No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
... Of these, only 11 varieties were present in the preceding early Harappan and Hakra-Ravi phase of the Harappa Culture at Harappa. Mackay (1937) noticed at "Chanhu-daro numbers of unfinished beads were unearthed,……not only large numbers of incomplete beads but also the raw material from which they were made, and, still more interesting, the actual stone drills by which they were bored, Chanhu-daro has proved to have been a great centre of bead-making". ...
... Ever since Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of Indus Civilization (Marshall, 1924), the contact of the Harappans with the outer world is known. Similarity of a number of seals and other objects from Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Chanhu-daro with those from sites in Mesopotamia and Susa provide evidence for trade links between these two great civilizations (Sayce, 1924;Gadd and Smith, 1924, Mackay, 1925, 1934, 1937. Some of the earliest finds abroad that were found to match with the Harappan objects came from Kish. ...
... These used to be manufactured from a variety of materials, the most beautiful being of carnelian and banded agate, the latter after heat treatment, attained the typical reddish colour of carnelian. The other materials in which these beads were made include that of jasper, terracotta, etc. Mackay (1937) states that from Mohenjo-daro "some no less than 4.85" long and made of the finest translucent carnelian that it was possible to obtain" were found and it was a favourite item worn by the people of Harappan culture. The long barrel cylindrical beads are also reported from Ur (NHK, 2000), Kish (Mackay, 1925(Mackay, , 1931Possehl, 1996), and from Susa, Jalalabad and Marlik from Iran (Possehl 1996: 160). ...
The alluvial landscape located between the glacier-fed Himalayan rivers of Yamuna and Sutlej, bounded by the Siwaliks in the north and the Aravalli outliers and the Thar Desert in the south, poses a great enigma archaeologically due to the absence of perennial rivers and presence of a large number of archaeological sites, and yet it is configured with multitude of channels and palaeochannels. This region is vividly described in the Rigveda, the Mahabharata and other ancient works, and it houses one of the most revered settlements, namely, Kurukshetra. This region also houses one of the prosperous and well- developed urban civilizations of the third millennium BCE, and provides evidences of its formative phases datable to fourth millennium BCE. Human presence in this region could be traced even further back, albeit not in the plains, but in the lower Siwaliks bordering the upper reaches of the River Sarasvati. Various geological studies illustrate how the River Sutlej flowed into River Sarasvati and thereby contributed a bulk of the volume of water flowing through it. This region witnessed the human occupation in a major way from the fourth millennium BCE onwards. The recent radiocarbon dates from the sites of Kunal and Rakhigarhi further push back the antiquity to fifth millennium BCE. Ever since, a continuous human occupation could be noticed up to the end of the Harappan Civilization that came roughly around 1900 BCE. The recent geological and geomorphological studies, further aided by the dating techniques, also help in the understanding of the dynamics of River Sarasvati and its tributaries, and in the role of River Sutlej, thereby giving a better perspective of human occupation and continuity vis-à-vis the river system.
... E.J.H. Mackay (1937) first studied stone bead manufacturing and drilling technologies in the course of his work at Mohenjo-daro and Chanhu-daro. Mackay found a variety of unfinished stone beads in various stages of manufacture from Chanhu-daro, which has led to a fair understanding of the bead manufacturing technology involved in the production of the long barrel-cylinder beads (Mackay 1937). ...
... E.J.H. Mackay (1937) first studied stone bead manufacturing and drilling technologies in the course of his work at Mohenjo-daro and Chanhu-daro. Mackay found a variety of unfinished stone beads in various stages of manufacture from Chanhu-daro, which has led to a fair understanding of the bead manufacturing technology involved in the production of the long barrel-cylinder beads (Mackay 1937). Mackay also found a large number of stone drills from Chanhu-daro, both broken and complete. ...
... Mackay also found a large number of stone drills from Chanhu-daro, both broken and complete. The complete ones average 3.81 cm in length and 2.54 mm to 3.048 mm in diameter (Mackay 1937). The beads were also bored first and then given polish, as has been evidenced from Chanhu-daro examples (Mackay 1937). ...
... Upon heating, steatite decomposes and recrystallizes to give enstatite and a silica phase of cristobalite. The temperature required to transform steatite to enstatite may vary; different temperatures are found in the literature ranging from "exceeding 1200 (C" [31], 1100 (C [14], to 900 (C [47]. Under geological environments of high pressure the presence of cristobalite indicates a temperature of at least 1470 (C [13]. ...
... At Chanhu-Daro a mass of "extraordinarily small" cylindrical beads were discovered in the doorway of a bead maker's house. Those were concreted together by salt into a mass on a small copper dish, possibly a scale pan, suggesting the beads were sold by weight [31]. Various experts who studied these beads could not determine if they were made of steatite or of compressed steatite powder, and whether the holes were a result of squeezing a composition through an aperture or a solid rod went through the beads. ...
