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nt. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 16, Nos. 3/4/5/6, 2016
Copyright © 2016 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
Sport mega-events and tourism: contrasting the
influence of host country and event
Norm O’Reilly*
Department of Sports Administration,
College of Business,
Ohio University,
1 Ohio University, Copeland 514A, Athens,
Ohio 45701, USA
Email: oreillyn@ohio.edu
*Corresponding author
Anahit Armenakyan
School of Business,
Faculty of Applied and Professional Studies,
Nipissing University,
100 College Drive, North Bay, ON, P1B 8L7, Canada
Email: anahita@nipissingu.ca
Irene R.R. Lu
Sprott School of Business,
Carleton University,
929 Dunton Tower, 1125 Colonel By Drive,
Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada
Email: irene.lu@carleton.ca
John Nadeau
Department of Sports Administration,
College of Business,
Ohio University,
1 Ohio University, CSC 3rd Floor, Athens,
Ohio 45701, USA
Email: nadeau@ohio.edu
Louise A. Heslop
Sprott School of Business,
Carleton University,
1726 Dunton Tower, 1125 Colonel By Drive,
Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada
Email: louise.heslop@carleton.ca
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Erdinc Cakmak
NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences,
P.O. Box 3917,
4800 DX Breda, The Netherlands
Email: cakmak.e@nhtv.nl
Abstract: This is an empirical, descriptive study of tourists at sport
mega-events. Its purpose is to describe tourists who attend sport mega-events.
As an empirical study, it surveys tourists at two major sport mega-events in two
different countries: the 2008 Olympic Games in China and the 2010 FIFA
World Cup in South Africa. Building on a growing body of literature related to
the marketing of sport mega-events, results support that both the place (China
versus South Africa) and the attraction (Olympic Games versus FIFA World
Cup) influence – across a number of place image variables – the nature and
composition of the tourists who are attracted to the sport mega-event. The
findings suggest that the sport mega-event can be used by the host country to
target potential tourists who have limited interest in the event. Further, this
research finds that the tourist view of the sport mega-event is influenced by the
host country and the nature of the event. The research responds to a key need in
both the literature and in practice, where understanding of tourists in the SME
context is needed for countries, regions and communities.
Keywords: place image; mega-event; Olympic Games; FIFA World Cup;
tourism destination.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: O’Reilly, N.,
Armenakyan, A., Lu, I.R.R., Nadeau, J., Heslop, K. and Cakmak, E. (2016)
‘Sport mega-events and tourism: contrasting the influence of host country and
event’, Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 16, Nos. 3/4/5/6,
pp.280–296.
Biographical notes: Norm O’Reilly is the Richard P. and Joan S. Professor of
Business at Ohio University, where he is Chair of the Department of Sports
Administration. He has published seven books and more than 90 peer-reviewed
journal articles. His research interests include sport business, marketing,
sponsorship and partnerships.
Anahit Armenakyan is an Assistant Professor in School of Business at
Nipissing University, Canada. Her research interests focus on consumer
behaviour and consumer decision making in areas of country image,
mega-event image, sport marketing, tourism marketing, wine marketing, and
international partnerships.
Irene R.R. Lu is an Associate Professor of Marketing at the Sprott School of
Business at Carleton University. Her research interests include consumer
research and psychometric measurement techniques, and her papers have been
widely published.
John Nadeau is an Associate Professor and Director of the Bachelor of Sport
Management Program in the Department of Sports Administration, College of
Business at Ohio University. His research interests include sport tourism,
consumer behaviour, and sponsorship.
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Louise A. Heslop is a Distinguished Research Professor and Professor Emerita
in the Sprott School of Business at Carleton University, Canada. Her research
covers many areas of marketing with emphasis on consumer behaviour and
decision making, especially country and brand cue use, trust, online trust, wine
marketing, country brand image management and marketing.
