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Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils
... The increased compaction, and decreased nutrient availability, ultimately impacting crop productivity and land usability. Richards (1954) classified irrigation water quality as 'Excellent' (<10), 'Good' (10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18), 'fair' (18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26), and 'Poor' ...
... (>26) presented in Table 4. Additionally, Richards (1954) provided the following relationship to calculate SAR 29 . ...
... If the SAR ratio of the water samples in the study area is <10, it is excellent for irrigation purposes. The SAR value for each water sample was calculated using the above equation (Richards, 1954 <10, indicating that lake waters are excellent (Fig. 2) for irrigation. ...
Water quality is an increasing concern globally due to climate change, rapid population growth, expanding industrial activities and intensive agricultural practices. This study evaluates the drinking water quality and irrigation suitability of Alital and Bandatal in the Sudurpaschim Province, Nepal, emphasizing their significance for local livelihoods and ecosystem sustainability. A comprehensive assessment was conducted using the Water Quality Index (WQI) and several irrigation-related parameters, including EC, SAR, PI, MAR, Na%, PS, CROSS, and RSBC. Results indicate that both the wetlands possess excellent irrigation potential, although moderate salinity was observed in some Bandatal samples. Based on EC and SAR correlations, Alital water was classified as C1S1, while Bandatal exhibited both C1S1 and C2S1 types. WQI values further confirmed excellent water quality, with scores of 8.61 ± 0.99 for Alital and 12.62 ± 3.62 for Bandatal, both within drinking water quality standards. These findings highlight the high water quality and irrigation suitability of the lakes, while also underscoring the need for ongoing monitoring in light of increasing urbanization and climate change pressures on these vital freshwater resources.
... The representation of the SAR index values on the Richards diagram [37] is based on the conductivity (Figure 8). In the Ras El Aioun region, SAR values ranged from 0.41 to 3.75, with all samples falling within the excellent quality range for irrigation. ...
... Excessive sodium concentrations in water and soil can inhibit plant growth by decreasing soil permeability [72]. According to [38] and [37], the classification of Na% in irrigation water ranges from excellent (<20), good , acceptable , doubtful , to unsuitable (>80). In the study area, 70% of groundwater samples were classified as excellent, while 30% were classified as good, highlighting the region's low salinity and minimal salt risks. ...
... Irrigation water classification according to SAR, KR, Na%, and TH values[37,41,81]. ...
This study focuses on assessing the hydrogeochemical characteristics and irrigation suitability of groundwater in the Ras El Aioun and Merouana districts, using an integrated approach that combines physicochemical analysis, machine learning (ML), and Geographic Information Systems (GISs). Thirty groundwater samples were collected in June 2023 and subjected to extensive analyses, including major ions (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, HCO3⁻, Cl⁻, SO4²⁻), pH, TDS, alkalinity, and hardness. Hydrochemical facies analysis revealed that the Ca-HCO3 type was dominant (93.33%), with some samples exceeding FAO limits, particularly for Na⁺, K⁺, SO4²⁻, Cl⁻, Mg²⁺, and HCO3⁻. Assessment of groundwater irrigation suitability revealed generally favorable conditions based on three key parameters: all samples (100%) were classified as excellent based on the Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR < 10), 70% showed good-to-permissible status by Sodium Percentage (Na% < 60), and 83.3% were within safe limits for Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC < 1.25 meq/L). However, the Permeability Index (PI > 75%) categorized 96.7% of samples as unsuitable for long-term irrigation due to potential soil permeability reduction. Additionally, Total Hardness (TH < 75 mg/L) indicated predominantly soft water characteristics (90% of samples), particularly in the central study area, suggesting possible limitations for certain agricultural applications that require mineral-rich water. GIS-based spatial analysis showed that irrigation suitability was higher in the eastern and western regions than in the central zone. Advanced machine learning algorithms provide superior predictive capability for water quality parameters by effectively modeling complex, non-linear feature interactions that conventional statistical approaches frequently fail to capture. Three ML models—Support Vector Regression (SVR), Random Forest (RF), and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)—were used to predict the Irrigation Water Quality Index (IWQI). XGBoost outperformed the others (RMSE = 2.83, R² = 0.957), followed by RF (RMSE = 3.12, R² = 0.93) and SVR (RMSE = 3.45, R² = 0.92). Integrating ML and GIS improved groundwater quality assessment and provided a robust framework for sustainable irrigation management. These findings provide critical insights for optimizing agricultural water use in water-scarce regions.
... The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) values are the most helpful metric for assessing whether water is suitable for irrigation. Each sample's sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) (1) WQI = Σq i w i ∕Σw i values expressed in meq/L were determined using Eq. 2 (Ravikumar et al. 2013;Richards, 1954): ...
... All samples are excellently suitable (based on SAR values) for irrigation. 71.43% of water samples fall in the field of C0, indicating low salinity and low sodium water, which may be used for irrigation in practically all types of soil with little risk of exchangeable sodium, according to the analytical data plot on the US salinity diagram (Richards, 1954;Fig. 8). ...
... Classification of water for irrigation after Richards (1954) While low values were discovered at Hauyang Pierre quarry and Royal Quarry 2, Logbadjeck water samples with comparatively high KR values were identified at Royal quarry (environment 2) (HPQ; Supplementary Fig. 3). All water samples have KR values that indicate they are appropriate for irrigation (RQ environ 2; Supplementary Fig. 3). ...
Surface and groundwater constitute a prominent water source for domestic and irrigation use. This study investigates the
physicochemical characteristics of surface and groundwater quality for domestic and agricultural purposes in the Logbadjeck
quarrying area within the Nyong Series, Southern Cameroon. Chemical parameters were determined by titration, spectrometry, and colorimetric methods. Results revealed that the mean values of temperature (28.82 °C), electrical conductivity (140
µS/cm), and total dissolved solids (69.5 mg/L) are in the permissible range recommended by the World Health Organization
of water for domestic and irrigation usage. The low electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids indicate low mineralization and fresh water. The relative abundance of major ions (meg/L) was in the order: Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na2+ > K+ for
cations and HCO
3
− > NO3− > SO42− > Cl− > F− for anions respectively. These major ion concentrations were low and within
the World Health Organization’s drinking and agricultural irrigation guideline values. Hydrogeochemical facies observed
were Ca2+-Mg2+-Cl−-SO42−, Na+-K+ CL−-SO42−, Na+-K+-HCO3− and Ca2+-Mg2+-HCO3−. The water chemistry is principally controlled by the atmospheric precipitation and weathering of the host rock through mineral dissolution, ion exchange
processes, and anthropogenic sources. Based on irrigation parameters, all water samples fall in the safe range for irrigation
purposes. Additionally, pollution and health risk indicators suggest no pollution and health risks associated with the water
of Logbadjeck. The water quality in the study area is good for drinking and irrigation as most of the parameters are below
the World Health Organization guidelines.
Keywords Agricultural irrigation · Drinking water · Nyong series · Quarrying operations · Water quality
... Sample Analysis: Soil texture was determined using the hydrometer method (Gee and Bauder 1986). The pH of a 1:1 soil-water suspension was measured (Richards 1969), as well as the electrical conductivity (EC) in a 1:1 suspension extract of soil and water (Gupta 2000). The content of organic carbon was quantified as per the method outlined by Nelson and Sommers in 1982. ...
... The content of organic carbon was quantified as per the method outlined by Nelson and Sommers in 1982. The carbonate equivalent (CCE) was calculated using the neutralization method with acid (Richards 1969). Furthermore, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb, and Cd were extracted from soil samples weighing 10 grams, employing a 20 ml extracting solution composed of 0.005 M DTPA, 0.01 M CaCl 2 , and 0.1 M triethanolamine (TEA), with pH adjusted to 7.3 according to the procedure detailed by Lindsay and Norvell (1978) (Table 1, Rassaei, Hoodaji, and Abtahi 2020c). ...
... Apart from these, the suitability of water samples for irrigation and their hydrochemical evaluation was interpreted using the US salinity laboratory (USSL) plot [31], Wilcox diagram [32], Piper trilinear plot [33], and Gibbs plot [34]. ...
... The SAR values ranged from 4.9 -31.9 in the pre-monsoon, 4.3 -32.4 in the monsoon, and 4.7 -33.7 in the post-monsoon season (Figure 3a -3c). It has been previously stated that SAR values < 10 are suitable for irrigation [31]. Only 36 % of water samples from the study area met this criterion, and were considered suitable for irrigation. ...
Surface freshwater bodies are essential for drinking and irrigation, but rapid development and industrial activities pollute these precious resources. This study investigates seasonal fluctuations in water quality and its suitability for drinking and agriculture in the wetlands of Jhajjar district (Haryana), India. Seventy-five water samples were collected from 25 locations during the pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons and tested for physicochemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolves solids (TDS), turbidity, sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), chloride (Cl−), sulphate (SO42–), carbonate (CO32–), and bicarbonate (HCO3–) ions. The one-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed significant differences ( p < 0.05) in the means of most of the water parameters during different seasons. The water quality index (WQI) revealed that more than 85 % of the samples were unfit for consumption. Irrigation indicators such as sodium absorption ratio (SAR), sodium percentage (Na%), and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) suggested the appropriateness of samples for agricultural use. However, the magnesium hazard (MH) index and US salinity laboratory (USSL) diagram suggested that many samples were unsuitable for irrigation. The Piper trilinear diagram showed that Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-HCO₃⁻ type water was predominant in all seasons, while the Gibbs plot identified evaporation and rock-water interactions as the primary factors influencing water chemistry. Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated TDS, EC, and Cl⁻ as key drivers of water quality, while cluster analysis divided sampling locations into four primary groups. This study emphasizes the critical need for sustainable water management interventions and solutions to maintain public health and the long-term sustainability of agriculture.
... Sodium absorption ratio (SAR) and sodium percent (Na %) were used to determine if the water is suitable for irrigation in the research area. The SAR was calculated using the equation (Richards 1954;Tiwari et al. 2017;Li et al. 2018). ...
... Na% is computed using an equation (Richards 1954;Wilcox 1948). ...
The study area is located in Ethiopia's Main Rift Valley, where surface and groundwater are the primary sources for household and agricultural needs. The study aims to investigate the hydrochemistry and water quality of the area using graphical, multivariate, and Water Quality Index (WQI). The result shows that the order of the principal cation and anion distributions is Na⁺ > Ca²⁺ > K⁺ > Mg²⁺ and HCO3⁻ > Cl⁻ > SO4²⁻ > F⁻ > NO3⁻, NH4⁺, respectively. The primary water type is Na-HCO3, which demonstrates the hydrolysis of sodium-rich silicate minerals and the evolution of groundwater. The WQI revealed that very poor water (34.2%) comprised most of the samples and was distributed throughout the study region. Following this, good water quality accounted for 21.05%, poor water quality also accounted for 21.05%, and excellent water quality represented 15.77% of the samples. The study's findings indicate that fluoride concentration, with an average value of 8.09 mg/l, is the main contributor to the region's poor drinking water quality. The problem with water quality worsens as it approaches the outlet of the catchment. In terms of irrigation water quality, the Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) demonstrates that surface water (Rivers) samples (average SAR value = 2.57) were very acceptable for irrigation to groundwater with an average SAR value of 22.4. The entire surface water sample's (rivers) sodium hazard vs. salinity hazard falls into category C1-S1, and both the electrical conductivity and sodium hazard index are quite low, making it appropriate for irrigation. The study findings will assist government agencies and water management authorities in safeguarding the local population against issues related to water quality.
