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Geological Map of Peninsular Malaysia
Abstract
Tate, R.B., Tan, D.N.K. & Ng, T.F., 2008. Geological Map of Peninsular Malaysia. Scale 1:1 000 000. Geological Society of Malaysia & University Malaya.
... (a) Peninsular Malaysia's typified regional geological map (modified afterTate et al., 2009). (b) Penang Island's geological map (modified afterOng, 1993). ...
Surface–subsurface soil-rock modeling is crucial for infrastructure design and groundwater yield optimization, especially in the complex crystalline basement terrains of Penang Island, Malaysia. This study conducted large-scale characterization of soil-rock profiles using ERT, SRT, rock quality designation, and soil penetration test (SPT N-values) data, optimized through regression modeling. The approach effectively identified soil-rock structures and their suitability to prevent structural failures and enhance groundwater productivity. Correlations between borehole lithologic logs and velocity–resistivity models revealed distinct soil compositions across the study area. The results highlighted thick, saturated, and loose silty to sandy bodies in the eastern to northern sections, contrasting with sandy compositions and penetrative fractures in the southern part. The study also found good correlations between rock mass quality and N-values for different soil types. Depths of intra-bedrock weathered/fractured units varied between 12 and >35 m. This has significant implications for determining optimal foundation depths in the study area. Groundwater productivity was associated with intra-bedrock planes of weakness at depths exceeding 40 m. Overall, this study developed empirical relations between geophysical and geotechnical parameters for wet tropical granitic terrains, filling critical gaps in understanding subsurface characteristics.
... Geological map of Shah Alam and the location of Kenny Hill formation[28]. ...
The sliding failures commonly occur in interbedded formations along the weakness plane of the bedding plane a sedimentary rock or the joint interface. Therefore, studying the shear strength characteristics at the bedding plane or interface is crucial for evaluating the expected failure plane. In this study, the shear strength characteristics of planar jointed Kenny Hill shale, sandstone, and shale-sandstone specimens were investigated using the direct shear box method. The results reveal that the friction angle values for the planar sandstone, shale-sandstone, and shale are 31.28°, 21.1°, and 19.34°, respectively. These findings, combined with the shear stress-strain behavior, suggest that the interface (shale-sandstone) is primarily influenced by the shale characteristics rather than the sandstone characteristics. Hence, it is important to consider failure along the interface when analyzing critical conditions, particularly in slope failure scenarios.
... Note the white star symbol in the map represent the major gold deposit. After (Tate et al. 2009;Yeap 1993) (Metcalfe 2013b;Metcalfe & Chakraborty 1996), together with products of the Sukhothai arc which is intermediate to felsic volcanic and they were generally younger in age, mainly formed in the Middle Triassic age and considered products of subduction related I-Type granitoids (Ghani 2009). ...
The Ulu Sokor gold deposit is classified as orogenic type deposit with evidence from previous studies on the structural, mineralogical, alteration, fluid inclusion, and stable isotope data. This study focuses on the mineralogy and geochemical analysis of representative ore rock samples from southern part of Ulu Sokor gold deposits. The project area is situated at the North of Kelantan state which lies on the Central Belt of Peninsular Malaysia. The main objective of this research is to determine the gold mineralization enrichment pattern relative to other trace elements based on the new data of mineralogy and geochemical analysis. Gold mineralization is primarily hosted in structurally controlled quartz vein which occurs in various degrees of ductile-brittle environment. Based on the field relationships, ore microscopy and geochemical data analysis, there are two main gold mineralization type in the southern part of Ulu Sokor gold deposit, namely (1) Gold associated and as inclusions in bismuthinite based on the mineralogy study, and (2) Refractory gold occurs as lattice bound in pyrite based on the Au/As molar ratio. In terms of mineral exploration and gold prospecting, the significant enrichment in this study area is Bi. However, some other metals can also be considered as a significant value in this area such as Pb, As, Cu and Zn. From the bulk ore chemistry, the geometric mean values of Au and Bi are 1.9 ppm Au (n=23) and 96 ppm Bi (n=22), respectively. The knowledge base for bismuth minerals in Malaysia would provide a significant targeting clue for the gold mineralization.
... Moreover, broken concrete drainage at the top of the terrace appears due to the instability of the ground motion. [13] and survey area; (d) Topography of USM [14]; (e) Topography of Lojing [14] Methodology ...
... 1-4, 2017 TEXT-FIGURE 2 Simplified geological map of the Malay Peninsula. AfterTate et al. (2009) and Metcalfe (2013b). ...