Erdinc Cakmak is a faculty member teaching at both the undergraduate and
graduate programs of tourism destination management at NHTV. His areas of
expertise and research include international marketing strategies, PR strategies,
intercultural communication, concept development and management in the
broadest sense of the word.
1 The sport mega-event tourist: place and attraction matter
The Olympic Games and the FIFA World Cup are among the most important sport
mega-events (SME) in the world and are capable of reaching “billions of people via
television and other developments in telecommunications” [Horne and Manzenreiter
(2006), p.2]. As a result, these SMEs have become of high interest to cities, countries,
states, provinces and regions, whether at the stage of bidding (Government of South
Africa, 2008; Xing et al., 2008), planning (Bramwell, 1997), hosting (Mihalik and
Simonetta, 1999; Waitt, 2003) or developing a legacy (Preuss, 2007; Briedenhann,
2011; Weed et al., 2011). Similarly, these events draw the attention of sponsors,
cause-marketers, economic development advocates, destination marketing organisations,
sport organisations, and other stakeholders seeking to associate their brands with the
event and enhance their reach and influence (Nadeau et al., 2013), with accompanying
evidence of their ability to provide benefit to the sponsor (e.g., Séguin et al., 2005).
Given this vast interest, an understanding of the perspectives and beliefs that various
consumer groups hold towards mega-events is important (Tasci and Gartner, 2007). One
particular consumer group, where research into understanding their views is critical, but
limited, is tourists at sport related mega-events. This group is the focus of this research.
The purpose of the research is to describe tourists at SMEs with particular emphasis
on the characteristics and views of these tourists related to both the host country and the
particular SME. Specifically, SME tourist beliefs about and perceptions of the host
country image (CI), the destination image (DI) of the host country, and the event image
are assessed and an analysis is undertaken to examine the differences between events and
countries for these tourists. The current research addresses this purpose by empirically
illustrating tourist beliefs and perceptions about two mega-events – the Olympic Summer
Games and the FIFA World Cup, exploring the contextual differences by event and host
country. It adopts a framework from place images and destination marketing research to
survey tourists to learn more about their background, interests, views on the host country,
and views on the SME host. Work in this area will inform future research related to the
ability of SMEs and countries to attract tourists. Concurrently, results will inform
practitioners in a number of functions, including:
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1 city officials considering bidding for a SME
2 tourism marketers building programs around a SME or a city
3 sport managers of SMEs or events with the potential to become a SME
4 sponsorship marketers seeking to develop programs associated with an SME.
2 Literature review
The management of a major SME for tourism benefit is a complex task undertaken by
managers at destination marketing organisations, local mega-event organising
committees, and related agencies and stakeholders (Werner et al., 2015). The literature on
place image destination marketing and SME’s as destinations is now summarised. The
SME often involves politicians, civil servants, and local business, as the objectives and
reach of a SME normally sway beyond the event itself to economic and political domains
(Cornelissen and Swart, 2006). A body of work (e.g., Grix et al., 2015) has emerged on
the ‘soft power’ of the SME as a political strategy for countries of different systems.
Although research specific to tourism benefits of the SME is scarce (Pike, 2002; Tasci
and Gartner, 2007), a variety of other literature-bases provide direction and scope for this
empirical investigation. Further, such an empirical investigation is needed in the area
(Xing et al., 2008).
2.1 Place image
The underlying area of study that considers the role of images in perceptions of a place is
known as place image. The field builds on two primary theories, product-country image
(PCI) [i.e., the images one attributes to a certain country and its people, environment, and
products (Papadopoulos, 1993; Nebenzahl et al., 1997)] and tourism destination image
(TDI) [i.e., images more specific to one’s interest to visit the destination (van Ham, 2001;
Pike, 2002]. The current research is primarily associated with TDI, where previous
research in the area has focused on images of the country as salient considerations in the
tourist destination decision making process (Nadeau et al., 2008). In addition, previous
TDI research, where host CI has been shown to be an important element of the
destination evaluation (Nadeau et al., 2013), is closely linked to the current study seeking
to understand touristic views of the host country and event.
