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Presence and concentration of 17 hormones in human placenta processed for encapsulation and consumption
Abstract
Human maternal placentophagy is a rare but growing practice in several industrialized countries among postpartum mothers seeking a variety of purported health benefits attributed to the practice. These postpartum mothers typically consume their placenta as a processed, encapsulated supplement. To determine whether free (unconjugated) steroid hormones and melatonin in placenta can survive the encapsulation process (namely steaming and dehydration), we analyzed 28 placenta samples processed for encapsulation using liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to evaluate the concentration of 17 hormones. The results revealed detectable concentrations for 16 of the hormones analyzed, some in concentrations that could conceivably yield physiological effects.
... One of the causes of placentophagia may be related to the ingestion of hormones by females since the placenta contains hormones such as oxytocin, estrogens, progesterone, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Releasing Factor Corticotropin [29], chorionic gonadotropin, hypothalamic releasing hormones (GnRH), placental lactogen, placental opioid enhancing factor (POEF), relaxin, and inhibin [30,31]. In females, the estrogens or similar sex hormones play a significant role in implanting the embryo and the development of the mammary gland. ...
... However, some commercial placental preparations contain higher estradiol and progesterone concentrations, which could achieve high endocrine effects if the processed placenta's consumption is high and due to the maximum concentration they contain. However, this requires further investigation and will depend on the recommendations of these product providers [29]. ...
... There are currently no known, firsthand, ethnographic accounts of placentophagia among humans as a traditional cultural practice [62]. Interest in placentophagy has grown in industrialized cities in the last 50 years [22,29]. ...
Placentophagia is a common mammalian behavior, and the first scientific study of the potential effects of human maternal placentophagia on lactation was in 1917. More recently, in the 1970s, human placentophagia was reported in North America with a trend toward increased consumption. There are different hypotheses about the women and nonhuman mammals’ motivation towards placentophagia, but few have been subject to hypotheses testing. In women, the controversy continues; on the one hand, researchers attribute benefits like increased breast milk, weight gain in newborns, decreased postpartum depression and fatigue, and improved mothers’ mood. In contrast, bacterial or viral infections, hormonal, or trace elements that could become toxic for both the mother and baby are reported as possible health risks. Other reports argue a lack of scientific rigor to support the self-reported benefits of placentophagia. Also, the way the placenta is prepared (raw, cooked, dehydrated, processed, or encapsulated) alters its components, and thus the desired effects. This review provides relevant information and the different hypotheses and points of view around placentophagia. However, there are still questions to be resolved, and more studies are needed to confirm or reject the data generated so far about placentophagia in humans and nonhuman mammals.
... Placental tissue contains various hormones, including oxytocin, estrogens, progesterone, human placental lactogen, ACTH and CRH. These hormones were detected both in raw placenta and in the dehydrated powder [28,29]. ...
... The content of various hormones in the placental tissue has been demonstrated both before and after production of the powder [28,29]. Based on knowledge so far, it must be assumed that proteolysis takes place in the gastrointestinal tract. ...
... Plazentagewebe enthält verschiedene Hormone, darunter Oxytocin, Östrogene, Progesteron, humanes Plazentalaktogen, ACTH und CRH. Diese Hormone wurden sowohl in roher Plazenta als auch im getrockneten Pulver nachgewiesen [28,29]. ...
The use of placenta preparations as an individual puerperal remedy can be traced back to historical, traditional practices in Western and Asian medicine. To evaluate the ingestion of processed placenta as a puerperal remedy, the potential risks (trace elements, microorganisms) and possible benefit (hormones in the placental tissue) of such a practice are discussed in this article based on a literature review.
... 3,7 Recent analyses of human placenta that has been cooked and processed for consumption in capsule form has shown select placental nutrients and hormones do remain after processing. 10,11 Although placenta is consumed in a variety of ways (e.g., uncooked, incorporated into a cooked mealtime dish, or a blended fruit or vegetable drink), the most commonly-cited preparation method is to dehydrate, pulverize, and encapsulate the organ to be taken as a supplement in the weeks following birth. 4,6,7 Although placentophagy continues to receive significant popular media attention, and is increasingly familiar to the general public and to reproductive health care providers, 12 there are currently no estimates regarding its frequency in the US or in other industrialized nations where it is gaining popularity. ...
... 34 Interestingly, in the present study, progesterone was present at the highest concentration of all the steroid hormones in the placenta capsule samples analyzed, and progesterone is known to partially convert to allopregnanolone when taken orally. 35 Allopregnanolone was also one of only three hormones in processed, encapsulated placenta samplesamong 17 analyzed by Young et al. 11 that were in sufficiently high concentrations to potentially reach physiological effect thresholds. It should be noted, however, that in the present study (see Part 1, present volume), concentrations of allopregnanolone in both placenta and placebo group salivary samples were below the level of detection at post-supplementation meetings 3 and 4. Given these mixed results, further research on the effects, if any, of placentophagy on circulating levels of allopregnanolone, may be warranted. ...
... Although the placenta supplements in this study contain detectable concentrations of a suite of hormones, in higher concentrations than found in the similarly prepared beef and vegetarian mock beef placebo supplements, 11,41 and previous analysis identified significant dose-response relationships between the concentration of hormones in the placenta capsules and salivary hormone measures in placenta group participants (see Part 1, current volume), there was no relationship between hormone measures (VOD) and any of the psychometric measures in the current study. This includes postpartum depressive symptoms (as measured by EPDS), and fatigue (as measured by FAS), the only psychometric measures that differed between the placenta and placebo groups post-supplementation (meetings 3 and 4). ...
Background:
Human maternal placentophagy is gaining popularity among a growing number of women who believe it provides maternal benefits, including prevention of postpartum blues/depression, improved maternal bonding, and reduced fatigue.
Methods:
We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study (N=27) in which participants consumed either their processed, encapsulated placenta (n=12), or similarly prepared placebo (n=15). Maternal mood, bonding, and fatigue were assessed via validated scales across four time points during late pregnancy and early postpartum. Psychometric data were analyzed for changes between and within both groups over time.
Results:
No significant main effects related to maternal mood, bonding, or fatigue were evident between placenta and placebo group participants. However, examination of individual time points suggested that some measures had specific time-related differences between placenta and placebo groups that may warrant future exploration. Though statistical significance should not be interpreted in these cases, we did find some evidence of a decrease in depressive symptoms within the placenta group but not the placebo group, and reduced fatigue in placenta group participants at the end of the study compared to the placebo group.
Conclusions:
No robust differences in postpartum maternal mood, bonding, or fatigue were detected between the placenta and placebo groups. This finding may be especially important for women considering maternal placentophagy as a 'natural' (i.e., non-pharmacological) means of preventing or treating blues/depression. Given the study limitations, these findings should be interpreted as preliminary. Small, time-related improvements in maternal mood and lower fatigue post-supplementation among placenta group participants may warrant further research.
... 6 The placenta is known to retain hormones after parturition and processed placenta capsules contain some of these hormones in concentrations that could conceivably render physiological effects among women engaging in placentophagy. 9 Because these substances are present in the placenta as well as in processed capsules, advocates of the practice have previously argued that placentophagy likely provides a rich source of hormones and nutrients to the recovering mother that may help prevent the precipitous drop in hormone levels that occurs with parturition (see Selander et al. 6 ). Steroid hormones increase across pregnancy, with some rising dramatically (e.g., estrogens and progesterone) while others experience smaller increases (e.g., androgens). ...
... Approximately 1000 mg of dehydrated placenta sample from 26 participants included in this study were shipped overnight on dry ice to ZRT Laboratory (Beaverton, OR) for analysis of the same hormones listed above, using LC-MS/MS methods. For a detailed description of placenta sample preparation and analysis methods, see Young et al. 9 In addition, samples of approximately 1000 mg each from 3 different batches of beef placebo and 3 different batches of vegetarian placebo were also shipped on ice to ZRT Laboratory (Beaverton, OR) for analysis. Placebo samples were analyzed using LC-MS/MS analysis, following the same procedure as the placenta samples for the 17 hormones listed above. ...