Improved biostratigraphic dating and enhanced understanding of the stratigraphy and depositional and tectonic environments of Devonian and Carboniferous sequences in Malaysia have resolved ambiguities in previous published work and better constrain the nature and timing of the stages of tectonic evolution of the region. The Devonian and Carboniferous stratigraphy of theMalay Peninsula is discussed within a tectonic framework that includes a western Sibumasu Terrane and an eastern Sukhothai Arc (Indochina) block separated by the Bentong-Raub Suture Zone that represents the former Devonian-Triassic Palaeo-Tethys Ocean. The stratigraphy and depositional environments of the Devonian and Carboniferous of Peninsular Malaysia provide important insights into the switch from deposition in shallow shelf to deeper-water margin-slope environments on the passive margin of Gondwana during the early development of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean. In addition, the Devonian and Carboniferous sediments and faunas of theWestern Belt of the Malay Peninsula support and are consistent with placement of the Sibumasu Terrane on the Palaeozoic margin of AustralianGondwana until the early Permian (Sakmarian). Carboniferous sedimentary rocks of the Eastern Belt of theMalay Peninsula were deposited on the margin of the equatorial Indochina Block onwhich the SukhothaiArc was constructed. Previously erected stratigraphical units, such as the 'Karak Formation', 'Bentong Group', 'Raub Group', and 'Pelong Beds'for Bentong-Raub Suture Zone complex rocks, are meaningless as stratigraphic units, and their use should be discontinued. Devonian and Carboniferous conodont biostratigraphy in the Malay Peninsula is relatively poorly known. The Lower Devonian Pterospathodus amorphognathoides Zone, Ozarkodina eosteinhornensis Zone, and Icriodus woschmidti Zone faunas are known from the Mempelam Limestone of Langkawi and Perlis, and the Upper Devonian (Frasnian) Palmatolepis linguiformis Zone faunas occur in the Sanai Limestone of Perlis. Conodont faunas of the Kanthan Limestone in Perak represent Lower-MiddleDevonian (Emsian-Giventian) Eocostapolygnathus gronbergi Zone-Polygnathus asymmetricus Zone faunas, andMississippian upper Tournaisian Scaliognathus anchoralis Zone, Visean Lochriea commutatus Zone, and Gnathodus bilineatus Zone faunas. Basal Pennsylvanian Declinognathodus noduliferus Zone faunas are also present. Significant reworking of conodonts into the Tournaisian and Visean limestones is recorded. Conodont faunas of the Panching Limestone in the eastern Belt of the Malay Peninsula represent the earliest Pennsylvanian D. Noduliferus s.l.-Rhachistognathus primus Zone.
... Distribution and habitat:-So far only known from forested stream banks in Kemaman, Terengganu (Fig. 3). The lowland forest in this region is underlain with undifferentiated acid intrusive rocks (Tate et al. 2008). ...
Melastoma kemamanense is here described as a new species. It is characterised by broad, scabrid leaves, twigs with closely appressed scales, flowers in compact cymes, and anisomorphic stamens. It is similar to Melastoma imbricatum but differs from it by the thickly overlapping hypanthium scales and larger mature fruits. This new species is so far only known from northeast Peninsular Malaysia.
... Based on the petrography, the granite is composed predominantly of quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase and biotite with subordinate muscovite, apatite, zircon, sphene, rutile and magnetite [4]. Askury Abd Kadir [1] has categorized two units of granitoids in Gunung Ledang: (1) Ledang type (dominant type): pinkish- Figure 1 Lithological map of the Gunung Ledang and surrounding area (Modified from [4]; [6]). coloured, equigranular, medium grained biotite granite and; (2) Bekok type: microgranite which occurs in diameter of few meters to 100m, with rounded and oval shape that is trapped in the Ledang type granite. ...
Based on the deformationsin the Cretaceous rocks and also the results of the radiometric dating of the fault zones [9], it is proven that tectonics of onshore Peninsular Malaysia was still active during post-Cretaceous. These deformations may contribute to the basin formation/inversion during Tertiary period in Sundaland. The study area is Cretaceous granite, Gunung Ledang, which situated in North Johor. The objective of this study is to determine the major fracture sets at regional-and outcrop-scales and reconstruct the structural events. In this study, the focus are negative lineaments of Gunung Ledang at a regional-scale and the fractures of the Puteri Waterfall at outcrop-scale. During site visit, the details of the fracture e.g. infilling, sense of motions, are recorded. From the observations and analysis, there are 3 negative lineament sets at regional-scale: N-S, NE-SW and ESE-WNW; 4 fractures sets found at the outcrop-scale: N-S, NE-SW, E-W and NW-SE. The outcrop-scale fractures are all steeply to almost vertically dipping. The cross-cutting relationships show that the chronology of the fractures are N-S, NE-SW/E-W and NW-SE, from oldest to youngest. NE-SW fracture displaces a N-S mega-crystal quartz dyke in left-lateral motion, which deduce a ~N-S compression. Another possible riedel system (right-lateral strike-slip) formed on the same NE-SW fractures, which deduce a ~E-W compression. The chronology of these two events are hard to define because of lack of clear field evidences.
... The studied river basins (Rajang, Baram & Trusan) of Borneo are dominated by Cenozoic siliciclastic sediments (sandstone and shale; Tate, 2002). The dominant bedrock types underlying the catchments of investigated rivers are granite and granodiorite for Terengganu and Pahang Rivers and some additional sedimentary rocks such as shale, sandstone and limestone (Tate et al., 2008) for Kelantan River. The bedrocks of these three rivers on the Malay Peninsula experience a generally stable tectonic setting since the Mesozoic and have low relief landscape. ...
