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A comparison of low volume ‘high-intensity-training’ and high volume traditional resistance training methods on muscular performance, body composition, and subjective assessments of training

Authors:
  • Universität Koblenz-Landau; Campus Landau

Abstract

Most studies of resistance training (RT) examine methods that do not resemble typical training practices of persons participating in RT. Ecologically valid RT programs more representative of such practices are seldom compared. This study compared two such approaches to RT. Thirty participants (males, n=13; females, n=17) were randomised to either a group performing low volume 'High Intensity Training' (HIT; n=16) or high volume 'Body-building' (3ST; n=14) RT methods 2x/week for 10 weeks. Outcomes included muscular performance, body composition, and participant's subjective assessments. Both HIT and 3ST groups improved muscular performance significantly (as indicated by 95% confidence intervals) with large effect sizes (ES; 0.97 to 1.73 and 0.88 to 1.77 respectively). HIT had significantly greater muscular performance gains for 3 of 9 tested exercises compared with 3ST (p < 0.05) and larger effect sizes for 8 of 9 exercises. Body composition did not significantly change in either group. However, effect sizes for whole body muscle mass changes were slightly more favourable in the HIT group compared with the 3ST group (0.27 and -0.34 respectively) in addition to whole body fat mass (0.03 and 0.43 respectively) and whole body fat percentage (-0.10 and -0.44 respectively). Significant muscular performance gains can be produced using either HIT or 3ST. However, muscular performance gains may be greater when using HIT. Future research should look to identify which components of ecologically valid RT programs are primarily responsible for these differences in outcome.
Biology of Sport, Vol. 33 No3, 2016 241
Ecologically valid resistance training methods
INTRODUCTION
Resistance training (RT) is widely recognised as a mode of exercise
that offers considerable value for optimising health and longevity.
Participation in such exercise and the increased strength and muscle
mass it produces has been evidenced to reduce the risk of numerous
morbidities [1,2] in addition to all-cause mortality [3-8]. Thus, un-
derstanding which RT approaches are most efcacious is of consider-
able interest. A frequently debated topic in RT is volume, with num-
ber of sets of repetitions (sets x repetitions e.g. 1 x 12, 3 x 12 etc.)
commonly being considered. Numerous reviews and meta-analyses
have examined this area with contrasting ndings [9-22] and further
empirical work continues to offer contrasting results; some studies
support multiple set approaches [23-25] and some studies report no
differences between single and multiple set routines [25-32].
Research has examined set volume experimentally by controlling
all other RT variables and only varying the set number. Though this
allows examination of this variable in isolation, it does not necessar-
ily represent ecologically valid programmes employed by people
outside of an exercise laboratory gym. Examination of studies con-
sidering low and high set volumes [33] suggests intensity of effort[34]
A comparison of low volume ‘high-intensity-training’ and high volume
traditional resistance training methods on muscular performance,
body composition, and subjective assessments of training
AUTHORS: Giessing J1, Eichmann B1, Steele J2, Fisher J2
1 Institut für Sportwissenschaft, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany
2 Centre for Health, Exercise and Sport Science, Southampton Solent University, UK
ABSTRACT: Most studies of resistance training (RT) examine methods that do not resemble typical training
practices of persons participating in RT. Ecologically valid RT programs more representative of such practices
are seldom compared. This study compared two such approaches to RT. Thirty participants (males, n=13;
females, n=17) were randomised to either a group performing low volume ‘High Intensity Training’ (HIT; n=16)
or high volume ‘Body-building’ (3ST; n=14) RT methods 2x/week for 10 weeks. Outcomes included muscular
performance, body composition, and participant’s subjective assessments. Both HIT and 3ST groups improved
muscular performance signicantly (as indicated by 95% condence intervals) with large effect sizes (ES; 0.97
to 1.73 and 0.88 to 1.77 respectively). HIT had signicantly greater muscular performance gains for 3 of 9
tested exercises compared with 3ST (p < 0.05) and larger effect sizes for 8 of 9 exercises. Body composition
did not signicantly change in either group. However, effect sizes for whole body muscle mass changes were
slightly more favourable in the HIT group compared with the 3ST group (0.27 and -0.34 respectively) in addition
to whole body fat mass (0.03 and 0.43 respectively) and whole body fat percentage (-0.10 and -0.44 respectively).
Signicant muscular performance gains can be produced using either HIT or 3ST. However, muscular performance
gains may be greater when using HIT. Future research should look to identify which components of ecologically
valid RT programs are primarily responsible for these differences in outcome.
CITATION:
Giessing J, Eichmann B, Steele J, Fisher J. A comparison of low volume ‘high-intensity-training’
and high volume traditional resistance training methods on muscular performance, body composition,
and subjective assessments of training Biol Sport. 2016;33(3):241–249.
Received: 2015-07-15; Reviewed: 2016-01-19; Re-submitted: 2016-01-27; Accepted: 2016-04-19; Published: 2016-05-10.
applied often differs. Surveys of strength and conditioning practic-
es[35-40] highlight single set routines are most commonly performed
to momentary muscular failure (MMF (a)) and multiple set routines
often do not specify but tend to be performed to xed repetition
numbers/ranges or a repetition maximum (RM (b)).