... A total of 24 soil samples have been collected from the tehsil, primarily focussing on the mining belts of Kumbhkot, Julmi, Chechat, Satalkheri using Coning and Quartering Method (Fig. 2). The soils samples were tested for pH (soil-water suspension using glass electrodes, (Richards1954), Conductivity (using conductivity bridge (Richards 1954)), Organic Carbon (Walkley and Black Wet Digestion Method (Jackson 1958), Available Nitrogen (Alkaline Potassium Permanganate Method (Subbiah and Asija1956), Available Phosphorus (Olsen.et.al.1954), Available Potassium (K 2 O) (Normal Ammonium Acetate Extraction (Richards 1954), Available Sulfur (Williams and Steinbergs 1959), Available Zinc (DTPA method of Lindsay and Norvell (1978) through Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer), Available Iron (DTPA method of Lindsay and Norvell (1978) through Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer), Available Manganese (DTPA method of Lindsay and Norvell (1978) through Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer), Available Copper (DTPA method of Lindsay and Norvell (1978) through Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer), Exchangeable Calcium and Magnesium(Versenate (EDTA) Titration Method). ...
... The soils samples were tested for pH (soil-water suspension using glass electrodes, (Richards1954), Conductivity (using conductivity bridge (Richards 1954)), Organic Carbon (Walkley and Black Wet Digestion Method (Jackson 1958), Available Nitrogen (Alkaline Potassium Permanganate Method (Subbiah and Asija1956), Available Phosphorus (Olsen.et.al.1954), Available Potassium (K 2 O) (Normal Ammonium Acetate Extraction (Richards 1954), Available Sulfur (Williams and Steinbergs 1959), Available Zinc (DTPA method of Lindsay and Norvell (1978) through Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer), Available Iron (DTPA method of Lindsay and Norvell (1978) through Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer), Available Manganese (DTPA method of Lindsay and Norvell (1978) through Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer), Available Copper (DTPA method of Lindsay and Norvell (1978) through Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer), Exchangeable Calcium and Magnesium(Versenate (EDTA) Titration Method). Inverse Distance weight age method was used for predicting values at the unsampled sites under spatial analyst tools of Arc GIS. ...
The study aims to predict soil properties, including major and micronutrient levels in Ramganjmandi, India, an administrative unit significantly influenced by limestone mining. The human- environment relationship in the region is largely dictated by mining activities which expanded from 10.66 km2 in 1990 to 50.03 km2 in 2020. This extensive mineral extraction has led to deterioration in soil quality across mining belt. A total of 24 samples were collected using purposive random sampling. The inverse distance weightage method was applied in Arc GIS software through spatial analyst tool to interpolate the values of unsampled sites and PCA was executed using R studio. The results indicate that 95.83% of the samples are alkaline, with low organic carbon, organic matter and nitrogen content. Furthermore, 62.5% of the samples exhibit medium phosphorus and potassium levels, while 87% of the samples shows medium sulfur content,91.66% of the samples are marginally deficient in zinc, and 70.83% are deficient in iron. Notably, calcium content is exceptionally high ranging from 232 to 1088 ppm, while magnesium levels vary between 81.66 to 300 ppm. Principal component analysis revealed that PC1 and PC2 together explains 62.9% of the total variance effectively capturing the major patterns in soil chemistry. PC1 is primarily influenced by Organic content, nutrients and conductivity, while PC2 distinguishes pH and trace elements. Clear natural clusters suggest strong collinearity among variables like Organic Matter, Nitrogen and trace metals. The findings underscore the significant impact of limestone mining on soil degradation and potential implications for agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability.
... All samples, therefore, were classified as suitable for irrigation with a low alkalinity threat (Table S4). According to the United States Salinity Laboratory's (USSL) diagram proposed by Richards (1968), 26 samples are categorized as class C3S1, 11 samples are categorized as class C2S1, and 2 samples are classified as C4S2 (Fig. 2). The average soluble sodium percentage (SSP) of the groundwater samples ranged from 16.02% to 33.38%. ...
... The PI is calculated based on the concentrations of Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Na⁺, and HCO₃⁻, and it is plotted against total ion content using Doneen's diagram (Fig. 3). In his 1964 classification, Doneen categorized irrigation water into three groups: Class I and Class II, both (Richards, 1968) ...
Groundwater contamination with heavy metals in Bangladesh poses a significant health risk. This study analyzed 40 groundwater samples from selected aquifers in Charghat Upazila, Rajshahi district, to evaluate ionic components and heavy metal concentrations for drinking and irrigation. Standard methods were used to assess pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), cations, anions, and heavy metals. Groundwater quality indices were determined for sodium absorption ratio (SAR), soluble sodium percentage (SSP), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), total hardness (HT), and permeability index (PI). All the samples exhibited slightly neutral pH, while EC and SAR values indicated high salinity and low alkalinity. TDS categorized the samples as fresh water, and SSP rated them as excellent or good. However, RSC results showed 22.5% of the samples are suitable, 42.5% marginal, and the rest unsuitable for irrigation. Permeability index assessments deemed all samples suitable for irrigation, but hardness tests indicated hard to very hard water quality. Levels of calcium (Ca2+), bicarbonate (HCO3−), and manganese (Mn2+) exceeded permissible limits for continuous irrigation. Principal component analysis identified SSP, HT, SAR, Na, TDS, EC, Ca2+, Cl−, RSC, and Mn2+ as key contributors. Health risk assessments showed an HQ value for Mn below 1 for adults, but six samples had HQ levels over 1 for children. All the samples presented a significant risk of chronic carcinogenic exposure, exceeding safe limits for both adults and children, indicating unsuitability for long-term drinking and irrigation uses.
... Saline soils contain a variety of salts, including sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium chloride (MgCl 2 ), calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ), magnesium sulfate (MgSO 4 ), and sodium sulfate (Na 2 SO 4 ), among others. These salts originate from multiple sources such as weathering of parent rock material, saline irrigation water, or upward capillary movement from a high water table (Richards, 1954). To assess soil salinity composition, we employed Piper diagrams, a trilinear graphical tool used to classify water and soil based on dominant ions (Piper, 1944). ...
As a consequence of global population growth and increasing demand for agricultural commodities, vast areas of cultivable land have been brought under cultivation, while natural ecosystems are being converted for agricultural use. This transformation has led to various forms of soil degradation, with excessive salinity emerging as a critical concern. Drought-prone ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to salinization processes, resulting in an annual reduction of arable land by approximately 1% to 2%. In the Kazakhstan, salt-affected soils account for approximately 43% of all agricultural land. The aim of this study is to assess the extent and spatial distribution of soil salinity in the Talas district of Kazakhstan and to identify the dominant chemical characteristics of soil salts across different land types. To achieve this, soil samples were collected from river valleys, desert pastures, irrigated lands, and sandy areas. The analysis focused on salinization processes, ion toxicity thresholds, and the chemical composition of soil salts. Results reveal that salt accumulation varies between the 30 cm and 80 cm soil layers in river valleys and desert pastures, whereas the highest concentrations are observed in the upper layers of irrigated soils. The greatest variation in average salt content by soil texture was ±0.81% in loamy soils and ±0.62% in silty loam soils. These findings highlight the urgent need for ecologically sound land management strategies to mitigate soil salinization, especially in irrigated areas. They also offer valuable insights for enhancing irrigation efficiency and preserving soil fertility in Talas and other comparable regions.
... A field trials were carried out at Basrah province, south of Iraq at Al-Qurna region (30 o 59 -25 = N,47 o 26 -4 = E) 67 km north of Basrah center during the growing season of 2019 -2020 to study the effect of mineral sulphur on performance of wheat and barley crops. A composite surface soil samples (0-30 cm) were collected from experimental sites, air-dried, passed through 2mm sieve, then physio-chemical properties of soils were measured according to methods described in Richards (1954) and Page et al.(1982) and listed in table 1. Silty clay Elemental sulphur was extracted from gas emission associated with oil production of Basrah oil field. Two sulphur levels were used (0 and 80 kg S ha -1 ) along with two rates of organic matter (0 and 5%). ...
A field experiment was conducted at Basrah province, south of Iraq, Al-Qurna region during the growing season of 2019-2020 to study the effect of elemental sulphur on performance of wheat and barley crops in silty clay soil. Two elemental sulphur levels were used (0 and 80 kg S ha-1) along with two rates of organic matter (0 and 5%). Total N and S n were estimated as well as total seed yield of the two crops. The results indicated that application of sulphur (80 kg S ha-1) had a positive significant effect on sulfur concentration in wheat and barley grains. Application of organic matter (cow manure at rate of 5%) increased in sulfur concentration in seeds of the two crops. Nitrogen concentration in wheat and barley grains were increased with addition of elemental sulphur and organic matter as compared with controls. Results indicating that N/S ratio of wheat grains and barley grain, were decreased with addition of elemental sulphur and organic matter to reached 10.24 and 10.09, respectively. Wheat and barley grain yields were significantly influenced with the application of elemental sulphur and organic matter individual or together. Data showed that addition of organic matter for each level of elemental S increased grain yield reaching highest values (3550 and 3533 Kg ha-1) at the application of 5% organic matter and 80 Kg S ha-1 for wheat and barley, respectively.
... However, only EC e was utilized in this study. Soil salinity was quantified using the electrical conductivity of the saturated soil extract (ECe), following the standard procedure outlined in USDA Handbook No. 60 (Richards 1954). This method is widely accepted for its accuracy in representing field salinity conditions and is particularly suitable for studies integrating remote sensing and environmental variables. ...
Despite advances in salinity prediction, a knowledge gap exists in accurately integrating remote sensing indices and environmental factors for effective management strategies. Therefore, this study examines the relationship between soil salinity (ECe) and remote sensing (RS) indices, soil texture properties, and ecological features. Several statistical techniques, such as Pearson correlation, Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR), Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP), were used to investigate the capability of these indices and indicators for the prediction of soil salinity. The study revealed that the Decision Tree (DT) showed the highest accuracy for soil salinity prediction among the machine learning models, while XGBoost exhibited lower predictive performance. Evaluating the environmental indices with ECe, the Normalized Difference Salinity Index (NDSI) showed the highest positive correlation with ECe (r = 0.88), reflecting its effectiveness in salinity prediction. Moderate positive correlations were observed with the Soil Salinity Index (SSI, r = 0.65), while the Bare Soil Index (BSI, r = −0.85) and Soil‐Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVSI, r = −0.76) demonstrated strong negative correlations. Soil physicochemical properties, including clay, silt, sand, organic carbon, and bedrock, exhibited weak relationships with ECe, with R² values consistently below 0.04, indicating limited predictive power. PCA analysis revealed distinct contributions of RS indices to ECe variability, with NDSI and SSI positively influencing salinity variability, whereas SAVSI contributed inversely, aligning negatively along PC1. SHAP analysis further reinforced the predictive dominance of RS indices, assigning the highest importance value to NDSI (0.61), followed by BSI (0.28) and SAVSI (0.08). In contrast, soil texture properties and organic carbon exhibited minimal significance, with importance values under 0.02. NDSI was further tested across low‐ and high‐salinity farms, consistently outperforming other indices. These findings highlight its advantage in improving salinity mapping management strategies and advancing precision agriculture/environmental planning through modern analytical approaches.