... Various experts who studied these beads could not determine if they were made of steatite or of compressed steatite powder, and whether the holes were a result of squeezing a composition through an aperture or a solid rod went through the beads. They do agree though that "the beads are steatite that has been completely dehydrated and heated to a temperature exceeding 1200 (C" [31]. Chanhu-Daro was undoubtedly one of the sites in which steatite beads were manufactured as it contains the waste products of this industry. ...
The Chalcolithic burial cave of Peqi'in, northern Galilee, Israel, yielded about 190 beads made of white paste found in the context of ossuaries. They range in size from 2–4 mm in diameter, 1–3 mm in height, and hole diameter is approximately 1 mm. The beads were analyzed using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and x-ray diffraction (XRD). Under the SEM the beads contain silicon and magnesium, with traces of copper and iron. XRD analyses revealed that the beads are made of enstatite, a Mg-bearing pyroxene, and cristobalite, a high-temperature polymorph of quartz, formed when quartz is heated at 900–1470 °C.Our preliminary results suggest that the beads were made by heating talc to a high temperature. First a paste was prepared from powdered talc, water and a binding material. The paste was then shaped into long tubes and fired at a high temperature. This firing hardened the paste and transformed the talc into enstatite and cristobalite. Finally the tube was sliced to form beads.Neither talc nor enstatite is found in Israel. The nearest possible sources for this raw material are metamorphic rocks exposed in Turkey or Egypt. Similar contemporaneous technologies are known from Egypt and the Indus Valley. Here we present the first documentation of Chalcolithic pyrotechnology applied for non-metallurgical purposes. This find is thus of prime importance for both technological innovations and long distance trade during this period.
... More than 1200 stone drill bits were recovered during excavations at the Harappan city of Dholavira, Kachchh District, Gujarat. These kinds of implements, which were mainly used for perforating stone beads, have been studied in detail before (Barthelemy de Saizieu and Rodiere 2005;Kenoyer and Vidale 1992;Mackay 1937). However, the drill bit assemblage from Dholavira is so far the largest fi nd from any Harappan site and our research, while still ongoing, represents the fi rst comprehensive examination of such tools. ...
... Drill bits made from this rock are unique to the Indus Civilization. Ernest Mackay (1937) fi rst described them among bead-making materials at the site of Chanhu-daro in Sindh. Identical drill bits were later identifi ed at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (Kenoyer and Vidale 1992). ...
The excavation at Dholavira, district Kachchh, Gujarat brought to light evidence of a bead
making industry and along with a large collection of drill bits. These drill bits are mostly
made of ‘Ernestite’. The proper geologic origin of ‘Ernestite’ is not yet clear. It has been
observed that ‘Ernestite’ drills played a major role in the advancement of technology in
the perforation of beads made of siliceous materials. This technology is largely confined
to the Harappan Culture during which beads were extensively exported to Mesopotamia.
Dholavira has yielded not only complete drills, but also ‘Ernestite’ raw materials from
which the drills were made. A total of 1202 ‘Ernestite’ drills along with a few chert drills
have been analyzed and throw light on the pattern and state of the drills that have been used in Dholavira. An extensive study on drills from a Harappan site has been undertaken for the first time, and similar such studies from other contemporary sites may further throw light on the various aspects related to their technology and use pattern.
... In addition to Na, small amounts of K have been detected in μXRF, Na and K can come from etching liquid, and K may also come from plant ash which was made by burning the Amaranth species plant [31] or kirar tree [80]. For the prehistoric period, carbonate stone could serve as a Ca source by heating (Eq. ...
The process of staining was frequently employed to enhance or alter the color of agate beads in ancient times. One of the key challenges in studying ancient beads is comprehending the intricate techniques employed to color agate stones. An understanding of the staining mechanism from a mineralogical standpoint offers insights into the level of technological advancement in different civilizations. In this study, the mineral structure of eight ancient agate beads from Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, NW China, was analyzed using Micro X-ray fluorescence (µXRF), Raman spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) techniques. The color, transparency, mineral phase, and surface roughness of the beads were examined, revealing variations ranging from colorless to light violet to dark violet. Raman and FTIR spectroscopy were employed to determine the SiO2 phase and the changes in optical characteristics of agate beads after artificial staining. The black color of the beads was formed by carbon penetration, while the red color was produced by heating. The coexistence of α-quartz and moganite phases in the red, the dark red, the black, the idiochromatic white and the part translucent zones of the ancient beads was confirmed by the 464 cm⁻¹ peak of α-quartz and the 502 cm⁻¹ peak of moganite phase. The analyzed red, the dark red, the black, the idiochromatic white and the part translucent zones exhibited remarkably similar FTIR spectral features, with two prominent bands at ~ 1097 and ~ 1187 cm⁻¹, as well as two weak bands at 798 and 778 cm⁻¹, indicating the presence of moganite and α-quartz in the unetched ancient beads. In contrast to the idiochromatic white appearance of natural agate, the scattered white coloration in etched beads was generated by an etching reaction. Both Raman and FTIR spectroscopy indicated the absence of moganite in etched beads, indicating that the scattered white color was produced by the loss of moganite and a portion of α-quartz, resulting in a rough surface.