Advocates of low volume RT typically suggest an approach col-
loquially called ‘High Intensity Training’ [41-46] which involves per-
formance of a single set per exercise to MMF using a relatively
moderate to long repetition duration and often utilises advanced
techniques to allow the trainee to exercise ‘beyond’ MMF (i.e. drop
sets, forced repetitions, rest-pause etc.). Advocates of multiple set
RT, however, often suggest performance of >3 sets of between 8-12
repetitions using a relatively shorter repetition duration [47,48].
Whether sets are performed to RM or to MMF is often unspecied
as the two concepts have not been clearly differentiated [33,49,50].
In fact some authors propose avoiding training to MMF as it is argued
repeated training to MMF may lead to overtraining [51]. Willard-
son[50] highlights there is insufcient evidence to suggest multiple
set RT should be performed to MMF. A recent survey of male body-
Original Paper Biol. Sport 2016;33:241-249
DOI:10.5604/20831862.1201813
Key words:
Muscular failure
Repetition maximum
Drop-sets
Volitional fatigue
Corresponding author:
James Steele
Centre for Health, Exercise and
Sport Science,
Southampton Solent University,
East Park Terrace,
Southampton,
Hampshire,
United Kingdom
SO14 0YN
E-mail: james.steele@solent.ac.uk
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242
Giessing J et al.
builders training practices did not distinguish between RM and MMF,
but indicated respondents generally performed ~3-6 sets of 7-12RM
with 61-120 seconds rest between sets [52]. Its unclear but, based
upon the above recommendations [50-51], such multiple set ‘Body-
building’ routines likely employ training to a self-determined RM.
These two ecologically valid approaches to low and high volume
RT have seldom been empirically examined within the literature and,
where they have, often with inclusion of load periodization for mul-
tiple set groups [53-56]. Two studies directly compared low volume
RT to MMF and higher volume RT not to MMF. Kramer et al. [53]
examined three groups; a single set to MMF (SS), 3 sets of 10 rep-
etitions (MS), and a 3 set periodized loading group (MSV). They
reported signicantly greater improvements in 1RM squat from both
week 0-5 and 0-14 for the MS and MSV groups compared with the
SS group. McGee et al. [54] also compared a single set to MMF (N),
3 sets of 10 repetitions (H), and a 3 set periodized loading group
(P) upon cycling time to exhaustion and muscular performance us-
ing a squat endurance test reporting for both outcomes that H>P>N.
The reasons for these results are uncertain considering the unclear
data regarding set volume as a key RT variable [9-32] in addition to
evidence suggesting superiority of training to MMF [21,22] and that
training to MMF signicantly improves cardiovascular tness and
endurance [57].
Since the present body of research regarding ecologically valid
RT approaches is equivocal and studies have also not included use
of advanced training techniques often employed in single-set training;
the aims of the present study were to compare the use of ‘High In-
tensity Training’ and ‘Body-building’ style RT upon both muscular
performance and body composition in addition to participant subjec-
tive assessments of training.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Design
A randomised trial was conducted with two experimental groups
examining ecologically valid low and high volume RT interventions
upon muscular performance and body composition. The study design
was ethically approved by the author’s institution. All procedures
were performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the
Helsinki Declaration. Written informed consent was obtained from
all participants.
Participants
Participants were healthy university sports students engaged in rec-
reational sports. Power analysis of low and high volume RT research
in participants without prior RT experience [26] was conducted to
determine participant numbers (n) using an effect size (ES), calcu-
lated using Cohen’s d [58] of ~1.1-1.3 for improvements in mus-
cular performance. Participant numbers were calculated using equa-
tions from Whitley and Ball [59] revealing each group required
between 9 and 13 participants to meet required power of 0.8 at an
alpha value of p<.0.05. Thirty participants were initially identied
and recruited. No initial dropouts were recorded after eligibility as-
sessment so 30 participants were randomised to one of two groups
using an online randomisation programme (Research Randomizer vs
3.0); a group performing a single set of each exercise to MMF plus
drop-sets (HIT; n=16), or a group performing three sets of each
exercise to a self-determined RM (3ST; n=14).
Equipment
Muscular performance measurement and training were performed
using chest press, heel raise, rear deltoid, elbow exion, seated row,
knee extension, and knee exion resistance machines (Nautilus Inc.,
USA). Body composition including body mass, whole body muscle
and fat mass and percentage, visceral fat rating (total abdominal fat
– see below), bone mass, muscle and fat mass and percentage for
individual body segments (Left and right upper and lower limbs and
trunk), total body water, and both extra- and intra-cellular water was
estimated using bioelectrical impedance (Tanita MC 180, Tanita
Europe B.V., Amsterdam). This device is reported as valid compared
with dual energy X-ray absorptiometry for estimating total and seg-
mental body composition in healthy adults [60], however, ‘visceral
fat rating’ has been reported better representative of total abdominal
fat compared with magnetic resonance imaging [61] and is referred
to as such herein.