The images that a tourist holds about a destination are part of a multidimensional
construct within an attitudinal framework that includes their beliefs about the natural and
built environments, their evaluation(s) of the destination and their intentions to visit that
destination (Nadeau et al., 2011). If we adapt this conceptualisation to the SME context,
measures about the built environment include beliefs about such sport-related items as the
quality of facilities, star players participating, and level of event, as well as the more
general quality of shopping, nightlife, and hospitality (Baloglu and McCleary, 1999;
Echtner and Ritchie, 1993). Similarly, environment beliefs relate to the sporting
environment of the host country and the potential impact of weather on the event, while
the general tourism construct includes measures about the scenery and climate (Echtner
and Ritchie, 1993). Finally, valuation measures include an overall assessment of the
destination, including the impact of experiences related to the SME (Reilly, 1990).
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Another important aspect is travel intention measures, which include the destination
selection decision (Chon, 1990; Foster and Jones, 2000) and the willingness to
recommend the place to others (Chon, 1990; Foster and Jones, 2000).
Marketing research on place images typically explores the relationship of place
images to product decisions, e.g., product evaluations and purchase intentions. Building
from early unidimensional studies of CI (Erickson et al., 1984; Han, 1988), the field now
takes a multidimensional approach that encompasses a context broader than focusing
solely on products and includes an attitudinal framework (Heslop et al., 2004; Laroche
et al., 2005; Orbaiz and Papadopoulos, 2003). Conceptually, the belief dimensions of
PCI have been identified as people character (e.g., likeability, friendliness), country
character (e.g., wealth, role in world politics), people competencies (e.g., work ethic,
industriousness), and country competencies (e.g., technology level, skill level of workers)
(Heslop et al., 2004).
2.2 Destination marketing
The topic of DI is defined as “the sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressions that a person has
of a destination” [Crompton, (1979), p.18]. This has been an attractive area of study
within the domain of tourism research. In a review of 142 papers on DI published
between 1973 and 2000, Pike (2002) identified common themes, noting that the majority
of work up to that point had been about the role and the influence of DI on the travellers’
buying behaviours and satisfaction, including sub-themes on the effects of visitation,
tourist segmentation, and the effects of distance from the destination. A lack of a coherent
theory frame and definition to scope the field were also observations made by Pike
(2002) and, later, confirmed by Tasci and Gartner (2007).
Tasci and Gartner (2007) argue that the majority of the published articles
were focused on the efforts of destination marketers to induce favourable image (i.e.,
supply-side), while the receiving end of the marketing communication, (i.e.,
demand-side) remains to be explored. This is important because projected images do not
always coincide with the perceived ones. This conflict is driven by the multi-layer
relational links among three main sources of DI formation:
1 supply-side communication of the DI (e.g., positioning)
2 destination information from independent sources
3 the perceiver’s own characteristics (e.g., previously held beliefs, experiences, etc.).
This indicates that untapped areas for research remain in the field (Tasci and Gartner,
2007), including the attitudes of travellers towards the reasons for choosing any particular
destination visitation, such as the role of SMEs.
2.3 SMEs as destinations
Different types of events are commonly used as integral parts of marketing plans for
place promotion. Special events, characterised by their exceptional ability to elevate
above the ordinary, are a unique form of tourism attraction (Xing et al., 2008). Special
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events, also referred in literature as ‘mega-events’ or ‘hallmark-events’, have been
defined in a number of different ways. One of the first definitions described them as
“major one-time or recurring event of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance
the awareness, appeal and profitability of tourism in the short and/or long term” [Ritchie,
(1984), p.2]. Recently, Müller (2015) reviewed the definitions in the literature noting
their shortcomings and presenting a new framework for classification that included four
major themes: visitor attractiveness/tourism attraction, mediated reach, cost and urban
transformation, each of which is a key characteristic of a SME. The success of SMEs
relies largely on their ability to achieve each of these four themes (Müller, 2015).