... While there is variability in the average dimensions of microbeads between those sites, they all share one thing in common -they are astonishingly small. This characteristic has amazed and confounded scholars going back to the first ones to study them in detail, Ernest Mackay (1937Mackay ( , 1943 and Horace Beck (1940). The world-renowned bead expert Beck marveled (1940: 396) that 'these are the smallest beads made from stone that I have ever seen' (and this man had seen a lot of beads -Westlake 1976). ...
... The finding of 'etched' carnelian beads from different contexts and cultures indicates its widespread occurrence ( Figure 4). (Chakrabarti 1977), Tepe Yahya, Tepe Hissar (all from Iran) (Possehl 1996); Ur, Kish, Tell Asmar (Mackay 1937, Possehl 1996, Tell Abu Salabikh, Nippur (all from Iraq) (Possehl 1996), Kolonna (Greece) (Rahmstorf 2015 Beads of this variety have been found from Harappan sites like Banawali (Bisht 1993), Baror (Sant et al. 2004-05), Binjor, Chanhu-daro (Mackay 1943), Amri (1964), Chiri Damb, Dholavira (Bisht 2017), Farmana (Konasukawa et al. 2011), Gola Dhoro (Sonawane 2005), Gumla (Dani 1970-71), Harappa (Vats 1940, Kenoyer 1991, Juni Kuran (Pramanik 2003-04), Kalibangan (Ghosh 1961), Kanmer (Endo et al. 2012), Karanpura (Prabhakar 2013;Prabhakar and Jaseera 2014), Lothal (Rao 1979), Moghul Ghundai (During Caspers 1972), Mohenjo-daro (Mackay 1931(Mackay , 1938, Nagwada, Nausharo, Rakhigarhi (Nath 1999(Nath -2000, Shikarpur, Rojdi (Possehl 1996), Shortugai (Francfort 1983), Surkotada (Joshi 1990). The other sites include Mundigak in Afghanistan (Casal 1961). ...
Dholavira, district Kachchh, Gujarat was excavated by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) for thirteen field seasons between 1989-90 and 2004-05. The excavations have brought to light several facets of cultural evolution, peak and devolution of Harappan Civilization which is represented in the form of ceramics, architecture, craftsmanship, industrial activities, trade and commerce, etc. Among the material remains unearthed from the site, prominent is the evidence of a diversity of bead remains, several thousands in number. The presence of beads, made of various kinds of stones, terracotta, metals, shell, indicate the role of Dholavira in the development of these craft activities. The location of Dholavira in close proximity to several of the raw material sources of agate-carnelian and the networking with other Harappan sites in northern Gujarat clearly indicates its strategic
importance in raw material acquisition, development of industrial production of a variety of beads. This is further substantiated by the presence of over 1600 drill bits of ‘ernestite’ from the site. The beads collection from Dholavira also includes substantial number of decorated (etched/bleached) carnelian beads, which were exported to the Mesopotamian region during second half of 3rd millennium BC and were of extreme importance. The traditional decoration techniques of carnelian beads as documented by Mackay and its finds from several historical sites indicate a long continuation of production since Harappan times. The presence of the beads from several sites in Arabia, West Asia, Iran indicates their demand thereby supporting a thriving bead industry of the Harappans particularly from the modern Kachchh region.
... Beck, 1930;Evans, 1928). These early examinations of beads from Asian archaeological sites have shed light on long-distance trade (e.g., Arkell, 1936;Gardner, 1937), craft production (e.g., Mackay, 1937), and the benefits of scientific studies on beads in order to understand their manufacture and exchange (e.g., Beck, 1934). Building on the work of these early scholars, Peter Francis, Jr. went on to become the "world's leading bead expert" (Halpern, 1989) through his studies of beads from both archaeological and ethnographic contexts. ...
In this introduction we offer a brief background on Peter Francis, Jr., Asia's Maritime Bead Trade, and our motivation for putting together this special issue. We summarize the papers in the issue and conclude by proposing future directions for continued research on beads in Asia.
... comm., L. Astruc 2006). The only known exact ancient and ethnographic counterparts are known from more than 4,000 km away in the Indus region in association with beads (Kenoyer 1991; Mackay 1937) and even with Neolithic dentistry (cf. Coppa et al. 2006 ). ...