Participant Testing
Pre and post muscular performance testing was performed in the
following order with 2-3 minutes rest between exercises; chest press,
heel raise, rear deltoid, elbow exion, seated row, knee extension,
knee exion, abdominal exion, push-ups. A 10RM was determined
for all exercises with the exception of push-ups following National
Strength and Conditioning Association guidelines for RM testing [62].
To avoid any specic learning effect in post testing from training at
a particular relative load, 50% of the absolute load for each partici-
pants 10RM was used for testing. For the push-up exercises no
additional load was used. Participants performed repetitions to MMF
at a repetition duration of 2 seconds concentric, 2 seconds eccentric.
Pre and post testing utilised the same absolute load allowing com-
parison of repetitions performed due to the direct relationship between
muscular strength and the number of repetitions possible at an ab-
solute submaximal load [63]. This removed the need for 1RM test-
ing and provides greater ecological validity as most persons rarely
test or use their maximal strength but rather test muscular perfor-
mance using repeated repetitions. Body composition was measured
on a separate day from muscular performance testing both before
and after the intervention following the manufacturer’s guidelines.
Participants also completed a questionnaire to determine their resis-
tance training experience prior to the study (either ‘total beginner’,
‘some experience’, or ‘advanced’ rated 1 to 3 respectively), time
spent on other exercise/sport activities each week (minutes), sever-
ity of delayed onset muscular soreness (DOMS) from training sessions
(0-10, low to high respectively), duration of DOMS after training
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Ecologically valid resistance training methods
sessions (hours), satisfaction with muscular performance changes
from the training intervention (0-10, low to high respectively), sat-
isfaction with body composition changes from the training interven-
tion (0-10, low to high respectively), and motivations to continue
with the training they completed (0-10, low to high respectively).
Participant Training
Training was supervised and conducted 2x/week (at least 48 hours
between sessions) for 10 weeks. Both groups performed a general
warm-up on a stationary cycle ergometer for 5-10 minutes followed
by a single set of low load chest press, seated row and bodyweight
squats prior to each training session. Each group performed the
following exercises in this order in circuit fashion; chest press, heel
raise, rear deltoid, elbow exion, seated row, knee extension, knee
exion, abdominal exion, push-ups. The HIT group completed the
circuit once performing a single set of each exercise with additional
drop sets performed immediately upon reaching MMF. The 3ST group
completed the circuit three times performing a single set of each
exercise each time (3 sets per exercise in total). Rest between each
exercise lasted as long as required for participants to move from one
exercise to the next and normalise breathing for both groups. The
3ST group rested a further 2-3 minutes between each circuit. Both
groups began the intervention using a 10RM load, but used body-
weight for the push-ups exercise. The HIT group used a repetition
duration of 2 seconds concentric, 1 second isometric contraction at
the top of the range of motion, and 4 seconds eccentric (2-1-4
seconds). The 3ST group trained using a repetition duration of 2
seconds concentric and 2 seconds eccentric (2-2 seconds). Both
groups used a full range of motion. The HIT group performed repeti-
tions to the point of MMF and then performed drop-sets, immedi-
ately reducing the load by 10-15% and continuing repetitions to
MMF again (~2-3 further repetitions). Two drop-sets were performed
(i.e. 10-15% drop from initial load followed by a further drop of
10-15% from the reduced load). Drop-sets for the push-ups exercise
were as follows; rst push-ups with feet elevated, followed by push-
ups with feet on the oor, followed by push-ups from the knees. The
3ST group performed repetitions to a self-determined RM. Load was
progressed for each group by 5% once participants could achieve
greater than 15 repetitions before reaching MMF or RM for the HIT
and 3ST groups respectively.
Data Analysis
No drop outs were recorded at any stage of the study thus data were
available for 30 participants. Muscular performance and body com-
position outcomes met assumptions of normality using a Kolmogorov-
Smirnov test thus parametric analysis was utilised for these outcomes.
Questionnaire data did not meet assumptions of normality so non-
parametric analysis was utilised. Baseline demographic, muscular
performance, and body composition data in addition to absolute
changes in strength and body composition were compared between
groups using an independent T-test. Questionnaire data was compared
between groups using a Mann-Whitney U test. Statistical analysis
was performed using SPSS statistics computer package (vs.20) and
p<.05 set as the limit for statistical signicance. Further, 95% con-
dence intervals (CI) were calculated in addition to within participant
ES using Cohen’s d [58] for muscular performance and body com-
position outcomes to compare magnitude of effects between groups
where an ES of 0.20-0.49 was considered as small, 0.50-0.79 as
moderate and 0.80 as large.
RESULTS
Participants Demographics. Participant demographics are shown
in Table 1. Comparison between groups revealed a signicant between
groups difference for stature (t(28)=2.140, p=0.031) and BMI
(t(28)=-3.988, p < 0.001).