... 9,28 DHT was below the detection limit in all 26 placenta samples as well as the 3 beef, and 3 vegetarian placebo samples analyzed. Aldosterone, 7-keto DHEA, estradiol, estriol, and estrone were below the limit of detection in the beef and vegetarian samples, allopregnanolone was below the limit of detection in the beef samples, and 11-deoxycortisol, 17-hydroxyprogesterone, cortisone, cortisol, corticosterone, melatonin, and testosterone were below the limit of detection in the vegetarian samples (see Young et al. 9 and Young 28 for a discussion of concentrations of these hormones in dehydrated human placenta, dehydrated beef, and dehydrated vegetarian beef substitute). ...
Background:
Recent studies show that human placenta, processed and encapsulated for postpartum consumption, contains a host of trace minerals and hormones that could conceivably affect maternal physiology. Our objective was to investigate whether salivary hormone concentrations of women ingesting their own encapsulated placenta during the early postpartum differed from those of women consuming a placebo.
Methods:
Randomly assigned participants (N=27) were given a supplement containing either their dehydrated and homogenized placenta (n=12), or placebo (n=15). Saliva samples were collected during late pregnancy and early postpartum. Samples of participants' processed placenta, and the encapsulated placebo, were also collected. Hormone analyses were conducted on all samples utilizing liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.
Results:
There were no significant differences in salivary hormone concentrations between the placenta and placebo groups post-supplementation that did not exist pre-supplementation. There were, however, significant dose-response relationships between the concentration of all 15 detected hormones in the placenta capsules and corresponding salivary hormone measures in placenta group participants not seen in the placebo group. The higher salivary concentrations of these hormones in the placenta group reflects the higher concentrations of these hormones in the placenta supplements, compared to the placebo.
Conclusions:
Some hormones in encapsulated placenta lead to small but significant differences in hormonal profiles of women taking placenta capsules compared to those taking a placebo, although these dose-response changes were not sufficient to result in significant hormonal differences between groups. Whether modest hormonal changes due to placenta supplementation are associated with therapeutic postpartum effects, however, awaits further investigation.
... 22 Very few papers have been published in peer-reviewed scientific and clinical journals that would help obstetrician-gynecologists counsel women on placentophagy. 23,24 In the modern Western society, ingesting the placenta is against the beliefs of the majority of individuals. Nevertheless, there is increased interest in this practice, and health care professionals should be prepared to respond to expressions of interest in placentophagy in a uniform and professionally responsible manner. ...
... 51 Estrogen and progesterone, which can be found in abundance in the placental tissue, suppress the immunological processes involved in tissue rejection. 23,52 The ingestion of placental tissue may theoretically immunize the mother against placental cells remaining in utero after delivery, which could eventually pose a threat to the mother and lead to choriocarcinoma. 34,53 In addition, the alleged immunological benefits of placentophagy might be induced by factors that prevent antibody response to fetal antigens. ...
... 69-71 The frequently reported headaches by women who consume placenta could be associated with the accumulation of these toxic substances. 4 Young et al 23 reported that bioactive hormones such as estradiol, progesterone, and allopregnanolone can survive the encapsulation process and might reach effect thresholds after placenta consumption. Although the majority of the 17 hormones analyzed were found to be below the estimated intake from the maximum recommended dose of placenta capsules, the mean concentrations of 3300 mg of placenta capsules could have a physiological effect. ...
Placentophagy or placentophagia, the postpartum ingestion of the placenta, is widespread among mammals; however, no contemporary human culture incorporates eating placenta postpartum as part of its traditions. Nevertheless, there is an increasing interest in placentophagy among postpartum women, especially in the United States. The placenta can be eaten raw, cooked, roasted, dehydrated, encapsulated, or through smoothies and tinctures. The most frequently used preparation appears to be placenta encapsulation after steaming and dehydration. Numerous companies offer to prepare the placenta for consumption. The evidence for positive effects of human placentophagy is anecdotal, and limited to self-reported surveys. Without any scientific evidence, individuals promoting placentophagy, especially in the form of placenta encapsulation, claim that it is associated with certain physical and psychosocial benefits. We found that there is no scientific evidence of any clinical benefit of placentophagy among humans, and no placental nutrients and hormones are retained in sufficient amounts after placenta encapsulation to be potentially helpful to the mother, postpartum. In contrast to the belief of clinical benefits associated with placenta encapsulation, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recently issued a warning owing to a case where a newborn infant developed recurrent neonatal group B Streptococcus sepsis after the mother ingested contaminated placenta capsules containing Streptococcus agalactiae. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended that the intake of placenta capsules should be avoided owing to inadequate eradication of infectious pathogens during the encapsulation process. Therefore, in response to a woman who expresses an interest in placentophagy, physicians should inform her about the reported risks and the absence of clinical benefits associated with the ingestion. In addition, clinicians should inquire regarding a history of placenta ingestion in cases of postpartum maternal or neonatal infections such as group B Streptococcus sepsis. In conclusion, owing to the harmful effects of placentophagy, there is no professional responsibility on clinicians to offer placentophagy to pregnant women. Moreover, because placentophagy is potentially harmful with no documented benefit, counseling women should be directive: physicians should discourage this practice. Healthcare organizations should develop clear clinical guidelines to implement a scientific and professional approach to placentophagy.
... is limited. Human placentophagy studies have focused on hormones 8,9 , microorganisms 9 and trace elements 9,10 , and potential effects placentophagy may have on fatigue 11 , iron-status 12 and mental health status 11 of postpartum mothers. These studies include self-reported survey data of placentophagic participants 2 , in addition to laboratory placental tissue analyses 8,10 and a phase 1 randomized clinical trial [11][12][13] . ...
... Human placentophagy studies have focused on hormones 8,9 , microorganisms 9 and trace elements 9,10 , and potential effects placentophagy may have on fatigue 11 , iron-status 12 and mental health status 11 of postpartum mothers. These studies include self-reported survey data of placentophagic participants 2 , in addition to laboratory placental tissue analyses 8,10 and a phase 1 randomized clinical trial [11][12][13] . In light of the limited number of studies assessing the safety of placentophagy, some practitioners advocate discouraging the practice 14 . ...
A mother’s postpartum ingestion of raw or processed placental tissue—referred to as human maternal placentophagy—is an emerging health trend observed in industrialized nations. Placenta is commonly consumed as small pieces of raw tissue, or as raw or steamed dehydrated pulverized and encapsulated tissue. To investigate the potential neonatal health risks of this behavior, the present study focused on microbial colonization of processed placenta preparations with potentially pathogenic bacteria Streptococcus agalactiae (Group-B-Streptococci; GBS) and Escherichia coli ( E. coli ). In the clinical approach placentas from 24 mothers were analyzed. Two placentas, from 13 mothers with confirmed positive maternal GBS status, showed GBS-growth on their surface (2/13; 15.4%) independent from delivery mode or antibiotic treatment. All processed samples (n = 24) were free from GBS. In the experimental approach, a standardized inoculation protocol was introduced to resemble ascending vaginal and hematogenous colonization. Six placentas from elective term C-sections of GBS negative mothers were collected and artificially inoculated with highly concentrated suspensions of GBS and E. coli . Heat processing significantly reduced the number of colony forming units (CFU) for GBS and E. coli . Our results suggest placentophagy of processed tissue is an unlikely source of clinical infection.
... Plazentagewebe enthält verschiedene Hormone, darunter Oxytocin, Östrogene, Progesteron, humanes Plazentalaktogen, ACTH und CRH. Diese Hormone wurden sowohl in roher Plazenta als auch im getrockneten Pulver nachgewiesen [28,29]. ...