Conclusions:
"In conclusion, obsidian was an indispensable material
for the Mezraa Teleilat residents throughout the Neolithic
period. Over time, there is a notable increase in obsidian
in the Transitional phase compared to PPNB, and a
subsequent decrease in PN. In other words, its frequency
rises and falls through time. What is striking is that
consumption of green obsidian continues through all
phases. Most of the obsidian was imported from East
Anatolia’s obsidian sources, while Central Anatolian
obsidian was rarely present. The Neolithic inhabitants
sought two specific types of obsidian from eastern sources
– not black, gray, or brown, but green obsidian, particularly
the translucent and semi-translucent types. Since
Phase IV, these two types were most widely used obsidians
and in demand at Mezraa Teleilat. A slight shift in
quantity and importance from the translucent green to
the semi-translucent green obsidian occurred after Phase
IV. This may be due to either a bias in archaeological
recovery or possibly a shift in cultural preference or
availability of sources. These two obsidian types were
most likely imported from either Bingöl A or Nemrud
Dağ. While the distance between Mezraa Teleilat and
Bingöl is approximately 332 km (206 miles), the Nemrud
Dağ source is around 420 km (261 miles), Central Ana -
tolian sources are ca. 337 km (209 miles) away. It is not
known why the eastern Anatolian obsidian was favored
from LPPNB onwards, particularly the peralkaline green
obsidian in the Levant, while the Cappadocian obsidian
was more popular in earlier times. It should be noted,
however, that no serious counting or chemical laboratory
analysis has been done to differentiate eastern from
Cappadocian obsidian in many prehistoric sites. Since
both East and Central Anatolian obsidian were distributed
widely and intensively within the Neolithic, it seems
that neither distance nor the geographic advantage or
disadvantage of certain routes could be the sole factor
in its distribution. The LPPNB shift in obsidian sources
could instead be due to a shift in worldview and/or political
relations, perhaps a result of populations who were
experiencing societal, economic, and symbolic changes
at the end of the Neolithic.
Current data do not allow us to determine whether
obsidian was knapped at the site. Neither can we decide
whether specialists in obsidian production were present
at Mezraa Teleilat since many elements of debitage are
lacking. Hence, it is likely that obsidian arrived in the
form of highly standardized finished products, acquired
by either direct or indirect means of exchangeexchange/trade.
However, it should also be emphasized that some knapping
areas may yet exist in unexcavated portions of the
mound. We simply do not know whether knapping was
practiced on the site until we find the missing pieces of
the chaine opératoire. Other sites contemporary with
Mezraa Teleilat, such as Akarçay Tepe (Arimura et al.
2000; Borrell Tena 2007), Tell Kashkashok (Nishiaki
2000), Tell Sabi Abyad (Copeland 1996), and Tell el-
Kerkh (Arimura 2007) in northern Syria show a predominance
of unipolar bladelets and an almost total lack
of other debitage products, and it therefore seems plausible to conclude that obsidian was not likely knapped on
these sites. Yet the presence of one or two core trimming
elements (Fig. 2: 6-7) and flakes (Fig. 2: 12-13), while
statistically insignificant, may convey hints of some onsite
knapping. Evidently the Neolithic people of Mezraa
Teleilat were dependent on specialists to manufacture
standardized blades and bladelets – and possibly tools
such as the identical corner thinned blades that were used
over a large area during this time. Who were these specialists?
How was obsidian circulated to Mezraa Teleilat
and other neighboring sites? What was the mechanism
of obsidian trade? We simply do not know. Using ethnohistorical
accounts, we assume that obsidian was circulated
by local or non-local seasonal itinerant merchants/
specialists who were active as few as several
decades ago in Turkey and Cyprus, and who plied their
trade by fixing and producing blades for threshing sledges
(Ataman 1999; Whittaker 2000). A possible contribution
of hunters who might have visited Mezraa Teleilat
or contact between hunters, pastoralists, and farmers in
certain zones for circulation of goods and ideas may also
be imagined (Bar-Yosef 2001).
Detailed technological and macro-specific analyses of
obsidian raw material indicate that core reduction strategies
were strictly maintained throughout the Neolithic
and, based on this long-term stability, formed a technological
tradition. Obsidian was brought to Mezraa Teleilat
predominantly as unipolar bladelets and blades, and these
finished products were highly standardized in terms of
size, form, and raw material. In short, patterns of obsidian
raw-material usage and obsidian technological attributes
lend support to an interpretation of continuous occupation
at the site and a culturally shared tradition of lithic
manufacture and procurement that stretched from the
Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic to the Pottery Neolithic at
Mezraa Teleilat.
... comm., L. Astruc 2006). The only known exact ancient and ethnographic counterparts are known from more than 4,000 km away in the Indus region in association with beads (Kenoyer 1991; Mackay 1937) and even with Neolithic dentistry (cf. Coppa et al. 2006 ). ...
... The fabrication of the carnelian beads themselves is well described by E. Mackay (37), M. Tosi (38), P. Francis, Jr. (39) and M.-L. Inizan (40). ...
Etched beads from northeast and southeast Arabia are usually not cited in connection with east-west trade, because they remain unknown to most scholars. There is ample evidence, however, from sites on the Arabian shores of the Persian Gulf that the region participated in active trade during several periods. Etched beads are one of the commodities testifying to the existence of maritime links. A high percentage of the etched beads found belong to the Early Bronze Age and the Pré-islamique récent (PIR)-period, although other periods are also represented.