Muscular performance
Table 2 shows pre and post, mean changes, ES and 95%CIs for
muscular performance for each training group and exercise. Com-
parison between HIT and 3ST groups at baseline revealed a signicant
difference for the heel raise exercise (t(28)=2.316, p=0.031) but
not for any other exercise. Comparison between groups for changes
in muscular performance revealed differences between HIT and 3ST
for heel raise (t(28)=2.812, p=0.009), elbow exion (t(28)=2.503,
p=0.018), and knee exion (t(28)=2.325, p=0.028). 95%CIs
indicated that both HIT and 3ST groups improved signicantly in all
exercises with the exception of the push-up. ESs for signicant mus-
cular performance changes in the HIT and 3ST groups were all
considered large (0.97 to 1.73 and 0.88 to 1.77 respectively).
Body Composition
Table 3 shows pre and post, mean changes and ES for body com-
position data for each group. Comparison between HIT and 3ST
groups at baseline revealed a signicant difference for the whole body
fat mass (t(28)=-5.439, p < 0.001) and percentage (t(28)=-5.294,
p < 0.001) in addition to trunk fat mass (t(28)=2.711, p=0.011)
and percentage (t(28)=2.880, p=0.008). Comparisons between
groups for changes in body composition data revealed no signicant
between group effects. 95%CIs indicated that there were no signi-
TABLE 1.
Participant’s demographic characteristics.
HIT (n=16) 3ST (n=14)
Age (years) 23 ± 3 22 ± 2
Stature (cm)* 175.50 ± 8.16 169.21 ± 7.91
Body Mass (kg) 68.58 ± 9.04 73.30 ± 11.65
BMI (kg · m-2)* 22.22 ± 1.97 25.49 ± 2.51
Gender Ratio (Males:Females) 9:7 4:10
Note: Results are mean ±SD; *denotes signicant difference between
groups.
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Giessing J et al.
cant changes for any body composition outcome for any of the groups
with the exception of left leg fat mass and fat percentage. This change
would seem likely a type I error.
Participant Subjective Assessments
Table 4 shows the questionnaire data for each group. No signicant
differences between groups were found for any of the questions.
DISCUSSION
This study compared two ecologically valid RT approaches upon
muscular performance improvements and body composition chang-
es. Results suggested that both HIT and 3ST produced signicant
improvements in muscular performance, however, HIT produced
signicantly greater muscular performance gains than 3ST for 3 of
the tested exercises and had larger ESs for eight of the tested exer-
cises. No signicant changes in any body composition measures
occurred for either group; however, ESs indicated small effects favour-
ing the HIT group. Reasons for the greater muscular performance
gains in the HIT group are not wholly clear as, due to examining
ecologically valid RT methods, a number of variables differed between
the two training groups (i.e. set volume, intensity of effort, the use
of drop-sets, and repetition duration).
As noted, it is unclear whether set volume indeed impacts strength
gains [9-32]. It may be that the lower volume HIT group (performing
a total of ~14-16 repetitions [sets x repetitions; 1 x ~10 + 2 x
~2-3]) avoided overtraining compared with the higher volume 3ST
group (performing a total of ~30 repetitions [sets x repetitions; 3 x
~10]) allowing greater improvement. However, no other data sug-
gests superiority for single set RT nor has this been claimed by
other authors elsewhere [19]. It is unlikely the difference in set
volume affected results through this mechanism. The HIT group also
employed drop-sets on every exercise which might actually contrib-
ute to overtraining if employed too regularly [64]. Whether use of
techniques, such as drop-sets, common in HIT style RT are necessary
in addition to training to MMF for enhancing adaptations is uncertain.
Goto et al. [65] compared training to MMF with and without use of
Group Pre Post Change 95% CI ES p
Chest Press
HIT 32.06 ± 15.04 57.69 ± 18.81 25.63 ± 16.09 17.05 to 34.20 1.59† 0.073
3ST 31.07 ± 13.85 46.93 ± 19.26 15.86 ± 12.02 8.92 to 22.80 1.32†
Heel Raise
HIT 32.81 ± 12.53 60.63 ± 22.44 27.81 ± 16.04 19.26 to 36.36 1.73† 0.009*
3ST 24.79 ± 5.55 37.86 ± 14.13 13.07 ± 12.04 6.12 to 20.02 1.09†
Rear Deltoid
HIT 30.50 ± 11.51 64.25 ± 32.94 33.75 ± 27.16 19.28 to 48.22 1.24† 0.056
3ST 40.93 ± 25.36 57.79 ± 25.19 16.86 ± 17.38 6.82 to26.89 0.97†
Elbow Flexion
HIT 27.38 ± 6.82 48.69 ± 11.69 21.31 ± 12.41 14.70 to 27.92 1.72† 0.018*
3ST 23.86 ± 8.38 35.50 ± 9.88 11.64 ± 7.90 7.08 to 16.20 1.47†
Seated Row
HIT 36.00 ± 13.82 76.31 ± 32.25 40.31 ± 27.37 25.73 to 54.90 1.47† 0.062
3ST 31.07 ± 13.85 66.21 ± 20.05 23.64 ± 17.93 13.29 to 34.00 1.32†
Knee Extension
HIT 35.69 ± 13.08 53.25 ± 19.70 17.56 ± 18.13 7.90 to 27.22 0.97† 0.975
3ST 36.00 ± 17.55 53.79 ± 25.19 17.79 ± 20.25 6.10 to 29.48 0.88†
Knee Flexion
HIT 37.5 ± 20.48 65.19 ± 35.80 27.69 ± 19.09 17.52 to 37.86 1.45† 0.028*
3ST 44.5 ± 18.68 58.43 ± 17.25 13.93 ± 11.95 7.03 to 20.83 1.17†
Abdominal Flexion
HIT 19.75 ± 10.44 35.44 ± 12.54 15.69 ± 11.15 9.75 to 21.63 1.41† 0.898
3ST 21.43 ± 9.89 36.64 ± 11.32 15.21 ± 8.58 10.26 to 20.17 1.77†
Push-up
HIT 21.81 ± 13.15 41.00 ± 41.04 19.19 ± 40.21 -2.24 to 40.61 0.47 0.196
3ST 21.14 ± 13.98 27.54 ± 11.38 4.43 ± 11.40 -2.15 to 11.01 0.39
TABLE 2.