... Electical Conductivity indirectly shows the salt concentration. Ideal value for EC is less than 750 μS/cm [88]. In the present study, EC during pre-monsoon was 16-48 μS/cm and during post-monsoon it was 20-80 μS/cm, indicating good quality of water for irrigational purposes. ...
The present study reveals the water quality of River Ujh, which is originating from South of the Kaplas in Seuj Dhar and flowing through the district Udhampur. The water of this river is used for drinking and agricultural purposes. The objective of this study is to assess the river water's potability using WQI and HPI, and its suitability for irrigation through the following parameters such as Na%, SAR, MAR, Kelly’s Ratio, and Wilcox diagram. The water samples were collected from 22 sites (labelled as UD1-UD7) and analysed using fourteen parameters i.e., pH, EC, TDS, TA (as CaCO3), TH (as CaCO3), Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl−, NO3−, SO42−, PO43−, and F− to determine the Water Quality Index (WQI). The Heavy-metal Pollution Index (HPI) was determined by analyzing the following heavy-metals: As, Cr, Hg, Pb and Cd. Pre-monsoon WQI revealed that the water from location UD4–UD7 was unfit for drinking due to excessive fluoride levels (4.31 ± 2.45 mg/L), while post-monsoon dilution reduced fluoride levels to 0.86 ± 0.41 mg/L, improving water quality except UD5 reflecting poor water quality status. Piper plots and Durov diagrams highlighted the dominance of Ca2⁺ > Mg2⁺ > Na⁺ + K⁺ and Cl⁻ > HCO₃⁻ > SO₄2⁻ in both the seasons (pre-monsoon and post-monsoon). The Na⁺/(Na⁺ + Ca2⁺) and Cl⁻/(Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) ratio indicates that rock-water interaction influences water chemistry, while post-monsoon samples show precipitation dominance due to rainfall and snowfall. During pre-monsoon season, Pearson’s correlation showed negative relationships between pH and most parameters (pH, EC, TDS, TA (as CaCO3), TH (as CaCO3), Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, NO3−, SO42−, PO43−, and F−) while post-monsoon correlations were predominantly positive except for PO₄3⁻ and Na⁺. As per HPI, the water samples from from all the locations fall under unfit category for drinking purpose during pre-monsoon season whereas, during post-monsoon season 72% of water samples fall under poor to very poor categories. River water analyzed for agricultural purposes indicates that SAR falls below 10 in both the seasons, making the water to fall in the excellent category for irrigation purpose. The MAR values along with Kelly's Ratio and Wilcox diagram for all the water samples from all the locations analyzed and plotted supports the suitability of water use for agricultural purposes.
... The values of soil available N, P and K were determined with standard techniques and given in Table 1. (Richards, 1954) The above analyses indicate that the soil of experimental site was low in organic carbon and nitrogen, medium in phosphorus and rich in potassium and slightly alkaline in reaction. ...
... (Neissi et al., 2020;Wu et al., 2024). Groundwater samples from the study area had SAR values below 10, indicating excellent suitability for irrigation according to the categorization (Richards, 1954) and using SAR values (Table 2) as a reference. SAR values below 10 are also found in most groundwater samples from other aquifers in the research area. ...
... Amik Ovası Mahmutlu serisinden alınan deneme toprağı, killi-tın bünyeye (Bouyoucos, 1952), orta kireçli (Loeppert ve Suarez, 1996), hafif alkalin ve tuzsuz (Richards, 1954) özelliklere sahip bir topraktır (Eren, 2010). Toprağın EPA 3051 yöntemine (EPA, 1995) göre total Pb konsantrasyonu 3.92 mg kg -1 ve DTPA yöntemine (Lindsay ve Norvell, 1978) göre alınabilir Pb konsantrasyonu ise 0.29 mg kg -1 olarak belirlenmiştir. ...
This study aimed to assess the lead phytoextraction capacity of transgenic (p-cV-ChMTIIGFP) tobacco plants grown in soil contaminated with lead (Pb), as well as to examine how Pb affects the uptake of macro-and micronutrients by these plants, in comparison with non-transgenic SR-1 tobacco plants. The soil was administered increasing doses of Pb in the form of Pb(NO3)2, and the plants were cultivated under controlled conditions for a period of six weeks. The impact of the lead treatments on the Pb content of the plants was found to be statistically significant at the 5% level. The highest Pb content (53.2 µg plant-1) was observed in the 400 mg kg-1 application of the transgenic plant. The results indicated that increasing doses of Pb led to reductions in the concentrations of N, P and K in both plant types in comparison with the control. The application of Pb at increasingly elevated doses to the soil led to a statistically significant elevation in the concentrations of both Cu and Zn in transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants, as compared to the concentrations in the control plants. The application of increasing doses of Pb to soil resulted in a statistically significant increase in the concentrations of Cu and Zn in transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants, when compared to the concentrations in the control plants. The effect of Pb applications on the concentrations of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) was found to be statistically insignificant. It was found that transgenic (p-cV-ChMTIIGFP) tobacco plants did not show toxic symptoms despite Pb stress and the reduction effect on nutrient uptake has the potential to increase the accumulation capacity by supporting fertilization.
... The available potassium estimation ran through the Flame Photometer (Black, 1965;Olsen and Sommers, 1982). Measurement of pH, degree of electrical conductivity, calcium carbonate, bulk density, and exchange capacity employed the procedure of Black (1965), while EC engaged the approach of Richards (1954) ( Table 1). ...
The concerned study determined the effects of foliar application of nitrogen fertilizer-urea (N 46%) levels (0, 5, 10, and 15 gm L-1) and seaweed extract (0, 2, 4, and 6 ml L-1) on the vegetative growth and yield traits of pea (Pisum sativum L.), carried out in autumn of 2022 in Babylon Province, Iraq. The results indicated significant superiority of the seaweed treatment (6 ml L-1) in enhancing the pea's vegetative growth and yield. The seaweed treatment of 6 ml L-1 provided the highest averages for plant height (57.60 cm), branches per plant (12.58), leaves per plant (26.88), leaf area (925.83 cm 2), chlorophyll content (47.95 SPAD), vegetative dry weight (49.68 g), pods per plant (13.83), pod weight (14.10 g), pod yield per plant (196.90 g), and seeds protein (22.15%) compared with lowest values obtained in the control treatment. The foliar application of urea (15 gm L-1) followed the seaweed and showed the second-highest averages for the above parameters (56.10 cm, 12.08, 25.77, 888.10 cm-2 , 46.20 SPAD, 48.23 g, 12.93, 14.08 g, 184.31 g, and 21.45%, respectively). The interaction of seaweed (6 ml L-1) and nitrogen fertilizer (15 gm L-1) was superior, with the highest averages for the said traits. Citation: Al-Majdi MHK, Alabojaml NHN, Mehdi DH (2024). Effect of seaweed extract and nitrogen fertilizer on the growth and yield traits of pea (Pisum sativum L.). SABRAO J. Breed. Genet. 56(5): 2119-2126.
... The available potassium estimation ran through the Flame Photometer (Black, 1965;Olsen and Sommers, 1982). Measurement of pH, degree of electrical conductivity, calcium carbonate, bulk density, and exchange capacity employed the procedure of Black (1965), while EC engaged the approach of Richards (1954) ( Table 1). ...
The concerned study determined the effects of foliar application of nitrogen fertilizer-urea (N 46%) levels (0, 5, 10, and 15 gm L-1) and seaweed extract (0, 2, 4, and 6 ml L-1) on the vegetative growth and yield traits of pea (Pisum sativum L.), carried out in autumn of 2022 in Babylon Province, Iraq. The results indicated significant superiority of the seaweed treatment (6 ml L-1) in enhancing the pea's vegetative growth and yield. The seaweed treatment of 6 ml L-1 provided the highest averages for plant height (57.60 cm), branches per plant (12.58), leaves per plant (26.88), leaf area (925.83 cm 2), chlorophyll content (47.95 SPAD), vegetative dry weight (49.68 g), pods per plant (13.83), pod weight (14.10 g), pod yield per plant (196.90 g), and seeds protein (22.15%) compared with lowest values obtained in the control treatment. The foliar application of urea (15 gm L-1) followed the seaweed and showed the second-highest averages for the above parameters (56.10 cm, 12.08, 25.77, 888.10 cm-2 , 46.20 SPAD, 48.23 g, 12.93, 14.08 g, 184.31 g, and 21.45%, respectively). The interaction of seaweed (6 ml L-1) and nitrogen fertilizer (15 gm L-1) was superior, with the highest averages for the said traits. Citation: Al-Majdi MHK, Alabojaml NHN, Mehdi DH (2024). Effect of seaweed extract and nitrogen fertilizer on the growth and yield traits of pea (Pisum sativum L.). SABRAO J. Breed. Genet. 56(5): 2119-2126.
... Soil profiles (up to 1.5 m depth) also were studied from the representative salt-affected soils (P1 to P8) to understand pedogenetic processes, soil texture and structural patterns, distribution of soil materials, surface and sub-surface sodicity and salinity, soil moisture status, calcareousness, natural (internal) drainage and waterlogging conditions, etc. (Tables 5 and 6). These soils were analyzed for pH (of saturated soil paste) and ECe (of saturated paste extract, in me L −1 ), organic carbon (O.C., in %), CEC (cation exchange capacity, in c mol. (p + ) kg −1 ), ESP (exchangeable sodium percentage, in %), texture (sand %, silt %, and clay %), soluble salt composition (Na + , K + , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , CO 3 2− , HCO 3 − , Cl − , and SO 4 2− ions in me L −1 ), and CaCO 3 (<2 mm fraction in %) using standard procedure (Richards, 1954;van Reeuwijk, 1995). Based on pH, Ece, and ESP values, the soils were classified as saline (Ssa), sodic (Sso) and saline-sodic (Sss) with slight (1), moderate (2), and strong (3) categories (NRSA, 2007) Preparation of spatial and non-spatial databases The Survey of India topographical maps on a 1:50,000 scale were geo-referenced (tie-point method using a digital topographical map in the background) using a coordinate system with projection (UTM-zone 43) and datum (WGS 1984) and ellipsoid (WGS 84) parameters. ...