Per Müller’s (2015) classification, major sport events like the Olympics, the FIFA
World Cup, or Grand Prix Racing can be classified as mega-events as they are
open/attractive to the public, reach large markets via the media, have major cost
considerations for their hosts, and have the ability to transform communities and their
citizens. The impact of mega-events on hosting communities is multi-dimensional with
both positive and negative manifestations. Ritchie (1984) identifies six major types of
impact including economic (e.g., increased expenditures or price increase during the
event), socio-cultural (e.g., strengthening of regional traditions or commercialisation of
activities), physical (e.g., construction of new facilities or environmental damage),
psychological (e.g., increased local pride or tendency toward defensive attitudes
concerning host regions), political (e.g., enhanced international recognition of the host
region or distortion of true nature of event to reflect values of political system of the day),
and, finally, tourist destination (e.g., increased awareness of the region as travel
destination or acquisition of poor reputation as a result of inadequate organisation). This
research focuses on the tourism impact dimension of the SME. Thanks to the scale and
media coverage of SME, they are perceived as a significant tool to attract considerable
number of sport spectators not only during the but also after the event resulting in, what
Westerbeek et al. (2005) call, ‘flow-on effect’ of people wanting to visit the host
destination due to positive image projections and media coverage (Briedenhann, 2011).
2.4 Study context – 2008 Olympic summer games
The 2008 Olympic Summer Games took place in Beijing in the summer of that year. The
publicly reported reasons for China’s strong motivation to host the Olympic Games are
two-fold. First, the country has been long criticised for its violation of human rights
(arrests of political activists), environmental issues (air pollution) (Human Rights Watch,
2007) and hence, according to some authors, needed to take strong actions to enhance the
country’s international image (e.g., Goodspeed, 2008). Second, the products produced by
one of the biggest outsourced economies, China, had been questioned for their quality
(e.g., unsafe toys, tainted food) in many studies (Ahmed and d’Astous, 1993; Chao, 1993;
Cordell, 1992; Kaynak et al., 2000; Mohamad et al., 2000) and, hence, it is believed that
China sought to showcase its emerging economy as capable of hosting a SME. There are
several case examples where CI has been repositioned through the hosting the Olympic
Games (e.g., 1988 Olympic Games in South Korea/Japan, see Jaffe and Nebenzahl,
1993). From a tourist perspective, the 2008 Olympic Games welcomed 6.5 million
tourists including nearly 400,000 international tourists who are assumed to have made a
considerable impact on the city (Window of China, 2008).
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2.5 Study context – 2010 FIFA World Cup
Held every four years, the FIFA World Cup is the showcase of the Fédération
Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) encapsulating the organisation’s motto
‘For the Game. For the World’ (FIFA: What We Stand For, http://www.fifa.com). The
organisation aims to use the power of football “as a tool for social and
human development … to support local communities in the areas of peace-building,
health, social integration, education and more” (FIFA: What We Stand For,
http://www.fifa.com). A number of studies on the FIFA World Cup indicate that the
event has strong positive social impact on the host communities. For example, improved
local infrastructure, improved relationships between people of different ethnic groups and
strengthened sense of community were reported in the study of the Munich residents’
perceptions from the FIFA World Cup 2006 (Ohmann et al., 2006). The FIFA mission
goes beyond the local community influence as the organisation seeks a global impact
with the FIFA World Cup the showcase event (Lee et al., 2005).
The 2010 FIFA World Cup took place in South Africa in the summer months of 2010
and was noted to be a unique platform to share the beauty of the country globally
(George, 2013). Indeed, South Africa has recently built a reputation as a country keen
and able to host SMEs (e.g., 1995 Rugby World Cup, 1998 World Cup of Athletics, 2006
Paralympic Swimming World Champs, A1 Grand Prix, 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup,
2010 FIFA World Cup, etc.) as part of efforts to improve the image of the country
following many years of apartheid (SouthAfrica.info). Football, however, had more
prominence than other SMEs held in South Africa due to its importance in many African
countries dating back to colonial periods (van der Merwe, 2009 in Briedenhann, 2011)
and right up to today where the sport has an important role in many countries (Korr and
Close, 2008).