Clay mineral assemblages and major-element geochemistry of surface sediments of the tropical river-estuary system of Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang Rivers were investigated. Clay minerals in these three major rivers mainly consist of kaolinite (72%-75%), illite (13%-20%), chlorite (7%-10%) and minor smectite (<1%). A change in clay mineral contents (chlorite+illit) from upstream to the downstram (kaolinite) pointed to the alteration sequence of more stable mineral under the hot and humid conditions. The geochemical study indicated that the concentrations of major elements decrease from the middle course to estuary. Elemental ratios suggest that CaO and Na2O are the most chemically mobile elements while Fe2O3 is the least for the three investigated rivers. Formation of clay minerals (Al-rich) occur with enrichment of quartz (Si-rich) and feldspar (Na-rich). The illite chemistry index in these river basins averages 0.49 and is supported by the high chemical index of alteration (CIA) (>80) which shows that intensive chemical weathering had occurred in the Kelantan River, Terengganu River and Pahang River basins. The CIA values increase both north and southward directions from the Terengganu River pointing to the localized variations. The CIA values in clay fraction (<2pm) generally increased from the middle to the lower watershed.
Understanding the spatial variations in soil-rock profiles is crucial for identifying weathered rock layers and mapping geological structures, particularly in the complex feldspar-rich granitic terrain of Penang Island, Malaysia. This study employs a combination of electrical resistivity and seismic refraction tomographic techniques, along with borehole lithological data, in three distinct areas on the island. Its goal is to provide insights into surficial and subsurface soil-rock properties and water-bearing structures within the North Penang Pluton (including a part of the Sungai Ara axis) for sustainable groundwater development, addressing the region's growing population's needs. The research identifies three distinct geological units near the surface: residual soils, highly to moderately weathered/fractured granitic layers, and fresh bedrock, each with its hydrogeological properties. Promisingly, the weathered layers offer significant groundwater development potential, with deep-weathered and potentially fractured zones exceeding 30 meters in the study area. These findings have substantial implications for sustainable groundwater development, especially in tropical hard-rock terrains. Additionally, the study underscores the limitations of small geophysical spacings for probing deeper groundwater resources. This knowledge is essential for informed decision-making in water resource management and infrastructure development, addressing the ongoing global challenge of ensuring access to clean water resources amid population growth.
Natural hydrogen is one of the key elements in the green energy initiative for the carbon net zero strategy of the world. Serpentinization is known as the most common process that generates natural hydrogen. This research work is aimed to gain a deeper understanding of the mineralogical composition and distribution of ophiolites in Peninsular Malaysia and to evaluate the potential of natural hydrogen generated from serpentinization processes. Field studies were conducted in various areas along the Bentong-Raub suture zone to study ophiolite rock occurrences in the suture zone. Standard petrographic and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses were conducted to examine the mineralogical and chemical composition of rocks samples. The results show the majority of samples contain a significant amount of serpentine minerals such as antigorite, cronstedtite and lizardite, as well as some unaltered ultramafic minerals (e.g., forsterite, fayalite, pyroxene and hornblende), and secondary minerals (e.g., magnetite and chromite). The degree of serpentinization varies between 15% and 93% of the bulk volume with most samples exceeding 75%. Samples collected at Sungai Koyan, Cheroh, Bentong, and Bukit Rokan are characterized by high concentrations of antigorite, a type of Mg-rich serpentine. In contrast, cronstedtite, a Fe-rich serpentine mineral, is the dominant species in the samples from the Petaseh area. The mineralogy of the samples indicates hydrogen generation occurred via the reaction between fayalite (Fe-rich olivine) reaction with water, which is consistent with the observation that a significant amount of magnetite was found within samples from the Petaseh outcrop. Findings from a geochemical and mineralogical analysis reveal a significant serpentinization process along the Bentong-Raub suture zone, ultimately producing a substantial amount of hydrogen. These results highlight a potential natural hydrogen source in Peninsular Malaysia; however, supplementary research is necessary for further evaluation.
Rock quality designation (RQD) is a critical geoengineering/geotechnical parameter for evaluating rock mass quality (RMQ), which is a preliminary construction decision-making tool. As a result, the soil-rock conditions of the southern part of Penang Island, Malaysia, a typical tropical granitic terrain, were evaluated using integrated multidimensional seismic P-wave velocity (Vp), electrical resistivity (ρ), and borehole-based RQD datasets. The regression analytical modeling technique was used to establish lithology-based correlations linking RQD with Vp and ρ data. The study aims to provide novel insights for estimating RQD from Vp and ρ based models to understand the RMQ, boundary conditions, and architecture of surficial-to-subsurface soil-rock profiles for infrastructure design. In addition, methodological approaches, and empirical relationships adaptable to granitic terrains for estimating RQD where borehole drillings are impossible are being developed. The ρ model provided significant results in addressing the limitations of the seismic refraction method by accurately delineating soil-rock conditions with shallow overburden. The study area is characterized by residual soils and poorly weathered rocks, which are rippable and unsuitable units for the placement of infrastructure foundations. However, the potential sections for foundation placement were identified suitably on the integral/fresh bedrock between the depths of 8m and 25 m in the study area. Reinforced concrete piling to fresh bedrock is most preferred. Most importantly, the empirical relations derived for RQD with Vp and ρ data yielded strong correlations and potentially high prediction results, with R^2 values of 0.96 (96%) to 0.99 (99%). Generally, the research findings will considerably reduce the uncertainties and costs associated with borehole-based RQD evaluation for large aerial extents.