IRS LISS III Resource SAT data (2018–2020) revealed large-scale distribution of salt-affected soils in the Gangetic plain of Uttar Pradesh state. High reflectance from salt encrustation from barren wastelands indicated the presence of strong sodicity (57%) in the Ganga-Yamuna divide (called doab). Mixed spectral signatures for waterlogging and saline-sodic soil were identified in the canal-irrigated areas. Prominent soil characteristics include high soil pH in sodic and high ECe in saline-sodic soils. Fine soil texture, nodular, and concretionary CaCO3 (calcretes) at shallow depth and natric horizon at sub-surface depth have restricted salt movement, crop growth, and natural drainage in strongly sodic soils. Dominant salts such as Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 prompted an increase in soil alkalinity and a high exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) in sodic soils. Mixed spectral properties of salt, moisture, and crop cover have restricted the delineation of moderate and slightly sodic soils using remote data only and were mapped integrating with ground truth data. Based on soil pH, Ece, and ESP values, three categories of sodic soils, such as slight, moderate, and strong, were identified. Sodic and saline-sodic soils covered 85.6% and 13.3% of the total areas (3,793,123 ha). Slightly sodic areas increased by 51.8%, and moderate and strongly saline-sodic soils decreased by 62% between 1996 and 2023. The moderate and strongly sodic areas (3,207,800 ha) also corroborated the earlier estimates for Uttar Pradesh state (Singh et al., 2004).
... The determined values are generally within the expected ranges for soils with a clay texture and tend to decrease as the textural structure becomes coarser. When the pH and EC values of the regional soils are examined, according to Richards (1954), no salinity problem has been determined in the region. However, pH, which is directly related to the availability of macro and micronutrients, shows slightly alkaline properties. ...
... As médias seguidas pela mesma letra minúscula (tempo de decantação) não diferem estatisticamente entre si. Fonte: Autoria própria (2023). ...
EFICIÊNCIA DE SEMENTES DE MORINGA OLEÍFERA E TEMPOS DE DECANTAÇÃO NO TRATAMENTO DE ÁGUAS LEONARDO TRINDADE FERREIRA¹; VIVIANE CRISTINA SANTANA DE FRANÇA²; ELISÂNGELA MARIA RODRIGUES ROCHA³; SAMARA TEIXEIRA PEREIRA4 E ALBANISE BARBOSA MARINHO5 1 Depto. de Engenharia Civil e Ambiental. Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Cidade Universitária, S/N, Castelo Branco, CEP: 58051-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brasil. ORCID: 0009-0000-2795-2982. E-mail: leonardotrindadef@gmail.com. 2 Depto. de Engenharia Civil e Ambiental. Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Cidade Universitária, S/N, Castelo Branco, CEP: 58051-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brasil. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-7012-6414. E-mail: vcsf@academico.ufpb.br. 3 Depto. de Engenharia Civil e Ambiental. Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Cidade Universitária, S/N, Castelo Branco, CEP: 58051-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brasil. ORCID: 0000-0001-7024-6979. E-mail: elis@ct.ufpb.br. 4 Depto. de Engenharia Civil e Ambiental. Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Cidade Universitária, S/N, Castelo Branco, CEP: 58051-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brasil. ORCID: 0000-0002-3867-2983. E-mail: samaraeng.amb2@gmail.com. 5 Depto. de Engenharia Civil e Ambiental. Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Cidade Universitária, S/N, Castelo Branco, CEP: 58051-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brasil. ORCID: 0000-0002-8006-2011. E-mail: albanisebmarinho@gmail.com. RESUMO: A escassez hídrica é um fenômeno que provoca diversas consequências socioambientais no Brasil e no mundo, tornando-se necessário o desenvolvimento de tecnologias que promovam cada vez mais a acessibilidade à água de forma segura e eficaz. Estudos demonstram que a semente de Moringa oleífera (MO) possui propriedades de coagulação. Desta forma, o presente trabalho teve o intuito de avaliar a eficiência da semente de MO como coagulante natural no tratamento de água coletada em um pequeno reservatório no município de Queimadas, Paraíba, Brasil. As sementes de MO foram descascadas, secas em estufa, trituradas e aplicadas na amostra de água, que foi submetida a 2 e 48 horas de sedimentação. De maneira a facilitar a aplicação da metodologia em campo, utilizou-se o coagulante natural em tratamentos variando de 20 a 100 sementes por 500 mL de amostra. Como forma de avaliar o desempenho e eficiência do coagulante, a análise de qualidade da água foi feita por meio dos seguintes parâmetros físico-químicos: turbidez, cor aparente (CA), pH e condutividade elétrica (CE). Os resultados indicaram reduções de 88,25% e 70% de turbidez e CA, respectivamente, e os demais parâmetros se mantiveram dentro dos intervalos sugeridos pela literatura. Palavras-chaves: coagulação, coagulante natural, escassez hídrica. EFFICIENCY OF MORINGA OLEÍFERA SEEDS AND SETTLING TIME IN WATER TREATMENT ABSTRACT: Water scarcity is a phenomenon that causes many socioenvironmental issues in Brazil and worldwide. Access to safe and efficient water resources through the development of technologies is needed. Studies have shown that Moringa oleifera seeds (MOs) have coagulation properties. Therefore, the present study aims to analyze the efficiency of MO seeds as a natural coagulant in the treatment of water from a small reservoir in the city of Queimadas, state of Paraíba, Brazil. MO seeds were deshelled, oven dried, powdered and applied to the water sample, which was then subjected to 2 and 48 hours of settling. To make this methodology easier to apply during field activities, a natural coagulant was used in the range of 20--100 seeds per 500 mL of water sample. To verify the performance and efficiency of the coagulant, water quality analysis was performed via the following physical‒chemical parameters: turbidity, apparent color (AC), pH, and electrical conductivity (EC). The results revealed reductions of 88.25% and 70% in turbidity and AC, respectively, with the remaining parameters remaining within the suggested ranges in the literature. Keywords: coagulation, natural coagulant, water scarcity.
... -1) to simulate rain water and changes in hydraulic conductivity were measured. The clay content, electrical conductivity EC, and SAR of the effluent at different time intervals were measured by standard techniques (Richards 1954) until constant values of HC were obtained. After a drainage period of 12 h following the removal of distilled water, HC was again determined using original Waters. ...
Saturated hydraulic conductivity HC, and degree of clay dispersion DD, were determined for a sandy loam and a clay loam soil with waters of different combinations of sodium adsorption ratios SAR (5, 15, 30 and 45 mmol u2 1-~/2) and total electrolyte concentration TEC (15, 30, 60 and 90 me 1-1) followed by distilled water to simulate rainwater. Increase in SAR and decrease in TEC of leaching water increased DD and decreased HC of soils. The HC values were more highly correlated with SAR than TEC. The critical ratio of TEC/SAR of water below which the relative HC is less than the 'threshold' value (i.e.-<_0.75) was 3.82 and 2.01 for clay loam and sandy loam, respectively taking the HC of initial soil with good quality water (SAR=0.5, EC=0.3dS m-1) as the reference. Drastic reductions in conductivity were observed even at SAR=5 (60-83%) when saline water was displaced by rainwater, sensitivity being greater for the sandy loam than for the clay loam; recovery was negligible when the saline water was again applied. Data of EC and clay content of the effluent on application of distilled water suggested that clay dispersion, its movement and lodgement into conducting pores, may be the major cause of HC reduction in sandy loam, whereas in clay loam, surface sealing is the major cause. With distilled water application HC values were governed by SAR rather than TEC of initial water used. The study thus suggests that existing water quality criterion may underestimate the real soil permeability hazards from saline-sodic waters during rainfall infiltration in monsoon season. Poor quality underground waters exist in many arid and semi-arid parts of India (Bhumbla 1975) and are often used for irrigation in the absence or limited availability of better quality waters. The existing criterion for evaluation of such water's potentiality to cause structural deterioration and thus, problems of perme-ability, is based upon their EC-SAR combinations (Ayers and Westcot 1976). Though the adverse influence of low salt and high sodium waters on soil permeability has long been recognised (Quirk and Schofield 1955; McNeal and Coleman 1966), empirical tests involving soils and waters of interest are needed to
... The Walkley and Black method estimated organic carbon (%), which involves wet oxidation with potassium dichromate (Walkley & Black, 1934). Electrical conductivity (EC) was measured using an EC meter in a 1:2 soil-to-water extract, per the standard procedure that Richards (1954) outlined. The nutrient status of the soil, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), was assessed using established methodologies. ...
... The drainage waters classified as C4S1, in 50% of the samples and C4S2, in 25.9% of the samples, present very high salinity and according to the USSL classification, not being recommended its use in irrigation (Richards, 1954). Waters with medium risk of sodicity should be handled with caution in fine textured (clayey) soils, since sodium in this class of water has a significant potential for dispersion in low permeability soils (Oliveira Júnior et al., 2021).Sodium in this class of water has a significant potential for dispersion in low permeability soils (Oliveira Júnior et al., 2021). ...
Objective: The objective of this work was to evaluate the quality of water drained from a saline-sodic soil in a semi-arid region, and then classify it for different uses and verify its potential for reuse in agriculture. Theoretical Framework: The research is based on the guidelines for interpreting irrigation water quality and its classification according to the University of California Committee of Consultants, adapted by Ayers and Westcot (1994) and CONAMA resolution 357/2005. Method: Collections were carried out at nine sampling points in a saline-sodic soil and evaluated in six campaign periods from the application of the leaching blade. The parameters evaluated were electrical conductivity, sodium and sodium adsorption ratio. Results and Discussion: The results obtained allowed us to conclude that the water quality parameters analyzed were influenced by the collection time and that the classification of drainage water for irrigation presented four distinct classes, however with a high risk of soil salinization and low risk of sodicity if used for irrigation purposes. Research Implications: The practical and theoretical implications of this research are discussed, providing relevant information on the use of drainage water from irrigated perimeters for irrigation purposes and the potential risk of soil salization. Originality/Value: This study contributes to the literature by presenting an analysis and classification of drainage water from a saline-sodic soil for irrigation purposes in an irrigated perimeter, providing support for limiting the use of this water under the risk of soil salination.
... Spartina species thrive in saline environments and can play a crucial role in shoreline stabilization and wildlife habitat creation, providing essential shelter and food for diverse wildlife (Table 2). Further, although the soil EC in the focal fields never reached saline levels (> 4 dS m − 1 ; Richards, 1954), both Spartina species performed well on abandoned agricultural fields (Fig. 1d), suggesting that they should be considered for coastal restoration projects in agricultural areas even prior to severe salinization. Currently, these species are not eligible for several on-field CPS, but our data suggest that policy should be modified to include these species for conservation practices such as riparian herbaceous cover (CPS 390), wetland restoration (CPS 657), and field borders (CPS 386) on salt-intruded farm fields. ...
Sea level rise (SLR) and saltwater intrusion (SWI) along the Eastern Seaboard of the U.S. are reducing crop productivity and driving farmland abandonment. However, planting native marsh species can accelerate the transformation of these degraded fields into thriving tidal marshes, enhancing their ecosystem services. This study evaluates the productivity and element dynamics of six native warm-season grasses, including Panicum amarum, Panicum virgatum, Paspalum floridanum, Spartina patens, Spartina pectinata, and Tripsacum dactyloides on two abandoned agricultural fields in Somerset County, Maryland, USA. Aboveground biomass and plant tissue element concentrations were analyzed to evaluate their potential for use on field edges (buffers) or whole-field restoration efforts. Additionally, soil samples were collected to measure electrical conductivity (EC, as a proxy for salinity) and sodium (Na) concentrations. We found T. dactyloides to be an ideal candidate for salt-affected fields due to its high biomass productivity, efficient phosphorus uptake, and eligibility for several federally-funded conservation practice standards (CPS), including conservation cover (CPS 327) and field borders (CPS 386). Similarly, both Spartina species performed well and exhibited the highest Na accumulation in their tissues, making them ideal candidates for transitional restoration efforts due to their ability to thrive in both saline and non-saline conditions. Moreover, Spartina patens and Spartina pectinata are currently recommended for some conservation practice standards, including CPS 580 (Streambank and shoreline stabilization) and CPS 390 (Ri-parian herbaceous cover). Collectively, these native grasses offer versatile strategies to mitigate the environmental impacts of SLR and SWI, while supporting ecosystem services essential for maintaining the resilience and long-term sustainability of coastal regions.