... Der Gehalt verschiedener Hormone im Plazentagewebe ist vor und nach der Verarbeitung zu Pulver nachgewiesen [28,29]. Nach bisherigen Kenntnissen muss von einer Proteolyse im Gastrointestinaltrakt ausgegangen werden, die Einfluss auf die Struktur der Proteinhormone und damit ihre Verfügbarkeit hat [36]. ...
Die Einnahme der eigenen Plazenta durch die Mutter im Wochenbett geht auf traditionelle Anwendungen in der abendländischen und asiatischen Komplementärmedizin zurück. Hebammen in der Wochenbettbetreuung sehen sich einer gestiegenen Nachfrage gegenüber, jedoch mangelt es an evidenzbasierten Empfehlungen zur sogenannten Plazentophagie. Die Autoren der vorliegenden Übersichtsarbeit recherchierten Risiken und potenziellen Nutzen, um die Einnahme der verarbeiteten Plazenta als Heilmittel im Wochenbett zu bewerten.
... Modest amounts of beneficial micronutrients (copper, iron, selenium, and zinc) and extremely low levels of toxic elements (arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and uranium) were found in encapsulated placental tissue (Young, Gryder, David, et al., 2016). Hormones found in encapsulated placental tissue included relatively low concentrations of estradiol, progesterone, and allopregnanolone (Young, Gryder, Zava, Kimball, & Benyshek, 2016). In a follow-up pilot study, Young et al. (2017a) showed a dose-response relationship between maternal hormone concentrations, including estrogen and progesterone, and hormone levels in placenta capsules. ...
... However, a decrease in symptoms of depression in the placenta consumption group during the first week postpartum suggested there may be timedependent (and dose-dependent) benefits based on hormonal changes (Young et al., 2017b). As such, it is uncertain whether hormone therapy or encapsulated placenta are useful to treat postpartum depression (Farr et al., 2017;Young et al., 2017b;Young, Gryder, Zava, et al., 2016). ...
Objective:
To evaluate the knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of women during pregnancy and the postpartum period related to placentophagy.
Design:
Mixed methods study (cross-sectional survey and online discussions).
Setting:
We used social media to advertise the study to mother/parenting groups. Online discussion groups were conducted through Google Groups.
Participants:
Women during pregnancy and in the postpartum period and placenta encapsulation specialists with Internet access.
Methods:
We summarized descriptive data and analyzed subgroups with the use of chi-square tests. We conducted a binary logistic regression to compare placentophagy with demographic variables and used constant comparative analysis to analyze online discussion group themes.
Results:
Overall, 271 of 1,088 (24.9%) respondents consumed their placentas. Canadian respondents and those who experienced pregnancy/birth-related complications were significantly (p < .05) less likely to consume their placentas than respondents from the United States (odds ratio = 0.48, 95% confidence interval [0.28, 0.82]) and those who had no complications (odds ratio = 0.56, 95% confidence interval [0.37, 0.85]). Increased iron stores (521/1,030, 50.6%), prevention of postpartum depression (519/1,030, 50.4%), and increased energy/decreased fatigue (460/1,030, 44.7%) were the most commonly listed perceived benefits. Infection and improper handling/preparation of the placenta were important concerns, and hospital policy was noted as a barrier to placentophagy.
Conclusion:
Respondents who engaged in placentophagy were primarily motivated by unproven benefits, such as the prevention of postpartum depression and anemia, for which there are other management alternatives. Although placentophagy is gaining popularity, it remains unregulated, and safety and efficacy data are limited. A safe, standardized preparation process is needed to minimize potential harm before further efficacy studies can be done. Targeted educational material surrounding placentophagy is needed to improve woman-centered care.
... Gör. Neriman GÜDÜCÜ, İstanbul Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi Ebelik Bölümü, İstanbul, e-mail: nerimanteker@windowslive.com suretiyle sağlık alanında kullanılabilmektedir (2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10). ...
... Progesteron, demir, kalsiyum ve oksitosin gibi bazı bileşenlerin varlığı termde plasentada gösterilmiş olmasına rağmen (4,5,(21)(22)(23), bunların bakımı, hazırlığı ve çiğ dokuda dayanıklılığı, ayrıca doğum sonrası yenilmesinin kadın üzerindeki etkileri demir düzeyi haricinde test edilmemiştir. Plasentanın uyku sorunları, enfeksiyonlar, cilt ve saç sorunları, menstruasyon ve menopoz sırasında yaşanan güçlükler gibi sorunlarda da kullanılabileceği ön görülmekle beraber, bu kullanımı destekleyecek bilimsel veri yoktur (16). ...
... Only a small number of reviews [1,[19][20][21] and studies [22][23][24][25][26][27] examining the effect of placentophagy on humans exist and yet the bioavailability of hormones and their possible physiologic effects remain unclear. Current research on placentophagy aims to gain deeper insight into hormone composition and trace element concentration of placental tissue after encapsulation [28,29]. This exploratory study aims to examine the effect of three different preparation methods and the impact of steaming/dehydration on properties of human placental tissue. ...
... Young et al. evaluated the concentration of various hormones in steamed and dehydrated human placenta: the concentrations of many selected hormones were relatively low and no conclusion regarding an elicit physiological effect could be made [28]. The data in this study shows a hormone concentration reduction from 89.2 up to 99.6% in steamed and dehydrated placental tissue. ...
Introduction:
Human maternal placentophagy, the behavior of ingesting the own raw or processed placenta postpartum, is a growing trend by women of western societies. This study aims to identify the impact of dehydration and steaming on hormone and trace element concentration as well as microbial contamination of placental tissue.
Methods:
A total of nine placentas have been processed: six were studied for hormone and trace element concentrations; eight were studied for microbial contamination. The concentrations of CRH, hPL, oxytocin and ACTH in samples of raw, steamed dehydrated and raw dehydrated placental tissue were detected using ELISA. A yeast bioassay was performed in order to detect estrogen equivalent (EEQ) and gestagen equivalent (PEQ) active substances. Elements (As, Cd, Fe, Pb, Se, Hg) were analyzed using ICP-MS. Isolated colonies from tissue and placenta swab samples were identified using Vitek MS.
Results:
Following mean hormone concentrations were detected in raw placental tissue: CRH (177.88 ng/g), hPL (17.99 mg/g), oxytocin (85.10 pg/g), ACTH (2.07 ng/g), estrogen equivalent active substances (46.95 ng/g) and gestagen equivalent active substances (2.12 μg/g). All hormones were sensitive to processing with a significant concentration reduction through steaming and dehydration. Microorganisms mainly from the vaginal flora were detected on placenta swab samples and samples from raw, steamed, dehydrated and steamed dehydrated tissue and mostly disappeared after dehydration. According to regulations of the European Union the concentrations of potentially toxic elements (As, Cd, Hg, Pb) were below the toxicity threshold for foodstuffs.
Conclusion:
The commonly used protocols for preparation of placenta for its individual oral ingestion reduce hormone concentrations and bacterial contamination.
... Although improved energy, mood, and lactation are common self-reported benefits, 9 few studies have investigated the hormone content or presence of toxic minerals in the encapsulated human placenta. [36][37][38] Available data suggest that several hormones (e.g., estradiol, estriol, progesterone, testosterone) 36,37 and trace minerals (e.g., arsenic, iron, manganese) 38 remain integral in the encapsulated placenta. The mean concentrations of most hormones are low, and the potential to produce a physiologic response that supports claimed benefits are inconclusive. ...
... Although improved energy, mood, and lactation are common self-reported benefits, 9 few studies have investigated the hormone content or presence of toxic minerals in the encapsulated human placenta. [36][37][38] Available data suggest that several hormones (e.g., estradiol, estriol, progesterone, testosterone) 36,37 and trace minerals (e.g., arsenic, iron, manganese) 38 remain integral in the encapsulated placenta. The mean concentrations of most hormones are low, and the potential to produce a physiologic response that supports claimed benefits are inconclusive. ...