Late Kungurian (Lower Permian) conodonts are described from the Kanthan Limestone, Perak, Peninsular Malaysia and for the first time from the Sibumasu Terrane of the Malay Peninsula. The co-occurrence of Gullodus duani , Gullodus hemicircularis, Gullodus sicilianus, Mesogondolella lamberti and Mesogondolella siciliensis represent the Mesogondolella lamberti International Conodont Zone and the broadly equivalent Mesogondolella siciliensis Regional Conodont Zone. A small fault-bounded basal Pennsylvanian (basal Bashkirian) conodont fauna including Gnathodus girtyi simplex and Declinognathodus inaequali s is also reported. The late Kungurian conodonts from the Kanthan Limestone were deposited in a relatively deep-water environment on the northern passive margin of the Sibumasu Terrane of the eastern Cimmerian Continent located at c. 35 o S latitude. Biogeographically, the fauna represents the southern peri-Gondwana Cool Water Province which is consistent with its palaeogeographic location. A new scheme, utilizing characteristics of P1 elements, including position of the 1st denticle, location of 2nd and 3rd denticles, platform shape, platform cross-section, denticle shape in cross-section, and lateral denticle development is proposed for distinguishing between species of the hindeodid genera Gullodus , Hindeodus and Isarcicella. The late Kungurian fauna from the Kanthan Limestone represents the southern peri-Gondwana Cool Water Province supporting palaeogeographic reconstructions placing the Sibumasu Terrane in moderate southern palaeolatitudes in the Kungurian.
In complex tropical granitic terrains, foundation rocks' bearing strength is important in infrastructure design, while bedrock fractures that adversely impact engineering structures can boost groundwater productivity. Consequently, rock quality designation (RQD) can characterize these features effectively. This technique is difficult to determine in boreholes and relatively costly for a large area. As a result, novel approaches were employed to effectively determine RQD over a large aerial extent using statistically optimized borehole and seismic P-wave velocity (Vp) data with compensated resistivity modeling. This study was carried out in the typical granitic terrain of Penang Island, Malaysia. The first stage involves evaluating and developing borehole-based RQD models, and the results were correlated with Vp data and were regressively analyzed to develop lithology-based empirical relations. These empirical relations were used for developing 2D/3D SRT (seismic refraction tomography) based RQD models and were treated as novel models. Integrating the borehole-based and SRT-based RQD models with compensated resistivity models effectively delineate the surficial-to-subsurface soil-rock profiles based on their rock mass quality (RMQ) and conditions, as residual soil, completely weathered rock, relatively weathered rock, and integral/fresh granitic bedrock, including different directional and multiple axial fractures. Based on these results, the highlighted suitable sections for founding the foundations of infrastructure are pinned on the fresh bedrock at the depths of 8-25 m, with >2400 m/s, >2000 Ω m, and RQD >90%. The deep-weathered/fractured zones, with depth >35 m at localized sections, are water-bearing proposed for groundwater development. Overall, the methods and lithology-based empirical relationships can be adopted in granitic terrains to rapidly estimate RQD for a vast area with few and no borehole data.
The significance of velocity-resistivity relationships has been utilized in various geologic terrains and under different conditions. The approach is yet to be exploited in tropical granitic terrains, with no definitive empirical relationships being developed. These empirical relationships are critical for rapidly delineating subsurface petrophysical, geomechanical, hydrogeological, and soil-rock features. As a result, a novel approach was used to develop velocity-resistivity empirical relationships for tropical granitic environments, combining complex collocated velocity (Vp) and resistivity (𝜌) models with simple linear regression analysis. The granitic terrain of Penang Island, Malaysia, was chosen as the study area. The geotomographic results delineated three layers, which include the residual soils (topsoil and completely weathered granite), highly to relatively weathered granitic units (including fractures), and integral/fresh granitic bedrock. Due to the complexity, ruggedness, and varying weathering and fracturing conditions of the subsurface lithologic units in tropical regions, the supervised regression modeling successfully developed a unified and three specific velocity-resistivity empirical relations for the lithologic units. The derived velocity-resistivity empirical relations have high practical prediction accuracy to predict Vp data. The predicted Vp data and models from the velocity-resistivity relations had good lithological and structural correlations with their observed models. The overall performance of the results indicated that the velocity-resistivity empirical relations could delineate the subsurface geologic variabilities distinctively because they are resistivity-dependent. Hence, the developed comprehensive methodological and SLR workflows and the velocity-resistivity empirical relations were posited for use in granitic terrains with similar geology to the study area, especially in areas with shallow overburden.