The 2010 FIFA World Cup welcomed approximately 400,000 international visitors
(Fourie and Spronk, 2011; Melwani, 2009) to the country; substantial investments were
made in ten stadiums located in nine cities representing eight of the country’s provinces
as well as in hotel accommodations and in between-the-host-city transportation
(Briedenhann, 2011). The hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, like the
hosting of the 2008 Olympic Games in China, was reported to be very much about
signalling change to the world. In this case, it was largely about the government
signalling changes in the South African political system and showcasing – on a large
SME scale – the achievements of the country to the international community (van der
Merwe, 2009 in Briedenhann, 2011). Other studies (e.g., Jefferies, 2010) note that
football’s historically strong racial significance in South Africa added to the significance
of hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
3 Method
3.1 Data collection and samples
This study employed survey methodology to collect tourist perspectives at both the 2008
Olympic Games in China and 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. In both cases, data
was collected using intercept-surveys in high traffic tourist areas of the host country
during each mega-event. Data collection teams were tasked with finding a quota of at
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least 250 respondents from tourists in each destination, i.e., Beijing (2008) and Cape
Town (2010). Data collection teams numbered at least ten researchers in each country
and included authors and trained research assistants in both. High traffic tourist areas
were selected following secondary research, consultation with residents of the host
country, and visits to the sites in the days prior to data collection. Using the street/mall
intercept technique, potential tourists were approached in selected spaces known to be
tourist attractions (e.g., mega-event venue) and asked if they would be willing to
participate in a survey regarding their perspectives on the mega-event and the host
country.
Table 1 CI related constructs and items
Constructs Items Loadings
Country
character
(CC)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.78
Environment pollution controls 0.79
Political stability 0.65
Quality of life 0.66
Rights and freedoms 0.76
Role in world politics 0.57
Wealth 0.69
Country and
people
competencies
(CPC)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.86
Availability of skilled workers 0.79
Education level 0.75
Industriousness 0.64
Stability of the economy 0.71
Technology level 0.75
Work ethics 0.69
Workers skill level 0.82
Evaluations
of people and
country
(EPC)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.81
Appealing culture 0.73
Enjoy being with people 0.78
Overall rating 0.85
Rating compared with others 0.84
People
character
(PC)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.87
Courteous 0.81
Fascinating people 0.69
Friendliness 0.76
Helpful 0.82
Honest 0.74
Likeability 0.75
Trustworthiness 0.77
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Table 2 DI related constructs and items
Constructs Items Loadings
Built
environment
beliefs (BE)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.84
Accommodation 0.74
Ease of finding interesting places 0.65
Family 0.66
Nightlife entertainment 0.74
Quality of service 0.63
Selection of restaurants 0.69
Shopping facilities 0.66
Sport facilities 0.71
Evaluations
of destination
(DE)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.85
Memorability of experience 0.66
Originality of experience 0.68
Overall rating 0.85
Overall satisfaction 0.84
Proud to visit 0.72
Rating compared with others 0.79
Natural
environment
of country
(NE)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.80
Attractive scenery 0.85
Climate 0.67
Variety of activities 0.82
Wilderness 0.85
Travel
intentions
(TI)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.88
Willingness to recommend 0.94
Willingness to return 0.94
Table 3 MI related constructs and items – toward a mega-event
Constructs Items Loadings
Evaluation
(E)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.89
Attractive 0.86
Likeability 0.87
Overall rating 0.82
Proud to visit 0.66
Rating compared with other events 0.75
Worthy 0.83
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Table 3 MI related constructs and items – toward a mega-event (continued)