Purpose:
Placentophagy (maternal consumption of the placenta) has become increasingly prevalent in the past decade among women seeking to promote health and healing during the postpartum period. The purpose of this study was to assess patient and provider familiarity with and attitudes toward placentophagy, as well as patients' willingness to try placentophagy.
Methods:
Two cross-sectional surveys with questions regarding placentophagy practice were distributed to healthcare providers and patients. The provider survey was distributed via email listservers to international perinatal professional organizations and to obstetrics and gynecology, nurse midwifery, family medicine, and psychiatry departments at three urban hospitals. Patient surveys were administered in person at an urban hospital in Chicago, Illinois.
Results:
Approximately two thirds (66%; n = 100) of patients and most (89%; n = 161) of providers were familiar with placentophagy. Patients with a history of a self-reported mental health disorder were more likely to be willing to consider placentophagy and to believe that healthcare providers should discuss it with their patients.
Conclusions:
Most providers and patients have heard of placentophagy but are unsure of its benefits and/or risks. Further research examining the potential therapeutic efficacy and/or risks of placentophagy is needed.
... Irrespective of the chemical, nutrient, hormonal, or mineral content of placenta and amniotic fluid (Sánchez Suárez, 2015;Young et al., 2016aYoung et al., , 2016bYoung et al., , 2022, some of which are touted by pro-placentophagy professionals (e.g., True Harmony Wellness [website], 2022; Evidence Based Birth [website], 2022), the important issue is whether placentophagy produces detectable physiological or emotional changes in the mother. One well-controlled study examined the steroid hormone content of the saliva of postpartum mothers as a consequence of ingesting commercially prepared, cooked, encapsulated placenta. ...
Placentophagia, ingestion of placenta and amniotic fluid, usually during parturition, is a behavioral feature of nearly all nonaquatic, placental mammals, and is a nexus for several interlocking behavioral phenomena. Placentophagia has not been typical of human cultures, but in recent years, some women in affluent societies have engaged in it, thereby bringing publicity to the behavior. First, we summarized benefits of placentophagia for nonhuman mammals, which include increased attractiveness of neonates, enhanced onset of maternal behavior, suppression of pseudopregnancy, and enhancement of opioid hypoalgesia by Placental Opioid-Enhancing Factor (POEF), a benefit that may extend well outside the context of parturition. The research on POEF in animals was discussed in detail. Then we discussed placentophagia (placentophagy) in humans, and whether there is validity to the claims of various benefits reported primarily in the pro-placentophagy literature, and, although human afterbirth shows POEF activity, the POEF effect has not yet been tested in humans. Finally, we discussed the general possible implications, for the management of pain and addiction, of isolating and characterizing POEF.
... In addition, during pregnancy, these cells synthesize and secrete a large amount of steroid hormones, which are essential for fetal growth, through steroidogenesis [16]. Among them, estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4) are the major steroid hormones, and the serum levels of E2 and P4 increase throughout pregnancy [17,18]. ...
Background
Oxytocin (OXT) plays a significant role during pregnancy, especially toward the end of pregnancy. Some studies have reported that OXT is involved in the stimulation of steroidogenesis in several organs. However, the effects of OXT on placental steroidogenesis have not yet been established.
Methods
In this study, we investigated the regulation of steroid hormones and steroidogenic enzymes by OXT-associated signaling in vitro and in vivo by western blotting analysis, ELISA and immunocytochemical analysis.
Results
OXT increased the gene expression of steroidogenic enzymes, which convert pregnenolone to progesterone and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in vitro. In OXT-administered pregnant rats, pregnenolone and DHEA levels were significantly enhanced in the plasma by 2.73-fold and 1.53-fold, respectively and the expression of the enzymes synthesizing DHEA, testosterone, and estradiol (E2) was increased in placental tissues. Furthermore, OXT was found to affect placental cell differentiation, which is closely related to steroid hormone synthesis. After treatment of the pregnant rats with atosiban, an antagonist of the OXT receptor, the concentration of E2 in the plasma and the expression of E2-synthesizing enzyme were reduced 1.71-fold and 2.38-3.16-fold, respectively. This regulation may be due to OXT-mediated differentiation, because OXT increases the expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone, which is a biomarker of placental cell differentiation.
Conclusions
Our findings suggest that OXT regulates the differentiation of placental cells, expression of steroidogenic enzymes in the placenta, and production of critical steroid hormones during pregnancy, and it contributes to the maintenance of pregnancy.
... However, the protein hormone concentration was reduced during the steaming and dehydration processes [18]. At least 16 hormones can be detected in human placenta samples processed for encapsulation, and some in concentration can induce physiological effects [19]. In addition, antioxidant peptides can be extracted from human and goat placenta [20,21]. ...
Background and aim:
In the male reproductive system, the aging process can lead to infertility. Recently, placenta and its derivatives have been researched as regenerative agents. This study aimed to describe the basic components of dried bovine placenta powder and its potential effects as a regenerative agent in a rat model of male reproductive aging with D-galactose induction.
Materials and methods:
We divided 15 male Wistar rats, 2 months of age, into three groups: A, the health control group; B, the D-galactose induction group, and C, the D-galactose induction and 10% dried bovine placenta supplementation group. We measured epididymal sperm concentration and testicular weight and volume and analyzed these using one-way analysis of variance.
Results:
Dried bovine placenta was rich in nutrients, with 61.98% protein, 21.25±2.07 carbohydrates, 8.58% water, 4.93% ash, and 3.27% fat. The mean epididymal spermatozoa concentration of the rats in Groups A, B, and C was 3026×106/mL, 1492.8×106/mL, and 2732.5×106/mL, respectively. The average total testicle weights were 2.44 g, 2.72 g, and 2.57 g, respectively. The average total testicle volumes were 2.29 cm3, 2.49 cm3, and 2.33cm3, respectively.
Conclusion:
Dried bovine placenta powder is rich in nutrients, especially protein. Supplementation with dried bovine placenta can improve epididymal spermatozoa concentration that is important in fertility.
... Melatonin synthesis by placental cells is assumed although neither melatonin nor its metabolite levels have been previously reported; our data uphold the suggestion that the placenta is the source of high circulating maternal melatonin levels. We can find no previous reports of measurement of melatonin levels in human placenta apart from a study where melatonin was detected in placentas that had been processed for human consumption (24). ...
Melatonin is a neuroendocrine hormone which regulates circadian rhythm and is also an antioxidant. The role of melatonin in pregnancy is emerging. The enzymes needed for endogenous synthesis of melatonin have been identified in the placenta, although the contribution to circulating maternal melatonin in normal pregnancy is unclear. This work aimed to determine serum levels of melatonin and its major metabolite 6-hydroxymelatonin sulfate (6-OHMS) in normal pregnant women during each trimester of pregnancy, and immediately after delivery. Blood samples were obtained from a cohort of healthy pregnant women during each trimester of pregnancy (n = 26), from women scheduled for elective Cesarean section (CS) before and after delivery (n = 15), along with placental samples, and from healthy non-pregnant women as controls (n = 30). Melatonin and its major metabolite, 6-OHMS, were measured using enzyme immunoassay. Levels of serum melatonin were significantly higher during pregnancy than in non-pregnant women (P = 0.025) and increased throughout pregnancy (P < 0.0001). In women undergoing CS, serum melatonin decreased markedly 24 h after delivery (P = 0.0013). Similar results were seen for serum levels of 6-OHMS, and placental tissue 6-OHMS levels correlated with week of gestation at delivery (p = 0.018). In summary, maternal melatonin production is higher in pregnant than in non-pregnant women, increases significantly during pregnancy with highest levels in the third trimester, and decreases abruptly after delivery. These results suggest that the placenta is a major source of melatonin and supports a physiological role for melatonin in pregnancy.