Significant developments in stone bead technology in South Asia, including drilling techniques, happened during the Harappan civilization. Among the stone drill bits used for bead making, long and constricted cylindrical drill bits made from a unique stone named Ernestite were exclusive to the Harappan civilization. Most Ernestites have been discovered in the Harappan cities in Gujarat, India. The origin of Ernestite remains a mystery without a natural analog and unknown manufacturing process. Here, we present the results of a detailed textural, mineralogical, geochemical, and Sr-Nd isotopic investigation of Ernestite stones and drill bits from three Harappan sites and one Sorath Harappan site in Gujarat carried out to understand their manufacturing process and establish the provenance of the raw materials used. 87Sr/86Sr and εNd(0) genetically link the drill bits to the Ernestite stones. The texture, pseudomullite (aluminosilicate with SiO2 > 40 wt%) matrix, and high substitutions of Al2O3 (> 10 wt%) and TiO2 (> 30 wt%) in hematites point to Ernestites’ synthetic origin via a sintering process, with the temperature reaching ~1100°C. The abundant sand-to-silt-sized detrital quartz and detrital hematite, ilmenite, rutile, and zircon suggest that the Harappans used crudely powdered sandstones and laterites as raw materials. The major oxide contents (SiO2 > 40 wt%; Al2O3 > 20 wt%; TiO2 > 1 wt%), Primitive Mantle-normalized trace element patterns, and Sr-Nd isotopic compositions (87Sr/86Sr > 0.731 and εNd(0) > -18.3) of the Ernstite whole-rocks not only support sand-laterite mixtures as basic ingredients but hint at a regional provenance for the raw materials, within the Kutch region of Gujarat.
The lapidary industry using different stone raw materials is one of the hallmark technological innovations of the Harappan civilization (~ Indus, Indus-Sarasvati). The Harappans perfected the technology, which is traced back to the Neolithic Mehrgarh, wherein advanced rotary drilling mechanisms were used. It may be observed that the early societies at Mehrgarh often procured raw materials from far beyond, indicating a clear establishment of long-distance trade. This was further expanded during the Chalcolithic period, culminating in the Harappan civilization aided through better procurement and distribution networks. The Harappan beads attained popularity due to their uniqueness and superior quality. They were perforated by a material known as “ernestite”, a harder stone enabling a smooth surface. Harappans used rotary aids for drilling, with materials like hollow and solid copper drills and pecking techniques for smaller and shorter beads. The legacy of the Harappans continued during the late Harappan and the historical periods. However, we witnessed advancements in the drill bits during the historical period, with the single- and double-tipped diamond drills replacing the ernestite drills for faster drilling of stone beads. Slowly, the glass beads took over the place of stone beads, and attention was given to precious gemstones only. However, the stone bead industry lingered, and we find evidence of the traditional craft at Khambhat, Gujarat. This paper highlights some key aspects of Harappan bead drilling technology and its continuity into the late Harappan and historical period. In particular, the evidence from Vadnagar is discussed to understand the continuity.
https://hal.science/tel-03797155
En Europe entre le Ve et le IIIe millénaire av. n. è. les sociétés du Néolithique connaissent des changements économiques et sociétaux importants, dont l'utilisation accrue des marqueurs de distinction sociale. Si les groupes culturels de Provence se transforment aussi, la question du statut des populations se pose, les indices de différenciation sociale étant peu présents.La parure permet d’interroger la place des individus et des populations et d'exprimer entre autres, l'appartenance à un groupe ethnique, une identité biologique et un statut social. Pour y répondre, les caractéristiques intrinsèques des éléments de parure (matière, dimensions, forme, traces) ont été relevées pour définir leur biographie (fabrication, utilisation, dépôt) et leur statut (valeur sociale de ces objets). Ce protocole a été appliqué à trois sites : l'habitat de Ponteau (Martigues Bouches-du-Rhône), l'hypogée des Crottes (Roaix Vaucluse) et la nécropole d'Arles-Fontvieille (Bouches-du-Rhône).Les résultats révèlent une lecture à deux échelles des éléments de parure : un fond commun régional et une variabilité locale donnant des profils différents sur chaque site. Cette diversité peut être liée à la présence de groupes culturels distincts, à la chronologie ou au statut des sites et des éléments de parure. Ce dernier varie entre des de potentiels objets ordinaires (pièces en matière dure animale locale) jusqu'aux éléments les plus exogènes et les plus investis techniquement, considérés comme des richesses. Ces objets peu nombreux sont concentrés dans la nécropole d'Arles-Fontvieille. Ce site est une exception en Provence, région où la parure n'exprime pas une distinction sociale aussi marquée.