Constructs Items Loadings
Experiential
beliefs (EB)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.86
Attractive facilities 0.77
Culturally interesting 0.75
Entertainment nightlife 0.73
Memorable experience 0.72
Originality of experience 0.81
Variety of activities 0.81
Intentions (I) Cronbach’s alpha 0.82
Willingness to read about 0.83
Willingness to recommend to friends 0.84
Willingness to travel 0.80
Willingness to watch on tv 0.77
Logistics
beliefs (LB)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.80
Ease of attending 0.75
Ease of finding something interesting 0.76
Ease of getting around 0.75
Overall satisfaction 0.79
Quality of service 0.72
Security
beliefs (SB)
Cronbach’s alpha 0.74
For the family 0.82
Peaceful 0.85
Safety 0.77
The research instrument was derived from previous work by Echtner and Ritchie (1993),
Parameswaran and Pisharodi (1994), Baloglu and McCleary (1999), Heslop et al. (2004),
and Nadeau et al. (2008). The self-completed questionnaire included a variety of
questions related to respondent beliefs about and perceptions of the three main objects of
interest: the host CI, DI of the host country, and the mega-event image (MI). The scales
for all three objects of interest included items related to cognitions/beliefs (e.g.,
accommodation, ease of finding interesting things, role of the country in world politics,
stability of the economy, availability of skilled workers, etc.), and conations (e.g.,
willingness to recommend, originality of experiences, overall satisfaction, etc). See
Tables 1–3 for a list of these items.
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement of each item on a five-
point scale anchored by strongly agrees (5) and strongly disagree (1).
In total, the researchers collected 288 usable questionnaires from the 2008 Beijing
Olympic Games tourists and 332 from tourists who were onsite at the 2010 FIFA World
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Cup. Demographically, the samples are characterised as 53.8% male (Olympic Games)
and 64.5% male (FIFA World Cup). Respondents aged 21 to 30 represent the largest
group in each sample (42% in OG and 45% in FIFA). The samples represent those with
relatively high levels of education (i.e., about 85% (OG) and 78% (FIFA) of the
respondents hold post-secondary degrees). Overall, the sample demographic profiles are
consistent with those reported previous studies on mega-events (Florek et al., 2008;
George, 2013; Kaplanidou, 2009; Lee et al., 2005; Nadeau et al., 2011).
4 Analysis and results
Prior to data analysis, the data from the two collections at the two SMEs were first
screened for outliers, leading to the removal of five observations from the
China/Olympics data but none from the South Africa/FIFA data. In addition, an
examination of the data for missing data, non-normality and multi-collinearity was
undertaken and no serious problem was found.
The two samples were combined; exploratory factor analysis with principal axis
factoring and promax rotation (eigenvalues > 1 extraction) was used to assess the
dimensionality and item loadings for each construct listed in Tables 1–3. The results
show evidence for convergent validity of the constructs, with item loading ranging from
0.57 to 0.94 and construct reliability ranging from 0.75 to 0.89. For each construct, the
mean score was derived from its respective items and was computed as a proxy.
Initially, the image ratings across two tourist samples were compared using
independent T-test (see Table 4). Mixed results were found on CI variables, South
Africa/FIFA higher on all DI variables, and China/Olympics higher on all MI variables
except for logistic beliefs, which were essentially equal. Specifically, a comparison of
levels of ratings for CI, DI, and MI variables across the two events identified mixed
results for CI variable comparisons across events/country, South Africa/FIFA higher on
all DI variables, and China/Olympics higher on all MI variables except for logistic
beliefs, which were essentially equal.
Next, a series of four-way ANOVAs were run to examine the effects of tourist group
(i.e., China/Olympics vs. South Africa/FIFA) and demographic variables (i.e., gender,
age, and education) on each of the CI, DI, and MI related constructs. If a significant
higher-order interaction is found, further examination of its simple effect was done.
Table 4 presents the interaction effects and interpretation of results.