... Toutefois, la taille des echantillons etait limit ee (n = 38) 3,4 . Une etude r ecente a evalu e la pr esence d'hormones dans le placenta et a r ev el e que, dans les 28 placentas mis en capsules qui ont et e analys es, seuls l'estradiol, la progest erone et l'allopr egnanolone pouvaient potentiellement atteindre les taux physiologiques avec la dose que d eterminent les fournisseurs de services d'encapsulation 5 . Cependant, a la suite du processus de d eshydratation et de manipulation, il est difficile de d eterminer avec certitude si une quelconque proportion de ces hormones demeure active sur le plan biologique. ...
RÉSUMÉ
La consommation du placenta humain a récemment été mise en évidence. Toutefois, aucune donnée probante ne fait état des bienfaits qui seraient liés à cette pratique. De plus, elle peut nuire à la santé. Par conséquent, la SOGC ne recommande pas la pratique de la placentophagie.
... 3,4 A recent study evaluated the presence of hormones in the placenta and demonstrated that within the 28 placentas encapsulated that were tested, only estradiol, progesterone, and allopregnanolone could potentially reach physiologic levels at the dose prescribed by encapsulation providers. 5 However, following the process of dehydration and handling, it is unclear whether any proportion of these hormones would remain biologically active. The aforementioned study showed wide ranges of both specific and total hormone content. ...
Consumption of human placenta has recently been highlighted; however, there is no evidence of benefit from its consumption. In addition, there is potential for harm. Therefore the SOGC does not recommend the practice of placentophagy.
... These benefits were believed to be caused by the hormones or other "nutrients" available in the placenta. It has been established that some hormones may exist in significant enough concentrations in the placenta to reach the threshold for a physiological effect if they could be absorbed [30]. A basic understanding of this mechanism was expressed by users, such as one who suggested birthing the placenta is "an awful lot of nutrients, iron, hormones etc. .. for the body to lose in such a relatively quick space of time and the benefits of putting that back is outstanding". ...
Background: The post-partum consumption of the placenta by the mother (placentophagy) has been practiced since the 1970s in the global North and is seemingly increasing in popularity. Maternal placentophagy is not known to have been practiced in any other time period or culture, despite being near-ubiquitous in other placental mammals. An in-depth qualitative exploration as to the reasons for the practice, its increasing popularity and how it is narratively incorporated into discourses surrounding "ideal" natural and medical births are given in this paper.
Methods: 1752 posts from 956 users across 85 threads from the parenting forums Mumsnet and Netmums were identified for inclusion. A thematic discourse analysis was performed using NVivo.
Results: Three main themes were identified: women recounted predominantly positive attitudes towards their own experiences of placentophagy, and they were respectful of others' views and experiences; some had negative views, particularly around the concept of disgust, but again, they were respectful of others' experiences. By far the most common method of consumption of the placenta was encapsulation.
Conclusions: This paper identifies the motivation for placentophagy to almost universally be for medical benefits, most commonly the prevention or treatment of post-natal depression (PND). Whilst disgust is a common reaction, discussion of risks is rare, and positive experiences outweigh negative ones. The increasing popularity of the practice is ascribed in part to the comparative palatability of encapsulation and the use of the internet to share resources and remove barriers. Parenting forums are important spaces to negotiate normative birth practices, including placentophagy, and act to build communities of women who value personal experience over medical evidence and highly value personal choice and bodily autonomy. Placentophagy is discussed in terms of its relation to natural and medical births with arguments being made using both discourses for and against the practice. This paper argues that placentophagy is practiced as a resistance to medicalisation as an assertion of control by the mother, whilst simultaneously being a medicalised phenomenon itself.
... 3 Research has shown the loss of iron content from the processing of the placenta to levels below that which is recommended for daily supplementation; however, findings suggest that some hormones are retained in the placenta after encapsulation at theoretically physiologic concentrations. 5,6 Specifically, levels of estradiol, progesterone, and allopregnanolone have been found in encapsulated placenta at concentrations that could have physiologic effects depending on the maximum intake of encapsulated placenta daily. Placental estradiol and progesterone has been cited as the etiology for prevention of postpartum depression and increase in breast milk production. ...
Background:
Placentophagy, or the practice of placental consumption, has grown in popularity over the past decade. Although advocates endorse prevention of postpartum depression, increased breastmilk production, reduction in postpartum bleeding and provision of nutrients postpartum, scientific studies have failed to demonstrate benefit. No studies have explored the impact of placental hormone consumption on the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis of the offspring.
Case:
We present a case of vaginal bleeding and breast budding in a three month old infant whose mother was exclusively breastfeeding. Maternal history was notable for placentophagy. Upon discontinuation of consuming encapsulated placenta, the infant's vaginal bleeding resolved.
Summary and conclusions:
Our case raises concerns regarding placentophagy and infant endocrine function. More research is needed to assess both maternal and infant exogenous estrogen exposure with maternal placental consumption.
... Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass bioaktive Hormone wie Östradiol und Progesteron die Verarbeitung zu Plazentakapseln über- stehen und nach dem Verzehr derselben Schwellenwerte bei der Mutter erreichen. Wiewohl die Mehrzahl der untersuchten Hormone nur in sehr niedrigen Konzen- trationen in Plazentakapseln vorhanden zu sein scheinen, könnten diese doch physio- logische Wirkungen erzielen [11]. Ob diese hormonellen Effekte zur erhofften Reduk- tion der postpartalen Depression oder aber zu einem erhöhten Risiko von z. ...
... These studies conclude that some micronutrients (e.g., iron) in processed placenta could make modest contributions to recommended daily dietary intakes, 11 while some hormone concentrations (e.g., progesterone) could conceivably reach physiological thresholds, based on the most commonly recommended daily intake of processed placenta (3300 mg). 12 In addition, results of the first randomized controlled trial (RCT) evaluating the effects of maternal placentophagy on the concentration of a suite of maternal salivary steroid hormones, 13 maternal iron status, 14 and maternal mood, bonding, and fatigue 15 over a 3-week postpartum period have recently been reported. The results of this pilot RCT (N = 27) revealed few, if any, clear benefits (e.g., improved maternal iron status, 14 or maternal mood 15 ) for placentophagic mothers compared with those who took a placebo. ...
Background
Limited systematic research on maternal placentophagy is available to maternity care providers whose clients/patients may be considering this increasingly popular practice. Our purpose was to characterize the practice of placentophagy and its attendant neonatal outcomes among a large sample of women in the United States.
Methods
We used a medical records–based data set (n = 23 242) containing pregnancy, birth, and postpartum information for women who planned community births. We used logistic regression to determine demographic and clinical predictors of placentophagy. Finally, we compared neonatal outcomes (hospitalization, neonatal intensive unit admission, or neonatal death in the first 6 weeks) between placenta consumers and nonconsumers, and participants who consumed placenta raw vs cooked.
Results
Nearly one‐third (31.2%) of women consumed their placenta. Consumers were more likely to have reported pregravid anxiety or depression compared with nonconsumers. Most (85.7%) placentophagic mothers consumed their placentas in encapsulated form, and nearly half (49.1%) consumed capsules containing dehydrated, uncooked placenta. Placentophagy was not associated with any adverse neonatal outcomes. Women with home births were more likely to engage in placentophagy than women with birth center births. The most common reason given (58.6%) for engaging in placentophagy was to prevent postpartum depression.
Conclusions
The majority of women consumed their placentas in uncooked/encapsulated form and hoping to avoid postpartum depression, although no evidence currently exists to support this strategy. Preparation technique (cooked vs uncooked) did not influence adverse neonatal outcomes. Maternity care providers should discuss the range of options available to prevent/treat postpartum depression, in addition to current evidence with respect to the safety of placentophagy.
... In general, androstenedione, testosterone, and DHEA measures in our population were similar to those in reference populations (22,23) with some variation due to our larger sample size (n ¼ 714 vs. n ¼ 105-147 males) and tighter time frame from birth to blood sampling ($80% of our subjects had their blood drawn in the first 48 hours after birth, while the reference population blood draws were as much as 33 weeks after birth). There were no comparable published reference ranges for estrogens and progesterone in newborn infants; however, because estrogen levels in newborns at birth are very elevated [reflective of levels in late pregnancy and in placenta (24,25)], then drop precipitously after birth and reach prepubertal levels during the first week of life (26), the wide range of estrogen measures in our population is expected. Progesterone follows a similar pattern (27). ...