Pre, post, mean change and effect sizes for muscular performance data.
Note: Results are mean ±SD; 95% CI for changes; ES=Cohen’s d; p values for between group comparisons of change in strength analysed using an
independent T-test; *denotes signicant difference between groups; ᶧdenotes signicant difference from pre to post
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Ecologically valid resistance training methods
Group Pre Post Change 95% CI ES P
Body Mass (kg) HIT 68.58 ± 9.04 69.04 ± 9.35 0.46 ± 2.27 -0.75 to 1.67 0.20 0.222
3ST 73.30 ± 11.65 74.04 ± 11.07 0.75 ± 2.35 -0.61 to 2.10 0.32
Fat Free Mass (kg) HIT 55.47 ± 9.28 55.88 ± 8.80 0.42 ± 1.59 -0.43 to 1.26 0.26 0.117
3ST 51.05 ± 9.03 50.50 ± 9.16 -0.55 ± 1.66 -1.51 to 0.41 -0.33
Whole body
Muscle Mass (kg) HIT 52.69 ± 8.85 53.09 ± 8.40 0.40 ± 1.50 -0.40 to 1.20 0.27 0.108
3ST 48.49 ± 8.60 47.95 ± 8.73 -0.54 ± 1.61 -1.47 to 0.39 -0.34
Fat Mass (kg) HIT 13.12 ± 4.13 13.16 ± 4.53 0.05 ± 1.74 -0.88 to 0.97 0.03 0.170
3ST 22.25 ± 5.07 23.54 ± 4.77 1.29 ± 3.02 -0.45 to 3.03 0.43
Fat Percentage HIT 19.31 ± 6.07 19.11 ± 5.98 -0.20 ± 2.03 -1.28 to 0.88 -0.10 0.098
3ST 30.34 ± 5.23 31.92 ± 5.21 1.58 ± 3.55 -0.47 to 3.63 0.44
Total Abdominal Fat
(rated 1 to 59) HIT 1.88 ± 1.15 1.82 ± 1.22 -0.06 ± 0.57 -0.37 to 0.24 -0.11 0.259
3ST 1.29 ± 0.73 1.43 ± 0.76 0.14 ± 0.36 -0.07 to 0.35 0.39
Bone Mass (kg) HIT 2.79 ± 0.44 2.81 ± 0.41 0.02 ± 0.09 -0.02 to 0.07 0.26 0.090
3ST 2.58 ± 0.43 2.55 ± 0.44 -0.03 ± 0.08 -0.08 to 0.02 -0.39
Right Leg
Muscle Mass (kg) HIT 9.10 ± 1.67 9.13 ± 1.63 0.03 ± 0.24 -0.09 to 0.16 0.14 0.064
3ST 8.18 ± 1.79 7.78 ± 1.75 -0.40 ± 0.86 -0.89 to 0.10 -0.46
Fat Mass (kg) HIT 2.40 ± 1.13 2.44 ± 1.21 0.04 ± 0.23 -0.08 to 0.16 0.18 0.302
3ST 2.57 ± 0.89 3.84 ± 3.92 1.27 ± 4.27 -1.20 to 3.73 0.30
Fat Percentage HIT 20.23 ± 9.83 20.34 ± 9.98 0.12 ± 1.43 -0.64 to 0.88 0.08 0.107
3ST 23.51 ± 8.78 26.44 ± 8.13 2.93 ± 6.59 -0.88 to 6.73 0.44
Left Leg
Muscle Mass (kg) HIT 8.82 ± 1.62 8.87 ± 1.57 0.05 ± 0.23 -0.07 to 0.17 0.22 0.151
3ST 7.99 ± 1.70 7.90 ± 1.74 -0.09 ± 0.30 -0.27 to 0.08 -0.31
Fat Mass (kg) HIT 2.41 ± 1.09 2.45 ± 1.15 0.04 ± 0.24 -0.09 to 0.17 0.17 0.320
3ST 2.50 ± 0.82 2.62 ± 0.78 0.12 ± 0.16 0.02 to 0.21 0.72†
Fat Percentage HIT 20.79 ± 9.65 20.84 ± 9.71 0.04 ± 1.54 -0.78 to 0.86 0.03 0.620
3ST 23.31 ± 8.06 24.48 ± 8.22 1.17 ± 1.64 0.23 to 2.12 0.72†
Right Arm
Muscle Mass (kg) HIT 2.92 ± 0.81 2.92 ± 0.79 0.01 ± 0.10 -0.05 to 0.06 0.06 0.379