... The collected water samples were analyzed for various chemical parameters, viz. EC iw , pH iw , cationic (Na + , Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ ) and anionic (CO 3 2− , HCO 3 − ) composition following standard methods as given in Richards (1954). The residual sodium carbonate (RSC) was calculated using the formula: ...
This study aimed to elucidate the morpho-physiological traits associated with sodicity tolerance and to identify sodicity
tolerant genotypes of jamun. Ten genotypes of jamun, including CSJ-3, CSJ-14, CSJ-15, CSJ-16, CSJ-29, CSJ-32, CSJ33, CSJ-35, CSJ-38, and CSJ-40, representing jamun genetic diversity from different states of India, were treated with
normal (control) and three levels of sodic waters [residual sodium carbonate (RSC) levels of ~2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 me/l]
for a period of 8 weeks. The effects of RSC water irrigation on key growth and physiological responses were recorded.
There were significant variations among the genotypes examined in plant growth and physiological attributes, indicating
genetic variation for sodicity tolerance in Jamun. Genotypes such as ‘CSJ-15’, ‘CSJ-38’, ‘CSJ-3’, ‘CSJ-40’, ‘CSJ-29’, and
‘CSJ-32’ exhibited desirable traits, including higher chlorophyll content, transpiration rate, photosynthetic rate, stomatal
conductance, and relative water content, suggesting their potential for salt tolerance. The results also demonstrated the
presence of RSC in irrigation water negatively affects the overall growth and physiological attributes of Jamun. However,
three genotypes viz. ‘CSJ-38’, ‘CSJ-40’, and ‘CSJ-29’, displayed better tolerance to RSCiw treatments, suggesting their
ability to withstand higher levels of salinity in the irrigation water. The results provided valuable insights into the salt
tolerance levels among the genotypes and led to the identification of tolerant genotypes which can be used in further
breeding programme.
... Saksılar içerisine konulan toprakların bazı fiziksel ve kimyasal özellikleri Çizelge 1'de verilmiştir. Çizelge 1 incelendiğinde toprakların killi-tın yapıda olduğu, hafif alkali, tuzsuz, az kireçli, organik madde çok az, azot miktarı düşük, potasyum yüksek, magnezyum yüksek, sodyum orta ve fosfor içeriği ise orta seviyede olduğu görülmektedir (Richards, 1954;Ülgen ve Yurtsever, 1974;FAO, 1990 Deneme tesadüf parselleri deneme desenine göre 4 (dört) tekerrürlü olarak 2022 yılında kurulmuştur. Saksıların dip kısmına 5 cm seviyesine kadar ince kum doldurulmuştur. ...
Bu araştırma, saksılarda yetiştirilen Sudanotu’nun toprak altı ve toprak üstü organlarının gelişimi üzerine tuzlu su uygulamalarının etkisini belirlemek amacıyla yürütülmüştür. Deneme Iğdır Üniversitesi Tarımsal Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkez Müdürlüğüne ait seralarında 2022 yılında tesadüf parselleri deneme desenine göre kurulmuştur. Sudanotu bitkisi 7 (yedi) farklı konsantrasyona sahip tuzlu su (kontrol (0), 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 ve 18 EC) ile sulanmıştır. Araştırmada bitkilerin kök uzunluğu, bitki boyu, kök kuru ağırlığı, bitki kuru ağırlığı, kök uzunluğu/bitki boyu oranı, kök kuru ağırlığı/bitki kuru ağırlığı oranı ve tuza tolerans yüzdeleri belirlenmiştir. Tuzlu su uygulaması Sudanotu’nun toprak altı ve toprak üstü organlarının gelişimi üzerine önemli etkileri olmuştur. Sudanotu’nun kök uzunluğu, bitki boyu, kök kuru ağırlığı, bitki kuru ağırlığı, kök uzunluğu/bitki boyu oranı, kök kuru ağırlığı/bitki kuru ağırlığı oranı ve tuza tolerans yüzdeleri sırasıyla 13.4-20.7 cm, 20.5-115.8 cm 2.7-6.8 g bitki-1, 11.4-99.0 g bitki-1, %18.2-65.2, %5.6-12.0 ve %32.1-100 arasında değişmiştir. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre, sulama suyundaki tuz konsantrasyonu arttıkça Sudanotu’nun bitki boyu, kök uzunluğu, kök kuru ağırlığı, bitki kuru ağırlığı ve tuz tolerans yüzdelerinde önemli düşüşler olurken, kök uzunluğunun bitki boyuna oranı ve kök kuru ağırlığının bitki kuru ağırlığına oranı ise artmıştır.
... rakımda çok, II. rakımda az *Richards (1954); Ülgen ve Yurtseven (1995) Mera kesimlerini tespit etmek amacıyla 2023 yılı Mart ayında araziye çıkılmış ve her bir rakımda mevcut mera kesimini temsil edecek şekilde 100 dekarlık alanlar belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca belirlenen mera kesimlerinde vejetasyon çalışmaları tamamlanıncaya kadar herhangi bir hayvan salınımı olmamıştır. ...
Iğdır doğal meralarında öncesinde hiçbir vejetasyon çalışması yürütülmemiştir. Bu çalışma ile Küçük Ağrı Dağı'nın farklı rakımlarında yer alan (I. kesim 1000 m, II. kesim 1500 m, III. kesim 2000 m) meraların bazı kalitatif ve kantitatif özelliklerinin belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Çalışmada meraların botanik kompozisyonunu belirlemek amacıyla Kuadrat yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda toplam 85 tür (9 buğdaygil, 11 baklagil ve 65 diğer familyalar) tespit edilmiştir. I., II. ve III. mera kesimlerinde buğdaygillerin ağırlığa göre botanik kompozisyondaki oranları sırasıyla %18.02, %45.86 ve %72.45, baklagillerin oranları sırasıyla %5.50, %12.28 ve %4.93 ve diğer familyaların oranları ise sırasıyla %76.48, %41.86 ve %22.62 olarak bulunmuştur. Mera kesimlerine göre toprağı kaplama oranı %9.88-%70.50, yaş ot verimi 150.36-464.28 kg/da, kuru ot verimi 52.84-165.68 kg/da, ham protein oranı %6.94-%15.95, ham protein verimi 8.43-18.84 kg/da, nötr çözücülerde çözünemeyen lif oranı %34.59-%56.62 ve asit çözücülerde çözünemeyen lif oranı %24.30-%38.55 arasında değişim göstermiştir. Otlatma kapasitesi ve birim hayvan başına gerekli mera alanı miktarları I. mera kesiminde sırasıyla 1.35 BBHB ve 18.45 da, II. mera kesiminde sırasıyla 5.26 BBHB ve 4.75 da ve III. mera kesiminde ise sırasıyla 4.25 BBHB ve 5.88 da olarak belirlenmiştir.
... Os diferentes níveis de salinidade foram encontrados com a relação entre a condutividade elétrica da solução (CEs) e os totais de sais dissolvidos, nas proporções desejadas, utilizou-se como referência a equação proposta por Richards (1954), apresentada na equação (1): ...
RESPOSTA DE MORINGA (Moringa oleifera L.) – (MORINGACEAE) A IRRIGAÇÃO COM ÁGUA SALINA FRENTE A GERMINAÇÃO JOSÉ DAVI RODRIGUES ANDRADE1; SAMARA FERREIRA COSTA2; FRANCISCA FABRINA ALVES DA ROCHA3; FRANCISCO JOSÉ CARVALHO MOREIRA4 E LUÍS GONZAGA PINHEIRO NETO5 1 Estudante do Curso Técnico em Fruticultura - IFCE - campus Sobral, Av. Dr. Guarani, 317 – Derby Clube, Sobral – CE, 62042-030; Autor para correspondência: E-mail: davi.rodrigues07@aluno.ifce.edu.br, ORCID (https://orcid.org/0009-0000-1119-4064). 2 Estudantes do Curso de Tecnologia de Irrigação e Drenagem – IFCE – campus Sobral, Av. Dr. Guarani, 317 – Derby Clube, Sobral – CE, 62042-030; Autor para correspondência: E-mail: Samara.ferreira.costa05@aluno.ifce.edu.br, ORCID (https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0578-6255). 3 Estudantes do Curso de Tecnologia de Irrigação e Drenagem – IFCE – campus Sobral, Av. Dr. Guarani, 317 – Derby Clube, Sobral – CE, 62042-030; Autor para correspondência: E-mail: francisca.fabrina.alves08@aluno.ifce.edu.br, ORCID (https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8183-7919). 4 Estudantes do Curso de Tecnologia de Irrigação e Drenagem – IFCE – campus Sobral, Av. Dr. Guarani, 317 – Derby Clube, Sobral – CE, 62042-030; Autor para correspondência: E-mail: franze.moreira@ifce.edu.br, ORCID (https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-7485-7299). 5 Eng. Agrônomo, Prof. do Eixo Tecnológico em Recursos Naturais, do IFCE – campus Sobral. Av. Dr. Guarani, 317 – Derby Clube, Sobral – CE, 62042-030, e-mail: luis.neto@ifce.edu.br, ORCID (https://orcid.org/ 0000-0001-5317-5072). 1 RESUMO A moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) é uma espécie de origem indiana que se adaptou bem às condições edafoclimáticas do semiárido do Nordeste brasileiro. É explorada tanto em condições irrigadas quanto de sequeiro, apresentando potencial em face de sua multiplicidade de usos alimentar, agrícola, medicinal e industrial. O objetivo do trabalho foi observar as respostas de Moringa oleifera à irrigação com água salina frente à germinação. O experimento foi realizado no Laboratório de Fitossanidade e Sementes, no Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Ceará – campus Sobral. Utilizou-se cinco níveis de salinidade da água de irrigação (0,27; 1,5; 3,0; 4,5 e 6,0 dS m-1), com soluções salinas de água destilada e cloreto de sódio (NaCl); com quatro repetições de 20 sementes cada, representando a unidade experimental. Foram avaliadas primeira contagem de germinação (aos 7 DAS), e porcentagem final de germinação (aos 14 DAS), quando desta última, mensurou-se a altura da planta, número de folhas, comprimento da raiz, peso da matéria seca da parte aérea e peso da matéria seca do sistema radicular. De posse dos resultados analisados, verificou-se que a irrigação com água salina afetou negativamente a germinação e o crescimento inicial de plantas de moringa a partir de 3,0 dS m-1. Palavras-chave: Moringa oleifera, Salinidade, Semiárido, Irrigação. ANDRADE, J. D. R.; COSTA, S. F.; ROCHA, F. F. A. da; MOREIRA, F. J. C.; PINHEIRO NETO, L. G. RESPONSE OF MORINGA (Moringa oleifera L.) – (MORINGACEAE) TO IRRIGATION WITH SALINE WATER IN RELATION TO GERMINATION 2 ABSTRACT Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) is a species of Indian origin that has adapted well to the edaphoclimatic conditions of the semiarid region of northeastern Brazil. It has been explored under both irrigated and rainfed conditions and has great potential given its multiplicity of food, agricultural, medicinal and industrial uses. The objective of this work was to observe the response of Moringa oleifera to irrigation with saline water in relation to germination. The experiment was carried out at the Plant Health and Seeds Laboratory at the Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Ceará – campus Sobral. Five salinity levels of irrigation water were used (0.27, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5 and 6.0 dS m-1), with saline solutions of distilled water and sodium chloride (NaCl), with four replications of 20 seeds each, thus representing the experimental unit. The first germination count (at 7 DAS) and the final percentage of germination (at 14 DAS) were evaluated. The plant height, number of leaves, root length, and dry matter weight of each plant were also measured. aerial part and dry matter weight of the root system. The observed and analyzed results revealed that irrigation with saline water negatively affected the germination and initial growth of moringa plants from 3.0 dS m-1 onward. Keywords: Moringa oleifera, Salinity, Semi-arid, Irrigation.