The mapping of failure that uses acoustic emission (AE) is an advanced approach when tracking the location of cracks in rock materials under progressive stress. However, attenuation of the acoustic wave significantly affects the identification of the acoustic source. The isotropic attenuation model suggests a constant attenuation in all rock material directions, which provides unrealistic failure mapping for anisotropic rocks. This study investigated the impact of high attenuation on the mapping failure of a composite (sandstone-shale-sandstone), intact sandstone, and shale specimens that used AE under axial stress. The results proved that wave attenuation is the primary obstacle when obtaining a compatible failure map to the real specimen failure. Multiple setups of AE sensors were implemented to quantify the attenuation values for a wave that propagated across composite joints and shale bedding planes. The amplitude and energy attenuation (EA) values increased by 85% and 47%, respectively, when the bedding plane of the shale was from 0°to 90°, which reflected anisotropic behavior. The energy and amplitude reduction reached 99% and 39%, respectively, by propagating across a single joint. In addition, behind a double joint, no signal was received. However, the application of a load perpendicular to the joint interface improved the acoustical-wave characteristics. Therefore, when the rock material anisotropy was increased, there was lower accuracy when mapping specimen failure, because the atten-uation varied at each angle between the source and sensor. In addition, the EA method suggested in this study presented hits location more precisely compared with the P-velocity (Vp) method. These findings could contribute to the development of an anisotropic attenuation model for field and laboratory application of AE.
The nature and rippability conditions (rock mass quality [RMQ]) of the near-surface lithologic units of Batu Maung, Penang Island, Malaysia, were investigated to develop sustainable groundwater and infrastructure. This study used a novel approach that combined seismic refraction tomography (SRT), electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), borehole drilling, and simple linear regression (SLR) analysis. The seismic P-wave velocity (Vp) and resistivity models revealed four distinctive units: residual soils (silty sand), very poor-to-good (weathered) granite, and the fresh granitic unit, including the fractured/faulted zones. The thicknesses of the residual and weathered materials ranged from a few centimeters to 15 m and 1.0–16 m, respectively. The developed empirical relationship effectively predicted rock quality designation (RQD) from Vp data through SLR analysis, with a prediction accuracy of 96% and p-values<0.05. Also, the results from five key regression assumptions: linear relationship, multivariate normality, no multicollinearity, no autocorrelation, and homoscedasticity, suggested an accurate and statistically significant empirical relationship for use in tropical granitic environments. The RMQ statistical model accurately classified the lithologic units beneath the area into Classes I–VI. Due to the low bearing load of the rippable residual soils, very poor-to-fair weathered granitic rock masses, and fractured/faulted zones based on their Vp and resistivity values, and the steep slopes in the northern section of the study area, all intended infrastructures, particularly high-rise buildings and buildings with continuous footing foundations, should be piled to rest on the non-rippable fresh granitic unit with RQD and Vp values of >90% and >2100 m/s, respectively, in the central to the northcentral section in the study area. Conversely, the deep-weathered/fractured zones of depths >35 m, beneath profile 1, towards the central part of the area, with resistivity and Vp values of 100–900 Ω-m and <1900 m/s, respectively, were identified as potentially water-containing zones for sustainable groundwater abstraction.
Acoustic emission has a series of successful studies in mapping of brittle isotropic rock material. However, the underground lithology isn't ideally homogenous as a laboratory specimen. Particularly, for anisotropic, soft, jointed, weathered rock mass, the need for more realistic model is still there. This study investigates the main issues faced in mapping the failure of composite (sandstone-shale-sandstone), intact sandstone, and shale specimens by utilizing acoustic emission under unconfined stress. The results proved that wave attenuation is the primary obstacle in obtaining a compatible failure map to the real specimen failure. Multiple setups of AE sensors were implemented to quantify the attenuation values for a wave propagating across composite joints and shale bedding plane. The amplitude and energy attenuation values increased by 85% and 47% by orientating the bedding plane of shale from 0° to 90° reflecting an anisotropic behaviour. The energy and amplitude reduction reached up to 99% and 39% respectively, compared to the source considering a single joint. Meanwhile, behind double-joint, there is no signal received. However, the applying of load perpendicular to the joint interface improves the acoustical-wave characteristics. It's concluded that by increasing of rock material anisotropy, the lower accuracy in mapping of specimen failure as the attenuation will be varied at each angle between source and sensor. Besides, the energy attenuation (EA) method suggested by this study present hits location more precisely comparing to P-velocity method.
The failure mode limitations presented in the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) were recognised as an obvious issue by invalidating most of the failure modes along the bedding plane. In this study, the anisotropic behaviour of index strength and failure mode of weathered shale are evaluated by utilising the point load test (PLT) and the block punch index (BPI). The outcomes elaborate that the degree of anisotropy of PLT is four times the BPI degree of anisotropy. The failure mode of weathered shale is observed to be controlled by the bedding plane orientation (β). Particularly, when the point loading is not perpendicular to the bedding plane orientation, it is necessary to consider the inclined failure mode along bedding since eliminating these results may cause a significant over-prediction of index strength. Meanwhile, the presence of secondary failures along a bedding in weathered shale under BPI is because of the normal stress distribution. Consequently, the very low bonding between the bedding planes is not able to resist the tensile stresses developed at the specimen faces during punching. The study also highlighted the effect of the horizontal angle of bedding orientation (θ) with respect to the puncher.