3ST 2.49 ± 0.73 2.93 ± 2.08 0.44 ± 1.78 -0.59 to 1.47 0.25
Fat Mass (kg) HIT 0.66 ± 0.22 0.68 ± 0.26 0.01 ± 0.10 -0.04 to 0.07 0.13 0.420
3ST 0.58 ± 0.15 0.65 ± 0.26 0.07 ± 0.27 -0.08 to 0.23 0.27
Fat Percentage HIT 18.54 ± 7.33 18.64 ± 7.42 0.10 ± 2.14 -1.04 to 1.24 0.05 0.672
3ST 18.61 ± 4.70 19.14 ± 4.92 0.53 ± 3.29 -1.37 to 2.43 0.16
Left Arm
Muscle Mass (kg) HIT 2.90 ± 0.84 2.91 ± 0.82 0.02 ± 0.12 -0.05 to 0.08 0.13 0.411
3ST 2.45 ± 0.75 2.43 ± 0.76 -0.02 ± 0.12 -0.09 to 0.05 -0.17
Fat Mass (kg) HIT 0.69 ± 0.24 0.71 ± 0.27 0.02 ± 0.09 -0.03 to 0.07 0.23 0.990
3ST 0.61 ± 0.16 0.64 ± 0.16 0.02 ± 0.10 -0.03 to 0.08 0.22
Fat Percentage HIT 19.52 ± 7.89 19.43 ± 7.78 -0.09 ± 2.13 -1.22 to 1.05 -0.04 0.378
3ST 19.65 ± 4.99 20.42 ± 5.43 0.77 ± 3.09 -1.01 to 2.56 0.25
Trunk
Muscle Mass (kg) HIT 28.96 ± 4.09 29.26 ± 3.82 0.29 ± 0.91 -0.19 to 0.78 0.32 0.168
3ST 27.38 ± 3.77 25.23 ± 7.32 -2.15 ± 6.86 -6.12 to 1.81 -0.31
Fat Mass (kg) HIT 6.95 ± 2.10 6.88 ± 2.40 -0.07 ± 1.16 -0.68 to 0.55 -0.06 0.996
3ST 4.86 ± 2.12 4.79 ± 2.35 -0.07 ± 1.90 -1.17 to 1.03 -0.04
Fat Percentage HIT 18.54 ± 4.44 18.08 ± 4.65 -0.46 ± 2.60 -1.85 to 0.92 -0.18 0.290
3ST 14.02 ± 4.10 14.81 ± 3.85 0.79 ± 3.74 -1.37 to 2.95 0.21
Total Body Water (kg) HIT 40.02 ± 6.59 40.27 ± 6.21 0.27 ± 1.26 -0.42 to 0.93 0.20 0.126
3ST 36.85 ± 6.53 36.40 ± 6.55 -0.86 ± 1.81 -1.15 to 0.24 -0.38
Extra-cellular Water (kg) HIT 16.03 ± 2.24 16.12 ± 2.15 0.09 ± 0.40 -0.12 to 0.30 0.23 0.074
3ST 14.66 ± 2.37 14.49 ± 2.40 -0.17 ± 0.37 -0.39 to 0.04 -0.46
Intra-cellular Water (kg) HIT 23.97 ± 4.39 24.17 ± 4.13 0.19 ± 0.86 -0.27 to 0.65 0.22 0.138
3ST 22.20 ± 4.16 21.90 ± 4.16 -0.29 ± 0.86 -0.79 to 0.21 -0.34
TABLE 3.
Pre, post, mean change and effect sizes for body composition data.
Note: Results are mean ±SD; 95% CI for changes; ES=Cohen’s d; p values for between group differences for change in body composition data
analysed using Independent t-test; denotes signicant difference from pre to post
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246
Giessing J et al.
drop-sets upon hypertrophy. Their results suggested greater hyper-
trophy using a drop-set; however, this also provided additional volume.
In the present study the HIT group, though employing drop-sets, still
performed a lower total training volume (sets x repetitions) than the
3ST group yet still produced greater muscular performance gains
suggesting additional volume from drop-sets may not be the inuenc-
ing factor.