Background:
Testicular germ cell tumor (TGCT) incidence has increased over the last 40 years in the United States. In contrast to TGCT among infants, it is hypothesized that TGCT in adolescents and young men is the result of sex steroid hormone imbalance during early fetal development. However, little is known about the neonatal period when abrupt hormonal changes occur, and direct supporting evidence is scarce due to the difficulties in obtaining pre-diagnostic specimens.
Methods:
We conducted a population-based case-control study examining hormone levels at birth among 91 infants (0-4 years) and 276 adolescents (15-19 years) diagnosed with TGCT, and 344 matched controls. Estrogen and androgen levels were quantified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) from archived newborn dried blood spots. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the association between each hormone level and TGCT risk.
Results:
Higher levels of androstenedione were associated with increased TGCT risk among adolescents (OR: 2.33, 95% CI: 1.37-3.97 for highest vs. lowest quartile; p-trend=0.003) but not among infants (OR: 0.70, 95% CI: 0.28-1.77). A similar pattern was observed for testosterone (OR: 1.73, 95% CI: 1.00-3.00,) although the trend was not significant (p-trend=0.12). Associations were stronger among non-Hispanic white subjects, relative to Hispanics. There was no difference by tumor histologic subtype. Estriol (the only detectable estrogen) was not associated with TGCT risk in either age group.
Conclusions:
Higher levels of neonatal androgens were associated with increased risk of TGCT among adolescents, suggesting that early life hormone levels are related to the later development of TGCT.
... To successfully establish pregnancy, a number of steroid hormones are synthesized and secreted through steroidogenesis in the placenta. Progesterone (P4) and estrogen (E2) are the principal steroid hormones produced by the placenta in primate pregnancy (10). The serum levels of P4 and E2 increase throughout pregnancy (11). ...
Preeclampsia (PE) is a pregnancy‑specific hypertensive syndrome that results in substantial maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. The exact cause of PE has not been completely elucidate, although abnormal formation of the placenta has been considered. The placenta connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall, producing a large quantity of steroid hormones to maintain pregnancy. Although steroid hormones, particularly progesterone (P4) and estrogen (E2), in the serum of women with PE have been studied, steroidogenesis in the placenta has not well been established. The present study compared the concentrations of steroid hormones, including pregnenolone (PG), P4, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), testosterone (T) and E2, in the serum and placenta of women with PE. PG, P4, DHEA and E2 concentrations tended to be decreased in PE serum and placentas, and the results were statistically significant for P4 and E2 in the serum. Quantification of genes associated with steroidogenesis in the placenta was performed, and the expression of the P4‑ and E2‑synthesizing enzymes testosterone 17‑β‑dehydrogenase 3 and 3 β‑hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/δ5 4‑isomerase type 1 was reduced. Notably, aromatase, an enzyme required for the production of E2, was upregulated in the PE placenta, suggesting that steroidogenic enzymes may be dynamically regulated and may affect the symptoms of PE. In conclusion, the results of the present study suggested that the levels of steroid hormones, including P4 and E2, in the serum and placenta of women with PE are downregulated, which may be mediated by the regulation of steroidogenic enzyme expression in the PE placenta.
Oxytocin (OXT) plays a significant role during pregnancy, especially toward the end of pregnancy. Some studies have reported that OXT is involved in the stimulation of steroidogenesis in several organs. However, the effects of OXT on placental steroidogenesis have not yet been established. In this study, we investigated the regulation of steroid hormones and steroidogenic enzymes by OXT-associated signaling in vitro and in vivo. OXT increased the gene expression of steroidogenic enzymes, which convert pregnenolone to progesterone and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in vitro. In OXT-administered pregnant rats, pregnenolone and DHEA levels were significantly enhanced in the plasma and the expression of the enzymes synthesizing DHEA, testosterone, and estradiol (E2) was increased in placental tissues. Furthermore, OXT was found to affect placental cell differentiation, which is closely related to steroid hormone synthesis. After treatment of the pregnant rats with atosiban, an antagonist of the OXT receptor, the concentration of E2 in the plasma and the expression of E2-synthesizing enzyme were reduced. This regulation may be due to OXT-mediated differentiation, because OXT increases the expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone, which is a biomarker of placental cell differentiation. Our findings suggest that OXT contributes to maintaining pregnancy by regulating the differentiation of placental cells and steroidogenesis during pregnancy.
As we describe the progress of adoption of new perinatal practices, we will limit our report to the potential implications of common non-traditional practices on neonatal health outcomes and highlight contemporary viewpoints of academic and regulatory organizations [the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (ACOG) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)] to these evolving practices.
Melatonin (MLT) plays a significant role on maintaining the basic physiological functions and regulating various metabolic processes in plentiful organisms. Recent years have witnessed an increase in MLT's share in global market with its affluent functions. However, the worrisome quality issues and inappropriate or excessive application of MLT take place inevitably. In addition, its photosensitive properties, oxidation, complex substrate concentration and trace levels leave exact detection of MLT doubly difficult. Therefore, it is essential to exploit precise, sensitive and stable extraction and detection methods to resolve above questions. In this study, we reviewed the distribution and bioactivities of MLT and conducted a comprehensive overview of the developments of pretreatment and analysis methods for MLT in food samples since 2010. Commonly used pretreatment methods for MLT include not only traditional techniques, but also novel ones, such as solid-phase extraction, QuEChERS, microextraction by packed sorbent, solid phase microextraction, liquid phase microextraction, and so on. Analysis methods include liquid chromatography coupled with different detectors, GC methods, capillary electrophoresis, sensors, and so on. The advantages and disadvantages of different techniques have been compared and the development tendency was prospected.
This article examines the recent influx of post-partum placenta encapsulation, especially in a US context. I analyze placental reuse, and its biomedical risk narratives, through an interwoven exploration of the curative and toxic aspects of human placenta, to understand increased cultural value placed upon this organ as an object of nutritional interest and tension. Placenta consumption as vitamin source pushes the socio-cultural boundaries of disgust through its discard (re)commodification. I argue that attempts to market and eat otherwise wasted material as functional food source raise important feminist questions about the vitality of this discarded matter and the paucity of research on one of the most crucial mediators of early human nutrition.
Objective
Although empirical studies investigating its effects are scarce, postpartum placentophagy is increasing in popularity because of purported benefits on mood, energy, lactation, and overall nutrition. Therefore, this study sought to test the hypotheses that women who consumed their placenta (placentophagy exposed [PE]) would have (1) fewer depressive symptoms, (2) more energy, (3) higher vitamin B12 levels, and (4) less pharmaceutical lactation support during the postpartum than women who did not consume their placenta (non–placentophagy exposed [NE]).
Methods
Using data from a large, longitudinal study of gene × environment effects involving perinatal women with a history of mood disorders, the study investigators identified a PE cohort and matched them 4:1 (by psychiatric diagnosis, psychotropic medication use, supplementation, income, and age) with an NE cohort from the same dataset. The study investigated differences between the PE and NE cohorts with respect to scores on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and Sleep-Wake Activity Inventory, vitamin B12 levels, and the use of pharmaceutical lactation support (Canadian Taskforce Classification II-2).
Results
The sample of 138 women (28 in the PE cohort, matched to 110 in the NE cohort) provided 80% power at α = 0.0125 to detect an effect of moderate magnitude (which can be used to approximate an effect of clinically significant magnitude).There were no differences in Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scaleor Sleep-Wake Activity Inventory scales (P = 0.28 and P = 0.39, respectively), vitamin B12 levels (P = 0.68), or domperidone use (P = 1) between the PE and NE cohorts.
Conclusion
These data provide no support for the idea that postpartum placentophagy improves mood, energy, lactation, or plasma vitamin B12 levels in women with a history of mood disorders.