The Hebrew text of the OT names 27 rocks, minerals, and other materials that have been identified as gemstones in translations. These are mentioned most notably in the descriptionsof the high priest's breastplate (Exod 28:17–20 and 39:10–13 [36:17–20 LXX]) and the prince of Tyre's canopy (Ezek 28:13), but they are also found in dozens of other passages. Thisstudy attempts to identify these materials following a multidisciplinary approach that includes linguistic analysis (examining etymologies and descriptions of the stones),archaeological evidence (looking at the gemstones actually used in the Near East during the Late Bronze and Iron Ages as well as the ancient mines that may have supplied them), andgeological evidence (combining mineralogical and petrological data with knowledge of known gemstone deposits in the region). One or two possible identities are proposed for eachthe 27 materials, most of which are true gemstones.
Excavations at the site of Harappa, Pakistan, have revealed important archaeological evidence for the development of glazed steatite and faience production in the Indus Tradition. This paper will focus on the discoveries of glazed steatite and faience slag from the Ravi Phase occupations (>3700–2800 BCE) and the development of more complex glazing and faience technologies during the subsequent Kot Diji Phase (2800–2600 BCE). The main focus will be on the diverse range of glazed steatite and faience production during the Harappa Phase (2600–1900 BCE). During the Late Harappa Phase (1900–1700 BCE) at the site, there is evidence for continued production of both glazed steatite and faience. The chemical composition and technology of archaeological examples are compared with experimental replicas to better understand the possible stages of production and recipes used to make both glazes and faience. The implications of Harappan glazing and faience for later developments of glass are discussed.
In 2012, an undisturbed grave was discovered in the Taksai-1 kurgan cemetery in western Kazakhstan. It belonged to a woman
who is popularly referred to as altun hanum (‘golden lady’) and believed to have been of elite status because of the rich gold
grave goods she was buried with. The tomb is dated to the late 6th or early 5th century BC by radiocarbon dates on wood
and bone. Among the Achaemenid-inspired grave goods, gold jewellery, vessels of glass and stone, a wooden comb with
carved figurative decoration is the most outstanding piece on account of its narrative battle scene and war chariot. This
paper provides a full description and discussion of the iconography of this contest which shows victorious Persians and the
vanquished enemy and compares it with that on a painted tomb chamber near Tatarlı in Phrygia. Finally, it contextualises this
battle scene by comparing with representations of similar compositions in Achaemenid art and discussing their historical
context.
This article deals with a rather rich tomb under kurgan with several inhumations and a four-wheel wagon in a chamber with a wooden roof. It was found during the excavations at Mentesh Tepe (Azerbaijan). It is dated to ca. 2500 BCE and is attributed to the Martkopi phase.
Mentesh Tepe in the Middle Kura Valley is one of the very few settlements where a succession of occupations from the Neolithic (early 6th millennium) to the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3000-2400 BC) has been identified in Azerbaijan. This report corrects and completes a preceding one (published in AMIT 2012).
Jewellery incorporates a significant category among the finds from the caves Čale Gər 1 and 2 at Vešnave. Selected find groups are described and compared to analogies from sites in Iran and elsewhere in the Near East. Most comparisons from Iran originate from the northern province of GTlan or the region of Germi in East Azarbaijan, whereas few are from Neisapur and Qasr-e Abu Nasr, respectively in northeastern and southern Iran. Beyond Iran, comparable finds come from Crimea, Egypt and Ed-Dur in Arabia. Already - as described here - etched carnelian beads, so-called gold-in-glass beads and several finger-rings give an indication of the chronology of Čale Gər 1 jewellery deposits, and a preliminary assessment of their meaning can be made. Metal sheets and an arrow head are also discussed. © 2011 by Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Eurasien-Abteilung.
This book presents a detailed analysis and thorough study of the unique collection of Ancient Egyptian beads in the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology in London. The book first discusses the archaeological value of beads and the method employed in the study of them, especially emphasizing the importance of the technique of bead-making for dating purposes. It then examines and evaluates various schemes for the classification of beads. The book goes on to propose a new classification system and works out a comprehensive corpus of beads with the aid of sixteen plates. Next, the book features a chronological survey that details the material, typology (including the technical peculiarities), use, arrangement and pictorial representation of beads throughout the nine divisions or periods of Ancient Egyptian history. This survey points out the characteristics of each period as well any contact Egypt may have experienced with foreign countries as shown by the beads. It also corrects much wrong identifications of materials and mistaken datings. This book is based on the Ph.D dissertation written by pioneering Chinese archaeologist Xia Nai when he studied in London College University some 70 years ago and who had direct access to considerable firsthand resources at the forefront of Egyptology research. It represents a crucial and long-awaited advance in archaeology, not only for Egypt but for the study of the past across Africa and beyond. © Social Sciences Academic Press(China) and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014. All rights are reserved.
In this fresh and engaging volume, Denys A. Stocks examines the archaeological and pictorial evidence for masonry in ancient Egypt. Through a series of experiments in which he tests and evaluates over two hundred reconstructed and replica tools, he brings alive the methods and practices of ancient Egyptian craftworking, highlighting the innovations and advances made by this remarkable civilisation.