Different intensities of effort between the two groups, however,
may have inuenced the different muscular performance gains. The
HIT group trained to MMF (and used drop-sets) whilst the 3ST group
trained to a self-determined RM. As highlighted multiple set training
is often not performed to MMF as it is suggested there is lack of
evidence for its recommendation [50] and its potential to promote
overtraining [51]. Evidence, however, suggests training to MMF does
confer greater adaptations [21,22]. It has also been reported even
experienced trainees under-predict the number of possible repetitions
to MMF [66] suggesting that many persons including those initiating
RT likely under-predict also. Thus, though the 3ST group trained
with a greater volume, they perhaps did not train to a sufciently
high intensity of effort (i.e. ended sets more than 1 repetition away
from MMF), questioning the use of ‘intuitive’ approaches to control
RT effort. Indeed some have argued the success of low volume RT,
such as HIT, is dependent upon achieving sufcient intensity of effort
by training to MMF [33]. A recent study found, in advanced trainees,
a single set RT intervention performed to a self-determined RM does
not improve strength [67]. Our results indicate that, though multiple
sets to RM produce muscular performance improvement, they may
not fully recompense avoiding training to MMF. This does contrast
with prior investigations of single sets to MMF compared with mul-
tiple sets not to MMF [53,54]. This might suggest that, though no
evidence suggests single set training as superior to multiple set train-
ing when other factors are controlled, single set training may produce
greater adaptations when training to MMF is combined with drop-sets
perhaps owing to greater intensity of effort and fatigue related stim-
uli [68,69].
The lack of signicant body composition changes reported in this
study may be owing to the sample size used. It has been noted that,
though studies of strength and muscular performance gains can be
sufciently powered with the sample size used here (which was
calculated for strength outcomes), studies examining changes in body
composition and particularly changes in muscle mass are highly
prone to type II errors [18]. A recent study employing the same body
composition testing with a larger sample size reported signicant
changes in muscle mass and fat percentages after a single set to
MMF protocol in trained participants reinforcing the likelihood of a
type II error in the present study [67]. Indeed, though they did not
achieve signicance, whole body muscle mass changes were slight-
ly more favourable in the HIT group (0.40+1.50kg, 95%CIs -0.40
to 1.20, ES=0.27) compared with the 3ST group (-0.54+1.61kg,
95%CIs -1.47 to 0.39, ES=-0.34). With regards to whole body fat
mass changes there was no change in the HIT group (0.05+1.74,
95%CIs -0.88 to 0.97, ES=0.03) and an increase in the 3ST group
(1.29+3.02, 95%CIs -0.45 to 3.03, ES=0.43). These factors com-
bined to result in the HIT group producing a slightly more favourable
change in whole body fat percentage also (-0.20+2.03, 95%CIs
-1.28 to 0.88, ES=-0.10) compared with the 3ST group (1.58+3.55,
95%CIs -0.47 to 3.63, ES=0.44). Our participants also subjec-
tively reported some content with body composition outcomes yet
with no differences between groups which might indicate aesthetic
improvements not represented in objective measurement.
Average duration of the workouts is worth considering in context
of the results presented. Without considering between exercise rest
durations and assuming ~10 repetitions per exercise at the repeti-
tions durations used, per session the HIT group trained for ~10.5
minutes, whereas the 3ST group trained for between ~24 and ~27
minutes. The practical implications of these ndings combined with
the questionnaire data are also notable. Participant subjective as-
sessments of training were similar for both groups. Thus it would
seem reasonable to suggest that HIT is a more desirable approach
as it has the potential to produce greater gains in muscular perfor-
mance despite being perceived similarly in a number of subjective
outcomes including severity and duration of DOMS from training
sessions, satisfaction with muscular performance and body compo-
sition changes, and motivations to continue with the training they
completed. It is notable that motivation to continue training was
similar between groups. Hass et al. [70] previously reported that
dropout rate was higher for a multiple set RT program compared
with one employing single sets. Twenty ve percent dropped out from
HIT 3ST p
Other Weekly Activity (minutes) 106 ± 62.20 119.64 ± 107.58 0.758
Training Experience (rated 1 to 3) 1.31 ± 0.48 1.36 ± 0.50 0.799
DOMS Severity (rated 1 to 10) 2.94 ± 2.05 3.08 ± 2.15 0.887
DOMS Duration (hours) 27.06 ± 19.20 26.57 ± 14.26 0.700
Satisfaction with Muscular Performance Outcomes (rated 1 to 10) 7.56 ± 1.41 6.86 ± 1.23 0.209
Satisfaction with Body Composition Outcomes (rated 1 to 10) 5.7 ± 1.79 4.64 ± 3.03 0.522
Motivation to Continue Training (rated 1 to 10) 6.5 ± 2.99 7.88 ± 1.17 0.279
TABLE 4.
Questionnaire data.
Note: Results are mean +SD; p values for between group comparisons using a Mann-Whitney U test.
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Biology of Sport, Vol. 33 No3, 2016
247
Ecologically valid resistance training methods
the multiple set group (5 for lack of adherence and 2 for injuries)
compared with none in the single set group. In their study the mul-
tiple set group took ~1 hour to complete their training compared
with 25 minutes for the single set group and programs lasting >1
hour per session are known to have higher drop outs [71]. We did
not have any drop outs in our study perhaps due to the fact that both
interventions took <1 hour. Further, the drop outs from the study of
Hass et al. may be due to the fact that both single and multiple set
groups trained to MMF. This perhaps highlights that the fact our 3ST
group did not train to MMF may be a reason for similar motivation
to continue with higher volume training. In other exercise modalities
(i.e. aerobic exercise modes) it has been shown that participants
report greater enjoyment of both moderate effort continuous and
shorter duration higher effort exercise as opposed to continuous du-
ration high effort exercise [72,73].