Despite the vital and diverse roles of the placenta, remarkably little is known about its actual composition. Moreover, as placentophagy becomes increasingly popular, understanding the nutritional and heavy metal composition of the human placenta has practical implications. Here we evaluated the carbohydrate, sugar, protein, fat, cholesterol, vitamin, and heavy metal composition of the human placenta from uncomplicated singleton pregnancies and found that it contains a significant amount of cholesterol (Xg), protein (Xg), iron (Xg), and selenium (Xg), but no detectable levels of cadmium, arsenic, or mercury.
Postpartum women are consuming their placentas encapsulated, cooked, and raw for the prevention of postpartum depression (PPD), pain relief, and other health benefits. Placentophagy is supported by health advocates who assert that the placenta retains hormones and nutrients that are beneficial to the mother. A computerized search was conducted using PubMed, Medline Ovid, and PsychINFO between January 1950 and January 2014. Keywords included placentophagy, placentophagia, maternal placentophagia, maternal placentophagy, human placentophagia, and human placentophagy. A total of 49 articles were identified. Empirical studies of human or animal consumption of human placentas were included. Editorial commentaries were excluded. Animal placentophagy studies were chosen based on their relevance to human practice. Ten articles (four human, six animal) were selected for inclusion. A minority of women in developed countries perceive placentophagy to reduce PPD risk and enhance recovery. Experimental animal research in support of pain reduction has not been applied in humans. Studies investigating placenta consumption for facilitating uterine contraction, resumption of normal cyclic estrogen cycle, and milk production are inconclusive. The health benefits and risks of placentophagy require further investigation of the retained contents of raw, cooked, and encapsulated placenta and its effects on the postpartum woman.
Afterbirth ingestion by nonhuman mammalian mothers has a number of benefits: (1) increasing the interaction between the mother and infant; (2) potentiating pregnancy-mediated analgesia in the delivering mother; (3) potentiating maternal brain opioid circuits that facilitate the onset of caretaking behavior; and (4) suppressing postpartum pseudopregnancy. Childbirth is fraught with additional problems for which there are no practical nonhuman animal models: postpartum depression, failure to bond, hostility toward infants. Ingested afterbirth may contain components that ameliorate these problems, but the issue has not been tested empirically. The results of such studies, if positive, will be medically relevant. If negative, speculations and recommendations will persist, as it is not possible to prove the negative. A more challenging anthropological question is "why don't humans engage in placentophagia as a biological imperative?" Is it possible that there is more adaptive advantage in not doing so?
Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are suspected to be responsible for many disorders of the human reproductive system. To establish a causality relationship between exposure to endocrine disruptors and disease, experiments on animals must be performed with improved or new analytical tools. Therefore, a simple, rapid, and effective multi-residue method was developed for the determination of four steroid hormones (i.e., testosterone, androstenedione, estrone, and estradiol), glucuronide and sulfate conjugates of estrone and estradiol and four endocrine disruptors in rat testis (i.e., bisphenol A, atrazine, and active metabolites of methoxychlor and vinclozolin). The sample preparation procedure was based on the Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (QuEChERS) approach. An analytical method was then developed to quantify these compounds at ultra-trace levels by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The QuEChERS extraction was optimized with regard to the acetonitrile/water ratio used in the extraction step, the choice of the cleanup method and the acetonitrile/hexane ratio used in the cleanup step. The optimized extraction method exhibited recoveries between 89% and 108% for all tested compounds except the conjugates (31% to 58%). The detection limits of all compounds were below 20 ng g−1 of wet weight of testis. The method was subsequently applied to determine the levels of hormones and EDCs in seven rat testis samples.
Figure
Maternal placentophagy has recently emerged as a rare but increasingly popular practice among women in industrialized countries who often ingest the placenta as a processed, encapsulated supplement, seeking its many purported postpartum health benefits. Little scientific research, however, has evaluated these claims, and concentrations of trace micronutrients/elements in encapsulated placenta have never been examined. Because the placenta retains beneficial micronutrients and potentially harmful toxic elements at parturition, we hypothesized that dehydrated placenta would contain detectable concentrations of these elements. To address this hypothesis, we analyzed 28 placenta samples processed for encapsulation to evaluate the concentration of 14 trace minerals/elements using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Analysis revealed detectable concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, rubidium, selenium, strontium, uranium, and zinc. Based on one recommended daily intake of placenta capsules (3300 mg/day), a daily dose of placenta supplements contains approximately 0.018 ± 0.004 mg copper, 2.19 ± 0.533 mg iron, 0.005 ± 0.000 mg selenium, and 0.180 ± 0.018 mg zinc. Based on the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for lactating women, the recommended daily intake of placenta capsules would provide, on average, 24% RDA for iron, 7.1% RDA for selenium, 1.5% RDA for zinc, and 1.4% RDA for copper. The mean concentrations of potentially harmful elements (arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, uranium) were well below established toxicity thresholds. These results indicate that the recommended daily intake of encapsulated placenta may provide only a modest source of some trace micronutrients, and a minimal source of toxic elements.
Postpartum women are consuming their placentas to achieve claimed health benefits, including improved mood, energy, and lactation. Strong scientific evidence to substantiate these claims is lacking. Self-reported benefits from some women include improved mood and lactation; animal models suggest there may be an analgesic effect. Possible risks include infection, thromboembolism from estrogens in placental tissue, and accumulation of environmental toxins. Women’s health care providers should be aware of this practice to help women make informed decisions.
Introduction:
Glucocorticoid-induced fetal programming has been associated with negative metabolic and cardiovascular sequelae in the adult. The placental enzyme 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11β-HSD2) shields the fetus from maternal glucocorticoid excess by catalyzing the conversion of these hormones into biologically inactive derivatives. In vivo experiments addressing placental barrier function are mostly conducted in rodents. Therefore we set out to characterize species-specific differences of rat and human placental 11β-HSD2 steroid turnover, introducing Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass-Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) as a tool for rat tissue analysis.
Materials and methods:
Using LC-MS/MS we determined corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), cortisol (F), cortisone (E), corticosterone (B) and 11-dehydrocorticosterone (A) in human and rat placenta at term and measured the enzymatic 11β-HSD glucocorticoid conversion-rates in placental microsomes of both species. In parallel, further glucocorticoid derivatives and sex steroids were determined in the same placental samples.
Results:
In contrast to the human placenta, we did not detect CRH in the rat placenta. While cortisol (F) and cortisone (E) were exclusively present in human term placenta (E/F-ratio >1), rat placenta showed significant levels of corticosterone (B) and 11-dehydrocorticosterone (A), with an A/B-ratio <1. In line with these species-specific findings, human placenta showed a prominent 11β-HSD2 activity, while in rat placenta higher 11β-HSD1 glucocorticoid turnover rates were determined.
Discussion:
Placental steroid metabolism of human and rat shows relevant species-specific differences, especially regarding the barrier function of 11β-HSD2 at term. The exclusive expression of CRH in the human placenta further points to relevant differences in the regulation of parturition in rats. Consideration of these findings is warranted when transferring results from rodent placental glucocorticoid metabolism into humans.
For some mothers, insufficient milk supply impacts their ability to fully breastfeed their infants. Many of these mothers seek holistic options to increase their milk supply. Placenta medicine and/or postpartum placenta consumption as a purported galactogogue is a practice on the rise in the United States. There is some limited historical research, and more recently some phenomenological data, about the practice of placenta as a galactogogue. However, little is truly known about the benefits and risks of placentophagy. Even less is known about whether or not placenta can be viewed as a galactogogue. This article aims to review the existing literature and propose a further call for research in regards to placenta as a galactogogue.
Keywords: placenta medicine, galactogogue, placentophagy, placentophagia, placenta consumption, human placenta, milk supply, lactation sufficiency
Human and rat placental tissues contain high levels of melatonin even during daytime. The alteration of placental melatonin suggests that the role of melatonin in the placenta differs from that in the pineal gland. Expression of the gene encoding AA-NAT strongly suggests that placental melatonin was synthesized in the placenta. However, the precise mechanism by which placental melatonin is regulated remains to be elucidated.
