper discusses the discounted utility (DU) model: its historical development, underlying assumptions, and "anomalies"--the empirical regularities that are inconsistent with its theoretical predictions. We then summarize the alternate theoretical formulations that have been advanced to address these anomalies. We also review three decades of empirical research on intertemporal choice, and discuss reasons for the spectacular variation in implicit discount rates across studies. Throughout the paper, we stress the importance of distinguishing time preference, per se, from many other considerations that also influence intertemporal choices.
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