... The excess HCO 3 − and CO 3 − over alkaline earths (Ca 2+ +Mg 2+ ) is expressed as RSC and impacts irrigation water suitability [58]. RSC readings over 2.5 meq/L indicate unsuitability for irrigation, whereas RSC values over 5 meq/L indicate plant growth injury. ...
Groundwater resources in mica mining areas of Jharkhand are vital for local communities, agriculture, and domestic utilization. The study investigates the major ion chemistry of groundwater in the mica mining regions, focusing on key physicochemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), and concentrations of major cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺) and anions (HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, NO₃⁻, F⁻). Groundwater samples from the study area were collected before the monsoon season, during the monsoon season, and after the monsoon season. The hydro-chemical analysis reveals that groundwater in the mica mining zones exhibits elevated levels of dissolved ions, with NO₃⁻, F⁻, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and total hardness exceeding permissible limits set by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for drinking purposes at some locations. Water Quality Index (WQI) assessments suggest that a significant proportion of groundwater samples fall into the “good” to “very good” category for drinking and about 29% of the samples fall under the “poor” category. The groundwater was generally suitable for irrigational use with exception of a few due to high salinity. The principal component analysis revealed rock weathering as a dominant source of ions along with anthropogenic sources like mining and agriculture contributing minorly to the ionic load. The predominant hydro-chemical facies identified were Ca-Mg-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-Cl-SO4 types. Both carbonate and silicate weathering play an important role in the geochemical signature of the groundwater in the area. The study implicates the potential health impacts of using the groundwater as drinking water without treatment at a few locations owing to high fluoride, nitrate and dissolved solids. The study also highlights the need for sustainable water management practices and regular monitoring of groundwater quality to mitigate the anthropogenic impacts on groundwater resources.
... Gerais, Brazil (Reis et al. 2016). Only bicarbonate presented a mild to moderate degree of restriction for use in sprinkler irrigation (FAO 1985), being classified as C 2 S 1 (Richards 1954), considered water of medium salinity and low sodium content. ...
... meq/l and 1.47(S9)-5.96(S2), meq/l in the wet and dry seasons, respectively, indicating excellent (SAR < 10) quality for all samples according to Richards (1954) (Jolly et al., 2023). Moreover, SSP in groundwater calculated using Eq. ...
This work explored the toxicological effect of heavy metal in ground water of a Tannery Industrial Estate of Dhaka, Bangladesh and appraisal the groundwater aptness as drinking and irrigation water. The results revealed the worthiness of water for drinking and irrigation purposes as the physicochemical properties (pH, EC, salinity, and TDS), cations (Na⁺, K⁺, Mg2⁺, and Ca2⁺), and anions (F⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄2⁻, and NO₃⁻) were found within the permissible level propounded by various authorities. Among the analyzed heavy metals (As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr, and Zn), Hg (> 0.05) in both wet and dry seasons, and As (> 0.1) only in the wet season exceeded the permissible limit according to WHO (2017), which consequently influenced the groundwater evaluation indices. Seasonal variation was present prominently in all the evolution methods, and values were higher in the dry season compared to the wet season. The groundwater was irrigation-suitable, although the total hardness (TH) of groundwater was high (TH > 300). During both seasons, Hg and Ni were the most significant contributors to the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks through dermal exposure, respectively, whereas As contributed most through ingestion exposure. Children were more vulnerable to health risks than adults; also, both age groups faced a higher risk during the wet than the dry season, primarily due to ingestion rather than dermal exposure. This study presents the first data on the trends of heavy metal concentrations in groundwater from the Tannery Industrial Estate of Dhaka, Bangladesh and their associated health risk, thus providing foundational information for future research.
... Soil EC was measured according to Richards (1954). The soil of the pots of control and salt treated plants were dried and dry soil and water were mixed with a proportion of 1:5 (w/v). ...
Salinity is an important environmental stressor in arid, semi-arid, and coastal regions, primarily due to poor drainage, excessive fertilization, and proximity to the sea. Treating plants with exogenous organic acids may enhance their ability to survive under stressful conditions. In the present experiment, the effects of oxalic acid (OA) on strawberry plant growth and fruit quality were studied under salinity conditions. Day-neutral ‘Albion’ strawberry cultivar strawberry plants were planted in pots and 1 month after planting, salinity (35 mM Sodium chloride) and OA treatments (2.5, 5, 10 and 20 mM) were carried out. The plants were evaluated 60 days after the treatment’s initiation. OA treatments decreased the electrical conductivity (EC) value of the soil under salinity. Salinity stress decreased root:shoot dry weight and the relative growth rate of plant biomass. OA treatments improved leaf cortical cell expansion and xylem conduit diameter under salinity conditions. L‑ascorbic acid and malic acid increased with OA treatments. The study revealed that a 10-mM dose of OA was more effective than the other doses, indicating reduced salt stress damage. The results demonstrate that OA can be effectively used in strawberry cultivation under saline conditions.
... The total hardness of the water from 61.70% of the boreholes exceeded the limit set by WHO. Fig. 8 The projection of the sampled boreholes onto the irrigation water classification diagram, according to Richards [27], shows that the borehole water in the region is of good quality. The classes of the graph (Fig. 9), which are derived from the projection of the EC classes on the x-axis and the SAR classes on the y-axis, are as follows : and must be used with caution ; require soil drainage and/or gypsum addition. ...
Groundwater is the primary source of drinking water in sub-Saharan Africa, yet its quality and contamination sources often receive little attention, despite the region’s vulnerability to waterborne diseases and food insecurity. This study aimed at determining the suitability of groundwater for domestic and agricultural uses and the contributing factors in the Far North Region of Cameroon. Water samples were collected from 47 boreholes across the study area from January to April 2023. The heterotrophic aerobic and mesophilic bacteria (HAMB) and fecal contamination indicators were isolated and counted on agar using plating and membrane filtration techniques. Some physicochemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity, temperature, total dissolved solids, salinity, and concentrations of Cl ⁻ , Ca ²⁺ , Mg ²⁺ , NO 3 ⁻ , SO 4 ²⁻ , Fe ²⁺ , Na ⁺ , K ⁺ , alkalinity, oxidability, total hardness, and suspended solids (SS) were measured. The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), potential salinity (PS), Kelly ratio (KR), and magnesium hazard (MH) indices were calculated to assess the suitability of the water for agricultural use. Results showed that 66.67% of the boreholes were contaminated with total coliforms, E. coli , and fecal enterococci, indicating fecal contamination and unsuitability for human consumption. The groundwater in the granitic areas exhibited high mineralization, with electrical conductivity reaching 2620 µS/cm, mainly due to the water-rock interaction; releasing large quantities of calcium, magnesium, fluoride, sodium, and potassium ions. The results suggest that chemical and biological contamination of groundwater occurs through the hydrolytic release of ions contained in the rocky substrate and through anthropogenic activities.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of different water levels on yield, morphological, and quality parameters, as well as the crop water stress index (CWSI), for pepper plants under a high tunnel greenhouse in a semi-arid region. For this purpose, the irrigation schedule used in this study includes 120%, 100%, 80%, and 60% (I120, I100, I80, and I60) of evaporation monitored gravimetrically. In this study, increasing irrigation levels (I100 and I120) resulted in increased stem diameter, plant height, fruit number, leaf number, and leaf area values. However, these values decreased as the water level dropped (I60 and I80). At the same time, increased irrigation resulted in improvements in fruit width, length, and weight, as well as a decrease in TSS values. While total yield and marketable yield values increased at the I120 water level, TWUE and MWUE were the highest at the I100 water level. I80 and I120 water levels were statistically in the same group. It was found that the application of I100 water level in the high tunnel greenhouse is the appropriate irrigation level in terms of morphology and quality parameters. However, in places with water scarcity, a moderate water deficit (I80) can be adopted instead of full (I100) or excessive irrigation (I120) in pepper cultivation in terms of water conservation. The experimental results reveal significant correlations between the parameters of green pepper yield and the CWSI. Therefore, a mean CWSI of 0.16 is recommended for irrigation level I100 for higher-quality yields. A mean CWSI of 0.22 is recommended for irrigation level I80 in areas where water is scarce. While increasing the CWSI values decreased the values of crop water consumption, leaf area index, total yield, marketable yield, total water use efficiency, and marketable water use efficiency, decreasing the CWSI increased these values. This study concluded that the CWSI can be effectively utilised in irrigation time planning under semi-arid climate conditions. With the advancement of technology, determining the CWSI using remote sensing-based methods and integrating it into greenhouse automation systems will become increasingly important in determining irrigation times.