A few interesting results emerge. First, for CI-PC (people characters), tourists from
the 21 to 30 age group tend to rate South Africa higher than China. Second, for DI-BE
(built environment beliefs), there is a main effect for education due to the fact that highly
educated females (i.e., with college/university degree) tend to rate South Africa higher
than China. Third, for the MI-E (evaluations) variable, there is a group effect, with higher
ratings for Olympics than FIFA, due to the fact that males with college/university degree
and females with graduate degree tend to evaluate Olympics higher than FIFA and have
stronger experiential beliefs for Olympics than for FIFA. Finally, for the MI-I (intentions)
variable, behavioural intentions are higher for Olympics than for FIFA. Furthermore, for
both the Olympics and FIFA, among high-school teens, males tend to have stronger
security belief than females, whereas among respondents aged 21 to 30 with a graduate
degree, males reported a tendency to have weaker security beliefs than females.
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Table 4 Summary results of T-tests and four-way ANOVAs
T-tests Four-way ANOVAs
Entity Constructs
Mean
difference t statistics Sig. Significant interaction
terms Sig.
Major findings based on T-tests or simple effects of ANOVAs
CC –0.18 –3.10 ** No SA was rated higher than China
CPC 0.60 11.35 ** No China was rated higher than SA
EPC –0.18 –3.17 ** No SA was rated higher than China
Country
PC –0.06 –1.00 G*Age * Visitors aged 21 to 30 tend to rate SA higher than China.
BE –0.21 –4.09 ** G * gender * education * There is a main effect for education. But it’s due to the fact that females
with college/university degree tend to rate SA higher than China.
Gender * age * education * Females aged 21 to 30 with high school or college/university degree and
females aged 31 to 50 with gradate degrees tend to rate SA higher than
China.
DE –0.23 –4.68 ** No SA was rated higher than China
NE –0.91 –16.02 ** No SA was rated higher than China
Destination
TI –0.37 –5.25 ** G*Gender * There is a main effect for country (higher ratings for SA). But it’s due to
the fact that females tend to rate SA higher than China.
E 0.19 3.83 ** Gender * age * education ** There is a main effect for event (with higher ratings for Olympics than
FIFA). But it is due to the fact that males with college/university degree
and females with graduate degree tend to evaluate Olympics higher than
FIFA.
EB 0.09 1.90 * Gender * age * education * Males with college/university degree and females with graduate degree
have stronger experiential beliefs for Olympics than FIFA.
I 0.27 4.77 ** No Olympics was rated higher than FIFA
LB –0.01 –0.26 Gender * age * education ** Females with college/university degree gave higher ratings to elements of
logistics for FIFA than the Olympics.
Mega-event
SB 0.17 2.53 ** Gender * age * education * There is a main effect for event (with higher ratings for Olympics than
FIFA). Regardless of the event, among high-school teens, males tend to
have more positive ratings of security beliefs than females; whereas among
people aged 21 to 30 with graduate degree, males tend to have less positive
beliefs about security elements of the event than females.
Notes: Mean-differences: Beijing 2008 Olympics (China)
–
2010 FIFA (SA); G: country/event; *
p
< 0.05; **
p
< 0.01.
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Finally, a regression analysis was undertaken to further establish the differences between
events and countries for tourists of SME. Based on the previous results, a series of
regressions were run using only the evaluation constructs for each of the CI, DI and MI
constructs (see Table 5). As such, three sets of regressions with the evaluation dependent
variables were undertaken (i.e., mega-event evaluation, destination evaluation, country
evaluation). For each, the other evaluation constructs were included as independent
variables (i.e., CI, DI, SME image) and the data for each country/event was analysed
separately. The results of the regression are presented in Table 5.