Although Peninsular Malaysia abundant Permo-Triassic Malayan granitic plutons and volcanics (292–198 Ma) generate an enormous volume of detrital zircons that masks other detrital sources in fluvial sediments, there are suggestions that Peninsular Malaysia could recycle detrital zircons from Indochina (through Jurassic-Cretaceous strata) to other parts of Sundaland by paleoriver after the Indochina-Sundaland sediment link diminishes in the Cenozoic. As there is insufficient data to prove this, we compiled our new detrital zircon U-Pb isotopic data from modern river sands in Peninsular Malaysia with all available data to create a dataset that revealed five detrital zircon age pattern zones: (1) Northeast Coastal Zone (~73 Ma and ~223 Ma), (2) Mid-East Coastal Zone (~236 Ma and ~280 Ma), (3) Southeast Coastal Zone (~170 Ma, ~243 Ma, ~291 Ma, 400–416 Ma and 1545–1852 Ma), (4) Central Zone (~220 Ma) and (5) Mid-West Coastal Zone (~227 Ma and 1105–1173 Ma). All detrital age pattern zones show a clear detrital contribution from Malayan granitoids and volcanics. However, the Southeast Coastal Zone also shows significant contributions from Jurassic-Cretaceous strata in the northwest, e.g. Bertangga and Gerek sandstones, making them comparable with sources from Indochina and Lower Cretaceous strata in Singapore. We suggest a defunct drainage during Paleogene which transports the eroded sediments from the Jurassic-Cretaceous strata in the northwest to the sink in the southeast coast of Peninsular Malaysia recycled “Indochina signature” detrital zircons. If the sink connects with the Sundaland paleoriver system, it might contribute to the “Indochina signature” detrital provenance in West Borneo.
Geological storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) requires the host rock to have the capacity to permanently store CO2 with minimum post-storage monitoring. Mineral carbonation in geological formations is one of the most promising approaches to CO2 storage as the captured CO2 is converted into stable carbonated minerals (e.g., calcite and magnesite). In this study, we investigated the geochemical and mineralogical characteristics of Segamat basalt in the Central Belt of Malaysia and evaluated its potential for mineral carbonation by using laboratory analyses of X–ray fluorescence (XRF), X–ray diffraction analysis (XRD) and petrographic study. The XRF results showed that Segamat basalt samples contain a number of elements such as Fe (21.81–23.80 wt.%), Ca (15.40–20.83 wt.%), and Mg (3.43–5.36 wt.%) that can react with CO2 to form stable carbonated minerals. The XRD and petrographic results indicated that Segamat basalt contains the reactive mineral groups of pyroxene and olivine, which are suitable for the mineral carbonation process. The results of this study could help to identify the spatial distribution of elements and minerals in the Segamat basalt and to assess its mineral carbonation potential for geological storage in Malaysia.
Turbidite-associated black shale of the Semanggol Formation is extensively distributed in the northwestern part of the Western Belt, Peninsular Malaysia. The black shale occurs as a dark grey to black and thick to medium-bedded deposit. It represents the distal part of submarine fan system (outer-fan) overlying interbedded sandstone to shale facies of the mid-fan and conglomeratic pebbly sandstone facies of the inner-fan. Field observations and its widespread occurrence have resulted in the black shale being considered as a potential analog for a source rock in offshore Peninsular Malaysia. The present study includes detailed mineralogical (XRD, SEM, and EDX analysis), inorganic geochemical (major oxides, trace elements TEs, and rare earth elements REEs), and Rock-Eval pyrolysis analyses of the black shale samples, collected from the Gunung Semanggol, Bukit Merah, and Nami areas in northwestern Peninsular Malaysia. The primary focus of this study is to investigate the provenance, paleoredox conditions, paleoclimate, sedimentary rate, paleoproductivity, and upwelling system that would be helpful to understanding the role of these parameters in the enrichment of organic matter (OM) in the black shale. The Rock-Eval analysis shows that the black shale of the Semanggol Formation comprises type-III kerogens, which suggests organic input from a terrestrial source. The black shale also contains mature to postmature organic matter. Based on the mineralogical analysis, the mineral composition of the black shale comprises illite and kaolinite, with abundant traces of quartz and feldspar as well as few traces of titanium and zircon. Inorganic geochemical data designate black shale deposition in a passive margin setting that has experienced moderate to strong weathering, semi-arid to hot arid climate, and moderate sedimentation rate. Ratios of Ni/Co, U/Th, and V/(V+Ni) along with slightly negative to positive Ce* anomalies and UEF-MoEF cross-plot unanimously indicate anoxic/dysoxic water conditions that are suitable for organic matter preservation. Geochemical proxies related to modern upwelling settings (i.e., Cd/Mo, Co vs. Mn) show that the deep marine black shale was strongly influenced by persistent upwelling, a first-order controlling factor for organic matter enrichment in the distal part (outer fan of the submarine fan system) of the Semanggol Basin. However, productivity-controlled upwelling and a high sedimentary rate, as well as high-productivity in oxygen-depleted settings without strong anoxic conditions, has played an essential role in the accumulation of organic matter.