Bitkisel üretimde verim ve kalitenin arttırılmasına yönelik yapılan kültürel uygulamalar içerisinde gübreleme oldukça önemli bir yere sahiptir. Gübre uygulamalarının ise, toprak ve bitki analizleriyle elde edilecek olan verilerin bilimsel olarak değerlendirilmesi sonucunda bilinçli bir şekilde yapılması büyük önem arz etmektedir. Bu sayede bol ve kaliteli üretim yanı sıra, gereğinden fazla gübre ve ilaç kullanılmaması sayesinde ekonomik, aynı zamanda çevre ve insan sağlığının korunduğu bir üretim gerçekleşmiş olacaktır. Bu çalışmada; Bursa ili, Uludağ Üniversitesi yerleşkesinde yer alan Tarımsal Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezinde tarla bitkileri üretimi yapılan toprakların 0-30 cm derinliklerinden alınan toprak örneklerinin bazı fiziksel ve kimyasal analizleri yapılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçların referans değerlerle karşılaştırılması sağlanarak toprakların verimlilik durumlarının belirlenmesine ve bitkilerin olası beslenme sorunlarının tespit edilmesine çalışılmıştır. Elde edilen bulgulara göre, tarla bitkileri yetiştiriciliği yapılan toprakların genel olarak kil ve killi tın bünyeli oldukları görülmüştür. Toprakların 6,07-7,79 arasında değişen pH’ya (1:2.5 w/v), 275,0-838,0 µS cm-1 arasında değişen EC’ye, %0,40-7,81 arasında değişen CaCO3’a ve %0,51-3,18 arasında değişen oranlarda organik maddeye sahip oldukları belirlenmiştir. Topraklar arasında besin elementlerinin yetersiz ve fazla sınırlar arasında olduğu araziler tespit edilmiştir. Toprak örneklerinin toplam azot içerikleri %0,060-0,151 arasında ve yarayışlı fosfor içerikleri ise 0,780-33,92 mg kg-1 arasında belirlenmiştir. Toprakların ekstrakte edilebilir potasyum, kalsiyum, magnezyum ve sodyum içerikleri ise sırasıyla 60,0-1178,0 mg kg-1, 4378,0-8635,0 mg kg-1, 177,0-1374,0 mg kg-1 ve 90,0-211,0 mg kg-1 arasında değişim göstermiştir. Mikro elementlerden demirin 2,22-15,32 mg kg-1, bakırın 0,95-22,85 mg kg-1, çinkonun 0,53-2,14 mg kg-1, manganın 1,99-42,97 mg kg-1 ve borun 0,29-0,61 mg kg-1 değerleri arasında değiştiği görülmüştür. Yapılan çalışmanın sonuçlarından toprakların homojen bir yapıya sahip olmadığı, uygulama farklılıkları nedeniyle bitki besin elementi miktarlarının geniş bir dağılım gösterdiği görülmüştür. Bu durumun elementler arasındaki antagonistik ilişkileri tetikleyerek arazide yer yer makro ve mikro bitki besin elemeti noksanlıklarının görülmesine yol açtığı tespit edilmiştir. Arazilerde toprak analizi sonuçlarına dayalı olmayan bilinçsiz bir gübreleme programının izlendiği, organik gübre kullanımına da yeterince önem verilmediği görülmüştür. Arazideki topraklarda homojenliğin sağlanması ve tüm besin elementlerinin de optimum düzeye getirilebilmesi öncelikle ele alınmalıdır. Daha sonrasında ürün bazlı gübreleme programlarının oluşturulmasına gereksinim bulunmaktadır. Kimyasal ve ya organik gübre çeşit ve dozları ile uygulama yöntem ve zamanlarının mutlak surette toprak analiz sonuçlarına göre programlanmasının, gereksiz gübre kullanımının önlenmesinin ve üretim yapanların bu konuya hassasiyet göstermesinin üretimde kalite ve ürün artışı için gerekli olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır.
This study characterized soils and assessed groundwater quality for irrigation in Ambach village, Chikhli taluka, Navsari district. Soil samples from 138 locations at two depths (0-20 cm and 20-40 cm) showed slightly alkaline pH on the surface (6.1-8.9, mean 7.8) and subsurface soils (6.5-8.7, mean 7.9), with 93.78% and 96.94% being non-saline, respectively. The SOC levels in the surface soils were 27.53% low, 36.95% medium, and 35.53% high, while those in the subsurface soils were 40.47% low, 37.70% medium, and 21.83% high. Nitrogen was medium in the surface (284.1-329.5 kg ha⁻¹) and medium to low in the subsurface (239.4-290.2 kg ha⁻¹). The P₂O₅ was high in both layers. K₂O in surface soils was 21.9% low, 24.5% medium, and 53.6% high, whereas the subsurface levels were 26.3% low, 34.0% medium, and 39.6% high. The micronutrients Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu were mostly high, with the nutrient index indicating high fertility for P₂O₅ and K₂O, however, some areas had medium to low fertility. Groundwater assessment of 60 samples (2023-24) from irrigated fields (417 ha, 57% irrigated) revealed pH 7.4-8.4 (mean 7.8) and EC 0.39-1.74 dS m⁻¹ (mean 0.99 dS m⁻¹), with 71.66% classified as high salinity (C3) and 28.33% as medium salinity (C2). SAR ranged from 0.52 to 3.52 (mean 1.33), indicating safe use, while RSC ranged from -0.86 to 7.26 meq L⁻¹ (mean 2.61 meq L⁻¹), posing moderate to high alkalinity risks. Gypsum is recommended to mitigate high SAR and RSC. The study addressed challenges such as high soil variability, limited farmer adoption of organic amendments, and poor irrigation water quality (high EC, RSC). It contributed to sustainable agriculture by providing site-specific nutrient management strategies, promoting organic matter incorporation, and recommending efficient soil and water management practices to enhance soil fertility and crop productivity.
The study analyzed the economic and stover yields of radish across six locations during the rabi seasons of 2019 and 2020, alongside nutrient uptake and soil-water interactions. Economic yield ranged from 147.2 to 185.9 q/ha (mean: 174.0 q/ha) in 2019 and 153.3 to 186.0 q/ha (mean: 176.0 q/ha) in 2020, while stover yield ranged from 8.8 to 14.5 q/ha (mean: 12.7 q/ha) in 2019 and 9.9 to 14.8 q/ha (mean: 13.3 q/ha) in 2020. Location II consistently exhibited the highest economic yield (186.0 q/ha) and nutrient uptake, whereas Location V recorded the lowest performance in yields and nutrient absorption. Variability in yield and nutrient parameters was moderate to low, with coefficients of variation (CV) below 15%, indicating overall consistency among locations. Soil and irrigation water quality significantly influenced yield outcomes. Soil pH exhibited strong negative correlations with economic yield (-0.731) and nutrient availability, emphasizing the importance of managing pH for optimal crop performance. Organic carbon and essential nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and micronutrients (Fe, Zn, Mn) displayed positive correlations with yield, highlighting their role in promoting productivity. Seasonal variations in irrigation water quality, including pH, electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and residual sodium carbonate (RSC), demonstrated improved water quality post-monsoon due to leaching and dilution effects. These findings underscore the importance of site-specific nutrient management and water quality monitoring for enhancing radish yield and soil health. Addressing pH imbalances, optimizing nutrient availability, and mitigating salinity hazards could significantly improve agricultural productivity in semi-arid regions.
In Tunisia, managing the water requirements of date palm is a critical challenge due to scarce water resources and the necessity for efficient irrigation practices in oasis environments. This study aims to estimate the irrigation water requirements of date palm (cv. Deglet Nour) in three oases: Jemna, Rjim Maatoug, and Tozeur using the CROPWAT 8.0 model. Climatic data revealed similar maximum and minimum temperatures and solar radiation across the sites. However, minimum relative humidity varied significantly, recorded at 34%, 14.5%, and 8.4% in Jemna, Rjim Maatoug, and Tozeur, respectively. The annual irrigation water requirements of date palm were highest in Rjim Maatoug (1267.1 mm), followed by Jemna (1245.4 mm) and Tozeur (1044.6 mm). Water productivity values were estimated at 0.47, 0.44, and 0.59 kg·m⁻³ for Jemna, Rjim Maatoug, and Tozeur, respectively. These findings contribute to a better understanding of date palm water needs in southern Tunisia and support the development of improved irrigation scheduling and water use efficiency strategies. The use of the CROPWAT 8.0 model offers a practical tool for farmers to determine optimal irrigation quantities and frequencies for sustainable date palm cultivation.
The farming areas in the catchment of Lake Kinneret basin are irrigated with Dan Spring waters, characterized by a concentration of 10 mg/L of Cl. Climate change simulation predicts that by the year 2050, the flow of the headwater springs will drop by 20%, a finding that poses a significant threat to the future of farming in the basin. The Israel Water Authority proposed irrigating Kinneret water after dilution with the Dan Spring water. To test the possible ramifications on soil health, three irrigation treatments were used, including Kinneret water (300 mg/L Cl⁻), mix‐diluted water (150 mg/L Cl⁻), and control irrigation with Dan water (10 mg/L Cl⁻). The experiment was conducted in a factorial structure (5 common soils × 3 treatments × 6 repetitions) in 25‐L pots. A total of 945 weekly leachates were sampled, and Cl, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) were determined. To determine the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), soil samples were collected from two depths (0–10 cm and 30–40 cm). Significant differences were found between the three treatments in all salinity and sodicity parameters (p < 0.001) measured in leachates and soils. The difference between the treatments was most pronounced in the summer when the Kinneret‐irrigated soils exhibited means of EC, 3584 µS/cm; Cl, 1694 mg/L; SAR, 10.07 meq/L0.5; and ESP, 8.2%. Changes in salinity and sodicity in leachates and soils corresponded well to changes in evaporation. This test study strongly suggests that changing water sources for irrigation because of climate change may increase soil salinity across the entire Mediterranean region.
Accurate prediction and mapping of soil properties are essential in environmentally sustainable land use. Traditional approaches are laborious and costly, however. This article demonstrates the use of Prismatic Imaging Sensor (PRISMA) with a cost-effective, rapid, and environmental-friendly approach of forecasting and mapping the soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) of New Delta region in Egypt’s Western Desert based on hyperspectral data and machine learning (ML) techniques. The study integrates soil wet chemistry data, hyperspectral reflectance, multivariate regression, and ML models to improve soil property estimation. PRISMA hyperspectral imagery was acquired, processed, and classified to map land use and land cover (LULC). Seventy-four representative bare soil profiles were collected and their pH, EC, and CaCO 3 content were determined. Hyperspectral reflectance data for the samples were reaped, and noisy spectral bands were eliminated to improve data quality and prediction accuracy. Partial least squares regression (PLSR), random forest (RF), multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS), and support vector regression (SVR) were the different ML models attempted. Spectral band selection was improved by the implementation of competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS); and multiple linear regression (MLR) was used for the development of prediction equations to map soil properties over PRISMA image. Soil condition was found highly variable, ranging from slightly to extremely alkaline pH, non-calcareous to extremely calcareous in CaCO 3 content, and non-saline to highly saline soils. Of the models, PLSR provided the best fit estimates for surface soil pH (R² = 0.1186, RMSE = 3.115, RPD = 0.7902), surface soil EC (R² = 0.2281, RMSE = 1.196 dS/m, RPD = 1.132), surface CaCO 3 content (R² = 0.5984, RMSE = 2.73%, RPD = 1.817), subsurface soil EC (R² = 0.2557, RMSE = 1.7481 dS/m, RPD = 1.124), and subsurface CaCO 3 content (R² = 0.6092, RMSE = 2.32%, RPD = 1.779). RF yielded the highest performance for predicting subsurface soil pH (R² = 0.1517, RMSE = 2.876, RPD = 0.1777). Identification of relevant spectral bands, calibration of the prediction models, and their use in PRISMA imagery resulted in high-resolution maps of soil parameters. These findings are extremely helpful to improve land reclamation planning and the effectiveness of their application.