Table 5 Regression analysis summary
Beijing 2008 Olympics (China) 2010 FIFA (SA)
Predictors Predictors
Country
image Destination Mega-
event
Country
image Destination Mega-
event
Dependent
Mega-event evaluation 0.082 0.407 -- 0.231 0.324 --
Adj. R2 0.218 0.236
Destination evaluation 0.692 -- 0.197 0.443 -- 0.270
Adj. R2 0.662 0.363
Country evaluation -- 0.749 0.043 -- 0.463 0.201
Adj. R2 0.590 0.335
Note: Italic numbers are non-significant
5 Discussion
This research set out to learn more about the role of country and SME in tourist decisions
to attend either. The DI literature explains that the images of mega-events may help
destinations attract more tourists both during and following the event. However,
uncertainty remains about the role of the host country and the host event in tourism
decisions. Indeed, do both influence or is the hosting of a certain SME enough to
overcome a tourist who otherwise had no interest in visiting the host country?
Conversely, can a host country encourage tourism for people who have very little interest
in a SME but have an interest in visiting that country that is enabled by the hosting of the
SME? Results of this study strongly support than answer that both have tremendous
influence, at least in the case of China/Olympics Games and South Africa/FIFA World
Cup. Overall, the current study finds that the tourist view of the SME is highly influenced
by both host country and the nature of the SME itself (i.e., the type of the mega-event). In
the case of China/Olympics contrasted with South Africa/FIFA World Cup, results
emphasise strongly that predictors of tourism-related outcomes vary by SME and by host
country.
The research responds to a key need in both the literature and in practice, where
understanding of tourists in the SME context is needed for countries, regions, and
communities, who host SMEs for tourism marketing and economic development benefits
(Xing et al., 2008) that are both related to the event directly or indirectly to economic and
political outcomes (Cornelissen and Swart, 2006). The study employs a hands-on,
Spor
t
mega-events and tourism: contrastin
g
the influence of hos
t
country 293
innovative data collection procedure that sees tourists surveyed in the SME environment
during the event. They are asked questions while being a tourist in the tourist
environment during the SME. It is this highly contextual empirical investigation that
represents an important contribution of this study, as this type of data and research format
is rare. Specifically, a series of demographic, cognitive and affective-based questions
were posed via a written questionnaire to tourists’ onsite and in person during both the
2008 Olympic Summer Games in Beijing, China and the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Cape
Town, South Africa. This paper adds to the literature on SME marketing research (e.g.,
Kaplanidou and Vogt, 2007; MacIntosh et al., 2012) and contributes to the research on
cognitive, affective, and conative dimensions of sport tourism marketing by presenting
tourists perspective.
The study has a number of limitations and findings for future research that are
important. First, since data was collected in cities (Beijing in 2008 and Cape Town in
2010) and country is used as the unit of analysis, it is possible that visitors’ DI of South
Africa (nation) was influenced by their experiences in the host city. Future research on
the impact of city-level influences on country-level assessments by tourists should be
undertaken. Second, future research on the events that differ on the four key elements of
Müller’s classification of SME’s (i.e., visitor attractiveness, mediated reach, costs, and
transformative impact) should be taken to test the framework and possibly extend it to
different SME ‘types’. Third, specific to SME’s and their ability to attract tourists via
SME’s, future research should extend the findings here to create strategies and tactics for
practitioners. Similarly, future research from the perspective of the city official bidding
(or not) for an SME and for city tourism marketing officials building programming
around an SME, should be undertaken building on the findings here related to the impact
of SME’s on tourists.
In summary, this paper presents a comparative analysis of tourists’ perceptions of the
host country (China versus South Africa) and the SME (Olympic Games versus FIFA
World Cup). The comparison, although limited to two countries – ones with unique
histories and roles in international society, and two SMEs – the two largest events on the
planet, the results point strong to the significant influence of both country and event in
determining tourist outcomes in SMEs. Sport tourism marketing practitioners, whether in
government, sport organisations, agencies or sponsors, need to adopt policies, strategies
and tactics that consider the influence of both and develop marketing strategies around
both. Although the paper reports on a comparison of two challenging country contexts, it
is often in these situations where we can observe key distinctions. While often classified
as a developed country, South Africa continues to have some significant developmental
issues; meanwhile China’s communist government and rapidly westernising culture make
it similarly interesting from a research perspective.
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