To understand the modern sedimentation and land-sea interaction processes in the Sunda Shelf, we evaluated the rare earth element (REE) compositions, the total organic carbon (TOC) contents, grain sizes, and detrital minerals of 39 surface sediments, collected from the western Sunda Shelf. All of the sampled sediments are characterised by a higher content of light REEs (LREEs) relative to the content of heavy REEs (HREEs) with negative Eu anomalies. The total content of REE (ΣREE) in the sediments ranges from 7 μg/g to 193 μg/g, with an average of 119 μg/g. Due to the uneven spatial distribution of REEs in the study area, a Q-cluster analysis is applied to the mean grain size (Mz), ∑REE, δEu, δCe, (La/Yb)N, and (Gd/Yb)N data. On this basis, the study area can be classified into three geochemical provinces. The north to central zone in the study area is designated as province I, which has the highest REE content among the three provinces. This is a result of the finer grain size, dominance of siderite, and higher TOC contents of the sediments in province I. The REE content of province II in the southwest coastal zone is lower than that of province I due primarily to a coarser grain size and high quartz, biodetritus, and plagioclase contents. Covering the central coastal zone, province III has the lowest REE content among the three provinces because of the extremely coarse grain size and very high quartz and biodetritus contents. The upper continental crust (UCC)-normalised REE patterns differ markedly among the three provinces, thereby indicating different provenances and transport mechanisms. Based on the provenance discrimination plot and the UCC-normalised REE patterns of these three provinces and adjacent rivers, we infer that province I is largely fed by the Mekong and Kelantan rivers. The fine-grained sediments from these rivers are transported to north and central zone by the northeast monsoon current. The Pahang River is identified as the main sediment source of province II. The coarse-grained sediments from this river mostly accumulate near the estuary via hydrodynamic sorting, while finer-grained sediments are transported to the south by the southward coastal currents. The sediments in province III are inferred as being primarily the result of coastal erosion due to the strong wave energy in this area, as well as offshore and longshore sediment transport acting, in parallel to the coast line. Our study can serve as a reference for studying the diffusion and transport processes of mountainous river sediment and the evolution of the paleoclimate and paleoenvironment in tropical low-latitude regions.
Genesis of the so-called Bentong–Raub Suture of Malay Peninsula does not fit to the model of subduction-related collision. It has evolved from transpression tectonics resulting closure and exhumation of the basin which underwent extensive back-arc extension during Triassic. Crust having similar thickness (average 35 km) below entire Malay Peninsula nagate collision of two separate continental blocks rather supports single continental block that collided with South China continental block during Permo-Triassic. Westward subduction of intervening sea (Proto South China Sea) below Malay Peninsula resulted in widespread I- and S-Type granitization and volcanism in the back-arc basins during Triassic. Extensive occurrence of Permo-Triassic Pahang volcanics of predominantly rhyolitic tuff suggest its derivation from back-arc extension. Back-arc extension, basin development and sedimentation of the central belt of the peninsula continued until Cretaceous. A-Type granite of metaluminous to peraluminous character indicates their emplacement in an intraplate tectonic setting. Malay Peninsula suffered an anticlockwise rotation due to the rifting of Luconia–Dangerous Grounds from the east Asia in the Late Cretaceous–Early Tertiary. Extensive ductile and brittle deformation including crustal segmentation, pull-apart fracturing and faulting occurred during the closure and exhumation of the basins developed in the peninsula during Late Cretaceous–Early Tertiary. Crustal shortening in the central belt of the peninsula has been accomodated through strike-slip displacement, shearing and uplift.
Based on the deformations in the Cretaceous rocks and also the results of the radiometric dating of the fault zones [Zaiton Harun, Late Mesozoic—Early Tertiary faults of Peninsular Malaysia, 9], it is proven that tectonics of onshore Peninsular Malaysia was still active during post-Cretaceous. These deformations may contribute to the basin formation/inversion during Tertiary period in Sundaland. The study area is Cretaceous granite, Gunung Ledang, which is situated in North Johor. The objective of this study is to determine the major fracture sets at regional scales and outcrop scales and reconstruct the structural events. In this study, the focus is on the negative lineaments of Gunung Ledang at a regional scale and the fractures of the Puteri Waterfall at outcrop scale. During site visit, the details of the fracture, e.g., infilling and sense of motions, are recorded. From the observations and analysis, there are 3 negative lineament sets at regional scale: N-S, NE-SW, and ESE-WNW; four fractures sets found at the outcrop scale: N-S, NE-SW, E-W, and NW-SE. The outcrop-scale fractures are all steeply dipping to almost vertically dipping. The crosscutting relationships show that the chronology of the fractures is N-S, NE-SW/E-W, and NW-SE, from oldest to youngest. NE-SW fracture displaces a N-S mega-crystal quartz dyke in left-lateral motion, which deduces a ~ N-S compression. Another possible Riedel system (right-lateral strike-slip) formed on the same NE-SW fractures, which deduce a ~ E-W compression. The chronology of these two events is hard to define because of lack of clear field evidences.