The global agricultural sector, as the largest consumer of water, faces critical challenges related to freshwater scarcity and quality. Treated wastewater (TWW) irrigation presents a viable solution, prompting this study to examine its effects on soil and crops over a two-year experiment (2020–2021) in Hashtgerd and Mahdasht, Karaj, Iran, across different growing seasons. Wheat, barley, alfalfa, and maize were cultivated in two farms per region. Findings revealed significant impacts on electrical conductivity (EC), nutrient levels (nitrogen and phosphorus), and heavy metal dynamics, varying based on TWW quality and soil properties. Notably, soil EC increased by 1.08 and 1.38 dS/m in Hashtgerd farms, while Mahdasht saw rises of 3.36 and 3.20 dS/m, reflecting regional disparities in TWW composition. Nitrate concentrations in Mahdasht increased by up to 25 mg/kg compared to baseline levels, while lead accumulation remained below critical thresholds in both regions. These region-specific values reflect local variations in water quality and soil characteristics, contributing to a broader understanding of spatial differences in TWW irrigation outcomes. While TWW enriched the soil with nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, it also posed risks such as salinization, nitrate leaching, and heavy metal accumulation, especially in Mahdasht, where wastewater quality is lower. Crop productivity improved for maize and barley under TWW irrigation, but wheat and alfalfa showed inconsistent outcomes, including occasional yield declines and nutrient imbalances. Although heavy metals in crops remained mostly within safe limits, nickel and lead exhibited worrisome trends. These findings emphasize the dual role of TWW in improving soil fertility and crop productivity while presenting environmental and health challenges.
his research was conducted in the Damascus Countryside in Damascus Governorate in 2023 and 2024, with the aim of studying the effect of Fermi Compost, fermented cow dung manure and mineral fertilizer in some chemical properties and in the productivity of the eggplant. Fertilizer additives (Fermi Compost, mineral and cow manure) in the quantities used according to the agricultural recommendation of summer vegetables, led to the absence of significant differences in acidity and soil conductivity. This shows the safe effect of the studied transactions, and none of the transactions caused soil salinization, Organic fertilizers significantly increased the soil organic matter content compared to the mineral and control treatments, and the Fermicompost treatment exceeded clearly on the treatment of fermented cow manure , the results showed that the fermicompost treatment was superior to the mineral fertilizer coefficient and the control in the soil content of the total nitrogen, while the treatment of the Fermi-compost showed no significant different with the treatment of compost. Fermented cow manure, as the results show more than the values of potassium and phosphorous available in the treatment of cow manure on the control, and with non-clear differences with the rest of the compost treatments, while the differences were not clear and in favor of my fermi treatment. Compost and metal compared to the control. All transactions outperformed the control in productivity. The results also showed significant differences in the fertilizer transactions among themselves, and the productivity was in the order of mineral fertilizers, followed by the Fermi Compost treatment, then the fermented cow manure.
Five soil sites were chosen in the middle Euphrates region, included the governorates of (Karbala, Najaf, Babel, Diwaniyah, and Muthanna), These soils were characterized by their similarity in texture, parent material, topography and climatic conditions and equal rainfall, in order to study the use of the center of gravity equation and mineralogical properties in evaluating the state of potassium, Soils under different agricultural use of ( rice, wheat, vegetables, palm trees, and other soils that are uncultivated soils). Results of the partical size distribution showed that there is a predominance of clay fractions, followed by the fractions of silt and sand, where they ranged between 362-595 gm kg-1, 310-479 gm kg-1. 58-320 gm kg-1, respectively. In general, silt clay was the dominant texture in most of the study soils. The results showed that the total surface area of these soils were ranged between 188-310 m2g-1, while a specific surface area of clay ranged between 95-250m2g-1, whereas the potassium forms (soluble, exchangable, non exchangable + mineral and total) were recorded a values ranged between (0.007-0.081, 0.17-0.43, 22.03-40.60 and22.35-40.92) cmol kg-1. respectively. Results showed there was a variation in the values of calculated center of gravity for studied soil samples, which ranged between 0.82-1.33 whereas soil sample recorded value 1which reflect the variation between these soils in their ability for potassium supplying, depending on the nature of agricultural exploitation and their texture. x-ray examination of the clay samples in soils with rice and palm trees indicated the presence of smectite, real chlorite, and biotite. Also showed there was a shift of mica minerals towards expanded 2:1 mineral, with appearance of interstratification for these minerals, and confirms that these minerals are inherited from mica minerals, and characterized by their characteristics in terms of release and fixation of potassium ion. Also, the results showed the existence of regular interstratified (Illite - smectite) mineral in the soils of the rice and palm exploitation. The results of the x-ray examination of soils exploited with vegetables, palm trees and unexploited soils showed the presence of both types of mica minerals (biotite and muscovite), smectite, chlorite and kaolinite in varying amounts depending on weathering conditions and mineral formation. While the results of the x-ray examinations of the silt fractions indicated that they were identical in the mineral content of the separated clay particles to those soils he results of the examination of infrared (IR) spectrum beams examination for selected samples of clay particles showed the presence of absorption of water molecules on the surfaces of clay minerals in those soils, which is called zeolite water. Also, the result of exculmination showed the existence of biotite in clay sample of rice soils and soils exploited by palm trees, with presence Of Hydrated mica(illite). The result of the examination for clay samples in Babylon exploited by wheat and vegetables showed the presence of smectite minerals(montmorillonite), while the results of examination for clay samples of unexploited of showed the presence of mica minerals, and that the appearance of the band 3550 cm-1 with a medium expansion indicates the gradual transformation of mica minerals towards dioctahedral mica. the results of the optical microscope examinations of the very fine silt fractions for all samples showed, the presence of mica (muscovite and biotite) in varying degrees of weathering. These minerals were appeared in different morphological features, reflected the conditions surrounding them, where the mechanical crushing was visible in varying degree of intensity on the surface of mica partical, in exploited soils. Comparing with unexploited soils, which their partical appeared with intact edges, and unaffected by various weathering processes, with the presence of voundnes phenomena on their surfaces, which is belong to the effects of transportation and deposition processes. Results of Scanning electron microscope (SEM) for clay fractions, showed there was three morphological features for mica minerals in studied soils, while these features were considered as reflections for conditions surrounding these mineral, such as soil exploitation, transportation and deposition processes
Soil Salinity and Sodicity Management
Soil salinization is a global challenge that severely limits agro-food production. Our approach to tackle this challenge involves using bioformulations containing halotolerant fungal endophytes to enhance plant tolerance against salinity stress. We evaluated the growth of Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp., two endophytic fungi, on culture medium with different NaCl levels. In greenhouse experiments using cucumber seedlings as model plant, we assessed the efficacy of our treatments. High NaCl concentrations in the culture medium stimulated hyphal growth but reduced sporulation and delayed spore germination. Cucumber seedlings treated with fungal bioformulations exhibited improved growth characteristics, higher chlorophyll content, as well as photosynthesis efficiency compared to control treatments. This plant-microbe association gives plant stress resilience through mitigating osmotic-deficit stress and provides a nutritional source for fungi. Our findings demonstrate that introducing halotolerant endophytic fungi in bioformulations is a sustainable approach in facing salinity.
As climate change intensifies, plant species with high adaptive capacity are gaining importance for sustainable landscaping and ecosystem resilience. Nerium oleander L., a widely used ornamental plant, is known for its ability to thrive under diverse environmental conditions and is naturally distributed in Türkiye. This study aims to characterize the soil properties of its natural habitats to assess its potential for climate-adaptive landscaping. Soil samples were collected from 22 locations across Türkiye where N. oleander grows naturally. The results revealed that the soils varied in texture from loamy to clayey-loamy and sandy, with pH levels ranging from slightly acidic to slightly alkaline. Salinity levels also differed, with soils classified as nonsaline, slightly saline, and very saline. Correlation analysis showed strong relationships between specific soil parameters, such as saturation and organic matter content, as well as exchangeable Mg and electrical conductivity. These findings confirm that N. oleander can tolerate a wide range of soil conditions, supporting its suitability for landscape applications, particularly in the face of climate change.
Selection of optimum fertilizers is very important for the production of a crop. Micronutrients play various important roles in plants for their proper growth and development. In the present study, the effects of some micronutrients viz. Zinc (Zn), Sulphur (S) and Manganese (Mn) was observed on growth and yield of Onion (Allium cepa L. cv. Nasik Red). These micronutrients were applied in soil in different combinations alone and with combination of N, P, and K. Bulb weight, diameter of bulb, neck thickness of bulb, and bulb yield were observed in the produced plants and economic importance of treated plants were calculated. The result revealed that presence of all the micronutrients along with N, P, and K in soil enhanced all the above-mentioned factors in the plants when compared to control plants significantly. Treated plants were also found more economic to farmers.
Sorghum is a highly climate-resilient crop with strong potential as a fodder source, but its productivity is severely affected by weed infestation. To study this, a field experiment was conducted during the Kharif season of 2021-2022 at the Instructional Farm, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, and Udaipur. The experiment used a randomized block design with twelve treatments, each replicated three times. Treatments included pre-and post-emergence applications of various herbicides (Atrazine, Metolachlor, Pyroxasulfone, 2, 4-D), intercropping with cowpea or blackgram, and manual weeding. Results showed that weed free treatment was most effective, yielding the highest green (66.49 t/ha) and dry fodder (14.84 t/ha). Whereas, the combined application of atrazine (T5) as both pre-and post-emergence was the most effective under weed control treatments. HCN content, an indicator of fodder quality, remained consistent across treatments. The weed-free treatment (T11), maintained by hand weeding at 15 and 35 days after sowing, resulted in the highest nutrient uptake (N: 96.97 kg/ha, P: 28.24 kg/ha, K: 179.89 kg/ha), surpassing the weedy check. Economically, T11 recorded the highest net return (₹103,356/ha), followed closely by T5 (₹103,271/ha). T5 also recorded the highest benefit-cost ratio (3.48), making it the most profitable herbicide-based treatment. These findings highlight T5 as an effective and economically viable weed management strategy for improving sorghum fodder yield.
In this study, the effects of intermittent and deficit irrigation applications in subsurface drip irrigation system on the yield and some development parameters of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) plant were investigated. Four irrigation water levels and three interval treatments were applied in the study. According to the results obtained in the study, the effect of intermittent irrigation practices was found to be statistically significant on yield, plant weight, number of branches, and average capsule diameter parameters of black cumin. The lowest and highest black cumin yields were obtained in irrigation treatments S0 and S1 with 566.0 and 18,883.4 kg ha −1 , respectively. When evaluated according to intermittent applications, it was seen that seed yield increased as the water cut time increased. Accordingly, the average yield values in F0 (continuous irrigation), F1 (the treatment where water is applied once interrupted), and F2 (the treatment where water is applied twice interrupted) treatments were obtained as 1163.5, 1282.5, and 1204.8 kg ha −1 , respectively. While the interaction of irrigation level and interval number was found to be significant only in the average capsule diameter, the lowest and highest capsule diameters were obtained from treatments S0F2 and S1F1 with 8.9 and 12.8 mm, respectively. The two-year average lowest and highest plant water consumption values were obtained from treatments S0 and S1F2 with 253.7 and 418.6 mm, respectively. As a result, it was revealed that increasing the on-off period in intermittent irrigation applications in clayey soils may have positive effects on plant development and productivity.
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