The increased pace of archaeological research in recent decades has provided a connected account of the history of prehistoric and early historic India primarily on the basis of archaeology. This book charts the flow of India's grassroots archaeological history in all its continuities and diversities from its Palaeolithic beginnings to ad 300 when early historic India assumed its basic form. Beginning with the first stone tools in the subcontinent, the book weaves India's archaeological history in all the areas and multiple strands of development till the early historic foundations. It also discusses the basic significance of Indian prehistoric studies, the variegated pattern of the beginning of village life, various issues related to Indus civilization and how the transition to, and consolidation of, the early historical India took place. The historical development of human-natural resource interaction in the subcontinent is also reconstructed in a lucid style.
Drilling technology of the Indus Valley Tradition was highly specialized and various types of chert and jasper were used to drill different types of materials. Earlier studies used primarily macroscopic observations to define features such as the manufacturing technique of drills, the raw materials and the mechanics of drilling. These generalizations can be revised given the discovery of important workshop areas and the availability of SEM, XRD and electron microprobe analysis. This paper will summarize the current state of. drilling research and define two categories of drills that were used in antiquity; tapered cylindrical drills and constricted cylindrical drills. Directions for future research on the relationship between drilling and other contemporaneous technologies are discussed.
The Bronze Age was a period when the notion of ‘frontiers’ was fluid and contacts were wide ranging. In a situation of considerable movements of people and objects, what probably also travelled were technologies. This article looks at different drilling technologies in the Bronze Age from Egypt to the Indian subcontinent. The adoption or rejection of different types of drilling mechanisms in different regions reminds us that technologies have to be socially acceptable in the first place before they could be adopted.
The southern Levant has to be regarded as an important centre of early metallurgy; in this region, the rise of this technological innovation appears closely connected to intensified exchange networks of increasing significance. Recent fieldwork and research undertaken by the University of Jordan and the Orient Department of the German Archaeological Institute in the southern Wadi Araba near Aqaba (Jordan) has revealed new insights into the structure and progress of Late Chalcolithic–Early Bronze Age economic processes in the southern Levant. The sites of Tell Hujayrat al-Ghuzlan and Tell al-Magass produced a rich material culture that attests to the existence of an important centre of early copper metallurgy in the region, thus proving that technological and social innovations in the late 5th, early 4th millennia BC were not limited to north-western regions of the southern Levant. Material culture analogies from contemporaneous sites in the wider region, going beyond metallurgical activities and lithic industries, emphasize a common workshop tradition in these areas and indicate that the Aqaba region was actively participating in far-reaching communication and exchange networks at this time.
The recognition of intentional heat treatment of stone artifacts in the archaeological record has been a major research topic since the initial study by Crabtree and Butler (1964). Ethnographic and archaeological records reveal two methods of intentional thermal alteration: controlled heat treatment most commonly used to enhance the flaking quality of stone, and thermal shock fracturing often applied to produce angular facets on rounded nodules of tough lithologies. During controlled heat treatment, the stone was heated slowly and evenly to the temperature needed to bring about the desired flaking properties, which become more like those of high quality lithologies like obsidian. The response of a lithology to heat treatment is variable, and the same improvements in flaking properties can be accomplished by a variety of heating and cooling rates, provided the heating/cooling is not too rapid and a maximum temperature (350–400°C for cherts) is not exceeded. The improved workability makes soft hammer and pressure flaking more efficient, allowing greater conservation of raw material and manufacture of extensively retouched took. Controlled thermal alteration was normally applied to microcrystalline silicious materials; it began in the Middle Palaeolithic (around 110,000–90,000 B. P.) and was widespread around the world, but in most areas it became obsolete in the Early Bronze Age.Heat-treated artifacts can be recognised by a marked luster increase, particularly a high contrast between lustrous and non-lustrous fracture surfaces. Color changes during heating, generally towards more reddish hues, are less consistent. Heat treatment results in reduced fracture toughness of microcrystalline siliceous materials; this can be readily identified by mechanical testing. Quartz grains recrystallize and become more equigranular during heat treatment, allowing fractures to propagate more readily and accounting for the enhanced knappability. In addition, healing of microcracks may occur in very fine-grained siliceous materials.
Micro-bead manufacture is geographically widespread from the fifth millennium bc. Previous studies of comparable micro-beads from sites in the Indus Valley region and the Near East suggest that many of these beads were formed from synthetic enstatite. Characterization of micro-beads from the Late Chalcolithic site of Çamlıbel Tarlası was carried out by optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and microanalysis with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). The chemical composition of the micro-beads analysed indicated that they were made from three distinctive materials; namely, bulk talc (i.e., synthetic enstatite precursor), apatite and mineral-rich clay pastes.
Skills involved in the knapping of Harappan long carnelian beads are studied in order to assess their value as well as knappers’ socio‐economic status. Skills are studied by reference to present‐day bead knapping in Khambhat, India. They are examined from the way actors are able to handle the complexity of the task and achieve it. They are analyzed in terms of learning difficulties and duration of apprenticeship. The methodology followed is proper to the psychological field. It enables us to understand, in particular, the necessary long apprenticeship required for knapping long beads whatever the culture in which it takes place. It follows that Harappan long carnelian beads are interpreted on the one hand as made by highly skilled craftsmen who developed specialized skills for a very limited demand, on the other hand as highly valuable.