With mid-gestation the production of placental corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) starts to steadily increase. The fetal peptide CRH excerts direct functions at the feto-maternal interface (vasodilatation, timing of birth) via its interaction with progesterone and indirectly ensures maturation and growth of fetal organ systems for delivery by driving fetal cortisol production via its induction of adrenocorticotropic hormone release. This feedback loop is tightly controlled by the amount of enzymatic cortisol/cortisone turnover in the placental syncytiotrophoblast by 11β-hydroxy-steroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11β-HSD2). Traditionally, placental tissue hormones have been quantified by immunological methods (e.g. RIA or ELISA), which have the drawback of possible cross-reactivity and tissue perturbations. Most importantly, it is not possible to quantify CRH and steroid hormones, such as cortisol, cortisone and progesterone together in the same sample with these methods. Hence, we aimed to develop and validate a quantitative mass spectrometry (MS) method for multi-modal quantification of these placental hormones: While CRH was readily detectable throughout the placenta, the placental levels of progesterone and especially cortisol and cortisone were higher at the placental base facing the maternal side. The HPLC-MS/MS procedure showed excellent selectivity and sufficient limit of quantification in placental tissue homogenates to allow for simultaneous detection of CRH, cortisol and cortisone, and progesterone.
Maternal placentophagy, although widespread among mammals, is conspicuously absent among humans cross-culturally. Recently, however, advocates for the practice have claimed it provides human postpartum benefits. Despite increasing awareness about placentophagy, no systematic research has investigated the motivations or perceived effects of practitioners. We surveyed 189 females who had ingested their placenta and found the majority of these women reported perceived positive benefits and indicated they would engage in placentophagy again after subsequent births. Further research is necessary to determine if the described benefits extend beyond those of placebo effects, or are skewed by the nature of the studied sample.
Human placentas studied after normal and abnormal pregnancies require author attention to a number of variables derived from clinical chart review. We herein provide a Table listing many of the key variables that might be confounders for clinical studies of the human placenta. As Editors for Placenta, we respectfully request our authors to cite this Technical Note in Methods of submitted papers and include the Table provided herein, and as a download in Instructions for authors, in Supplementary material for any manuscript submission related to the human placenta. This request is optional for authors and is part of an experiment we will trial for the next three years, with the goal of improving the science reported in Placenta.
The localization and distribution of unconjugated oestrone, oestradiol-17 beta, oestriol and progesterone were studied in normal term placentae, using subcellular fractionation and indirect immunofluorescence techniques. Radioimmunoassay of these steroids in each subcellular fraction showed that they were detectable mainly in the cytosol fraction. The efficiency of fixatives for retaining steroids in placental tissue during immunohistochemical procedures was studied in order to validate the present experimental techniques. As compared with other fixatives, glutaraldehyde solution produced minimal leakage of steroid hormones from placental tissue. Using an indirect immunofluorescence technique oestrone, oestriol and progesterone were detectable in the cytoplasm of villous syncytiotrophoblast of fixed term placentae.
Placentae, fetal membranes, maternal peripheral venous and umbilical cord arterial and venous blood samples were collected for steroid determination in 32 deliveries at term. In 16 of them (group A) an elective caesarean section under epidural anaesthesia was performed before the onset of labour; the remaining 16 had a spontaneous vaginal delivery (group B). Comparison of the two groups with respect to mean serum levels of progesterone, oestrone and oestradiol did not show any differences in the maternal blood samples, but in the umbilical cord arterial and venous blood the mean values of all these steroids were higher in group B than in Group A. This was probably secondary to labour. The mean placental concentration of progesterone in group A, 4340 ng/g wet wt, did not differ significantly from that in group B, 4940 ng/g, but that of 20α-dihydroprogesterone was higher in group B (370 ng/g) than in group A (241 ng/g) (P < 0.01). Mean placental concentrations of oestrerone and oestradiol, and of concentrations of progesterone, 20α-dihydroprogesterone, oestrone and oestradiol in the chorion and amnion, showed no significant difference between groups A and B. The ratio of the tissue concentration of oestrone to that of oestradiol in the chorion was higher in group B (0.26) than in group A (0.17), P < 0.05. Thus the study did not demonstrate major changes in the steroid concentrations in the placenta or fetal membrane in association with labour. It provided, however, evidence of increased metabolism of progesterone to 20α-dihydroprogesterone in the placenta and oestradiol to oestrone in the chorion during labour.
An initial group of term (36-41 6/7 weeks), preterm (less than 36 weeks), and post-term (42 or more weeks) placentae were collected from women at delivery to determine the placental levels of important steroids and steroidogenic enzymes involved in the oestrogen synthesis pathway as a function of gestational age. A second group of placentae were obtained from women delivering at term before and after the onset of labour. Placentae were evaluated individually for cytosolic steroid hormone levels and microsomal steroidogenic enzyme activities. Oestradiol (E2), oestrone (E1), progesterone (P), and delta-4-androstenedione (A) were measured by radioimmunoassay in placental cytosols. Aromatase (AR), sulphatase (S), and 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/isomerase (3 beta HSD) activities were assayed in placental microsomes. Cytosolic concentrations of E1, E2, P, and A did not differ with respect to gestational age. Correspondingly, the microsomal enzyme activities of 3 beta HSD, S, and AR did not vary as a function of gestational age. However, when patients at term who were in labour prior to delivery were compared to those who were not, the placental cytosolic level of E1 was found to be threefold higher in the non-labouring group (4572 versus 1427 pg/mg cytosolic protein, P < 0.025). Additionally, microsomal aromatase activity was also significantly higher in the non-labouring patients (46 versus 19 pM/min/mg protein, P < 0.025), while the E2 to P ratio in the labouring patients was twice that of the non-labouring group, a difference which was significant at the P < 0.025 level (Wilcoxon rank sum test). These data suggest that at term, prior to labour, the placental production of E1 by AR is high, and that AR activity and E1 levels fall significantly after the onset of labour. Also, the placental cytosolic concentration of the more active oestrogen, E2, demonstrates stable to rising levels with a significant increase in E2/P after the onset of labour. We theorize that in the term pregnancy prior to labour, E1 may represent a large but relatively inactive intracellular oestrogen pool which is maintained by high AR activity, and may function to protect the pregnant local uterine environment from the more oxytocic effects of E2.
This cross-sectional study was to assess the nutrients in terms of protein, fat, minerals, and hormones in heat-dried human placenta. Thirty heat-dried human placentas, 15 from male and 15 from female, were analyzed for protein (amino acids), fiber, fat, moisture, minerals (sodium, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc, copper, manganese), hormones (estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, growth hormone). Heat-dried female human placentas had slightly higher fiber content than male, but protein and fat components were not different. Mineral levels in placentas were high especially sodium, potassium and phosphorus. There were no significant differences in the amount of minerals and hormonal profile between female and male placentas. However, hormone levels in heat-dried placenta were low compared to physiologic level in human beings. The results of this study suggest that the amount of nutrients particularly protein and minerals in heat-dried human placentas were enriched.
This article reviews the literature regarding endocrine factors postulated or presumed to be relevant in postpartum depression (PPD), a condition affecting at least 10% of childbearing women. The phenomenology and epidemiology of PPD are also described. Data suggest that parturition-related endocrine changes are causally implicated in PPD in a vulnerable subgroup of women. More specifically, studies by our group and others suggest a role for changes in estradiol and progesterone in precipitating mood symptoms among women with PPD. The mechanisms underlying such differential sensitivities remain undetermined. Future directions for research are explored.
Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Citing articles (1) E.H. Hayes Consumption of the placenta in the postpartum period
Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Citing articles (1)
E.H. Hayes
Consumption of the placenta in the postpartum period
J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal Nurs., 45 (2016), pp. 78–89
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