The occurrences of Tertiary basins in Peninsular Malaysia are localized and limited. Commonly, their boundaries are difficult to define due to limited exposure. They are sometimes difficult to be differentiated from the younger Quaternary alluvium. Hence, the geological knowledge for the most Tertiary basins of the Peninsular Malaysia is not well developed. In this study, two new outcrops with potential Tertiary formation were visited and described in terms of sedimentology. These two outcrops are located at Taman Sri Permai and Taman Saujana, few kms east and west of the Kluang town, respectively. The main lithology of the outcrops is light-coloured poorly sorted medium- to very coarse-grained sandstone or conglomerate which is often not completely consolidated. The dominant minerals present are quartz followed by feldspar. Feldspar is commonly weathered and altered to soft kaolinite. The beds have sharp contact and their thickness varies (~15 to ~150 cm) due to the occurrences of intensive symmetrical channel structures. At the bottom of the channel, the very coarse sands to pebbly grains are commonly aligned and followed the shape of the channel. The very coarse to pebbly sandstones often have a fining upward sequence, which gradually change to finer grains and better sorting sandstones. These fining upward sequences are repeated few times within a bed. The channel structures are symmetrical and consist of fining upward sequences from very coarse sandstone–conglomerate to medium-grained sandstone, which indicates that it was deposited in a braided river environment. However, the cross-bedding (common in fluvial system) was not observed. This palaeo-fluvial system may continue till present day, which incises into the nearby area, e.g. Sg. Mengkibol and Sg. Melantai.
This compilation was aimed to record for rare geological outcrops which were gradually diminished by infrastructural and construction projects. Sharing information among fellow geologists working in Singapore and abroad. Wish for more new findings, contributions and researches on Geology of Singapore, in future.
Recent studies imply that the formation and evolution of many SE Asian basins was driven by extensional detachments or systems of low-angle normal faults that created significant crustal exhumation in their footwalls. In this context, the architecture of the Triassic Indosinian orogen presently exposed in Peninsular Malaysia is compatible with significant extension post-dating the orogenic event. In this study we performed a kinematic analysis based on fieldwork and microstructural observations in the Taku Schist, Kemahang granite and the surrounding Gua Musang sediments of northern Peninsular Malaysia in order to shed light on processes related to the build-up and subsequent demise of the Indosinian orogen. The first three phases of deformation were related to an overall period of E–W oriented contraction and burial metamorphism. These phases of deformation are characterized by isoclinal folding with flat lying axial plane cleavages (D1), asymmetrical folding, top-to-the-W–SW shearing (D2) and upright folding (D3). All are in general agreement with observations of the previously inferred Permo–Triassic Indosinian orogeny. During these times, the Taku Schist, a sequence of Paleozoic clastic sediments with mafic intercalations was metamorphosed to amphibolite facies. These rocks are most likely equivalent to the ones exposed in the Bentong–Raub suture zone. Structural relations suggest that the Triassic Kemahang pluton is syn-kinematic, which provides important constraints for the timing of these contractional events. We demonstrate that the overall shortening was followed by a hitherto undescribed extension in NW–SE direction resulting in the formation of a large-scale detachment, the Taku detachment, in northern Peninsular Malaysia. Extension probably reactivated the former subduction plane as a detachment and exhumed previously buried and metamorphosed rocks of similar lithological composition to the neighboring Bentong–Raub suture zone. Such a mechanism is similar to that observed in other regions, such as the Aegean, Apennines, Dinarides or the Betics–Rif system, where exhumation of (high-pressure) metamorphic rocks is largely controlled by detachments or low angle normal shear/fault systems.
The Malay Peninsula is characterised by three north–south belts, the Western, Central, and Eastern belts based on distinct differences in stratigraphy, structure, magmatism, geophysical signatures and geological evolution. The Western Belt forms part of the Sibumasu Terrane, derived from the NW Australian Gondwana margin in the late Early Permian. The Central and Eastern Belts represent the Sukhothai Arc constructed in the Late Carboniferous–Early Permian on the margin of the Indochina Block (derived from the Gondwana margin in the Early Devonian). This arc was then separated from Indochina by back-arc spreading in the Permian. The Bentong-Raub suture zone forms the boundary between the Sibumasu Terrane (Western Belt) and Sukhothai Arc (Central and Eastern Belts) and preserves remnants of the Devonian–Permian main Palaeo-Tethys ocean basin destroyed by subduction beneath the Indochina Block/Sukhothai Arc, which produced the Permian–Triassic andesitic volcanism and I-Type granitoids observed in the Central and Eastern Belts of the Malay Peninsula. The collision between Sibumasu and the Sukhothai Arc began in Early Triassic times and was completed by the Late Triassic. Triassic cherts, turbidites and conglomerates of the Semanggol “Formation” were deposited in a fore-deep basin constructed on the leading edge of Sibumasu and the uplifted accretionary complex. Collisional crustal thickening, coupled with slab break off and rising hot asthenosphere produced the Main Range Late Triassic-earliest Jurassic S-Type granitoids that intrude the Western Belt and Bentong-Raub suture zone. The Sukhothai back-arc basin opened in the Early Permian and collapsed and closed in the Middle–Late Triassic. Marine sedimentation ceased in the Late Triassic in the Malay Peninsula due to tectonic and isostatic uplift, and Jurassic–Cretaceous continental red beds form a cover sequence. A significant Late Cretaceous tectono-thermal event affected the Peninsula with major faulting, granitoid intrusion and re-setting of palaeomagnetic signatures.
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