Decouverte lors des fouilles du palais nord de Tell Asmar (ancienne Eshnunna) dans des couches datees de la periode Dynastique archaique (2500-2400 av. J.-C.) d'une pendeloque en forme de cigare qu'on pensait etre en ambre. L'analyse chimique a revele que cet objet etait en copal
Among the metal (gold and copper) and nonmetal (minerals, rocks, pottery, pigments, bioobjects) artefacts in the Chalcolithic graves from Varna in Bulgaria are numerous beads of chalcedony (carnelian and agate) composition. To the three morphological types of beads already described (type 1 - elongated barrelshaped; type 2 - elongated with trapezohedral facets; type 3 - short cylindrical; Kostov et al., 2004), a rare forth type - elongated cylindrical, has been added. Measurements of almost all the chalcedony beads have been performed including weight and size. Mean values of weight and size are given for beads of all the studied graves as well as for the whole necropolis. The detailed study confirmed the complex "constant" number of 32 facets among the morphological type 2 carnelian and agate beads (16x16 on both sides on the elongation of the bead; the form is a truncated 16�fold trapezohedron). This is considered as the earliest complex type of faceting on a hard mineral as quartz (chalcedony is 6.5�7 on the Mohs scale). The mean weight of the type 1�2 carnelian and related beads is 0.4 g (or 2 carats), in close correspondence to the mean value of the gold short cylindrical beads - thus a Chalcolithic weight unit has been introduced called van (from Va rna necropolis ) supposedly relating mineral and metal artefacts in an early weight system. The position in the graves and all the processes of manufacture (including tumbling) of the faceted chalcedony beads were shortly discussed as part of the archaeogemmological analysis.
Since the discovery of lithic heat treatment in the South African MSA, this deliberate transformation of silica rocks has become a key element in the discussion about ‘modern’ behaviour of prehistoric populations. Lithic vestiges are the only sources that remain of this process and the understanding of the material’s properties and transformations are essential for reconstructing the conditions and parameters applied during heat treatment. In order to understand the transformations of flint that occur during heating, several models of the structural transformations have been proposed in the current literature. These models are often contradictory and do not account for the most recent structural and mineralogical data on flint. These rocks are built up of nanometre sized quartz crystals and contain up to 0.7wt% of chemically bound water as SiOH (silanole) and about the same amount of molecular water that is retained in the structure of the rock (i.e. liquid inclusions between grain boundaries and crystal defects within the quartz crystallites). In order to propose a new model of the heat induced structural transformations, allowing to explain the key parameters for heat treatment (i.e. temperature, heating speed, duration), I elaborated an experimental protocol, and applied different techniques involving infrared and Raman spectroscopy, solid state NMR, X-Ray diffraction and electron microscopy. The results clearly show that the major transformation to happen is the loss of silanole (SiOH) and the creation of new Si-O-Si bonds according to the reaction: Si OH HO-Si → Si-O-Si + H2O. This reaction starts between 200°C and 300°C and causes the healing of defect sites within the nanometre sized crystals and the closing of the rock’s pores. Since defect sites and pores are micrometre sized predetermined breaking points that can offset or partially damp the propagation of a shockwave during knapping, the defect and pore reduction can be understood as homogenisation of the rock. Additionally, the formation of new Si-O-Si bonds results in an increase in hardness of the rock. The material’s hardness is correlated with its fracture toughness improving in this way the flaking properties of the samples. Too rapid heating or heating to a temperature too high (i.e. overheating) results in increasing vapour pressure in liquid inclusions that cannot be evacuated sufficiently fast, eventually causing the fracturation of the sample. The maximal annealing temperature and the ramp rate are therefore functions of the ability of the structure to evacuate newly created H2O and depend on the size of the heated specimen and the volume of its porosity. This need for water evacuation and the relative slowness of this process make heat treatment of larger flint volumes a time consuming and difficult task requiring the setup of a special heating environment that allows for a slow temperature ramp and a precise maximum temperature that is not to be passed over. On the other hand, the annealing duration for which a sample needs to be held at the maximum temperature can be relatively short (< 50 min) for a sufficiently large amount of transformation to be accomplished. The new model allows for the elaboration of a new non-destructive technique for the recognition of heated archaeological flint.
Previous observations of the intaglios on quartz cylinder seals from Western Asia suggested that they had been engraved by one or more of four basic techniques, that is, micro-chipping, filing, drilling and wheel-cutting. In this paper we test our earlier observations and interpretations experimentally. Examination and comparison of experimentally engraved features with the seal intaglios was made directly with a binocular microscope and also by examination of impressions with a scanning electron microscope. Successful replication was achieved using tools of flint, chalcedony, copper, bronze and iron together with quartz and emery abrasives.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.