Limitations of the present study should be noted. First the sample
size used appeared insufcient to detect changes in the body com-
position measures taken and in addition participant’s nutritional
intakes were not assessed. As research comparing these two eco-
logically valid methods of RT has focused upon strength and mus-
cular performance outcomes thus far [53,54] future work should
examine body composition and muscular hypertrophy using larger
sample sizes and controlling for nutritional factors. Also, due to not
using a gender counterbalanced approach to randomisation, gender
ratio differences between groups may have affected our outcomes.
Our research design may have been improved by use of a gender
counterbalanced approach to randomisation. However, outcomes in
this study were examined using absolute changes as opposed to
relative changes the former of which has been shown to not differ
between genders despite differences in relative changes [74]. Further,
though it could be considered a strength that this study examined
ecologically valid RT approaches, as a number of variables differed
between the groups (set volume, intensity of effort, the use of drop-
sets, and repetition duration) conclusions can only be drawn as to
the efcacy of the two approaches as a whole. Indeed it could be
argued that ‘Body-building’ style training also utilises advanced tech-
niques such as drop sets and so future work might compare the
effects of set volume whilst controlling inclusion of advanced training
techniques. Finally, recent studies considering the effects of set vol-
ume have included greater than 3 sets and suggested that both
5[43] and 8 sets [42] may produce greater strength and hypertro-
phic adaptations. Whether low volume RT whilst utilising advanced
techniques such as in ‘High Intensity Training’ produces similar ad-
aptations to these even higher set volumes remains to be investi-
gated.
CONCLUSIONS
To conclude, the results of this study suggest signicant muscular
performance gains can be produced using either a ‘High Intensity
Training’ style (HIT) or ‘Body-building’ style (3ST) RT approach.
However, muscular performance gains may be greater when using
HIT, therefore we recommend HIT for maximising muscular perfor-
mance gains over a 10 week period.
Conict of interests: the authors declared no conict of interests
regarding the publication of this manuscript.
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- - - - -
... Five studies with a design similar to the present study were found. Four of them directly assessed muscle hypertrophy using magnetic resonance imaging or ultrasound (Angleri et al., 2017;Fink et al., 2018;Giessing et al., 2016;Ozaki et al., 2018), and one assessed hypertrophy indirectly using the Bod Pod . We identified two studies that used a within-subjects design (Angleri et al., 2017;Ozaki et al., 2018), meaning they randomized the participants' arms or legs. ...
... In the present discussion we did not analyze the studies by Giessing et al. (2016), Johannsmeyer et al. (2016), Bentes et al. (2012), and Goto et al. (2016) since the meth-odologies followed did not allow comparison, as some studied older participants doing supplementation (Johannsmeyer et al., 2016), or circuit training in combination with DS (Giessing et al., 2016), or pre-exhaustion exercise (Bentes et al., 2012), or analyzed different outcome measures (Goto et al., 2016). ...
... In the present discussion we did not analyze the studies by Giessing et al. (2016), Johannsmeyer et al. (2016), Bentes et al. (2012), and Goto et al. (2016) since the meth-odologies followed did not allow comparison, as some studied older participants doing supplementation (Johannsmeyer et al., 2016), or circuit training in combination with DS (Giessing et al., 2016), or pre-exhaustion exercise (Bentes et al., 2012), or analyzed different outcome measures (Goto et al., 2016). ...
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Purpose: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of two strength training protocols, equated in volume, on the elbow flexor muscle thickness (MT) in women. Methods: Twenty-seven women (mean±sd, age 21.89±2.85 years; stature,167.82±5.90 cm; body mass 63.01±7.20 kg; estimate of body fat mass, 19.19±2.88%) were divided in three experimental groups: a drop-set (DS), a traditional (TR), and a control group (CG). The CG maintained regular strength training without perform any upper body exercises. The DS group performed a dumbbell biceps curl for two days/week, 12 weeks, 4 sets of 3 blocks of 10 repetitions at 75%, 55%, and 35% of their 1 Repetition Maximum (RM), and 8 sets of 11 repetitions at 75% of the 1RM for the TR protocol. Rest interval between sets was 120 seconds. The MT was acquired in the anterior face of both upper arms at 50% and 60% of the distance between the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and the acromial process of the scapula before (T0) and after the 24 training sessions (T1). Results: There was a significant increase in all MT measurements between T0 and T1for the training groups(p<0.05). In addition, significantly higher values of MT were found in the training groups compared to the control group for all local measurements in T1 (p<0.05). No significant differences were found between training the groups for MT. Conclusion: It appears that both training groups (DS and TR), were effective in promoting MT of the elbow flexors muscles of young women with no differences between training strategies. Keywords: Hypertrophy, Ultrasonography, Training method, Female
... However, it has been argued that an error in ERF of approximately 1 repetition is inaccurate for experienced resistance trainers (3). This is in light of evidence showing enhanced training adaptations when sets are performed to failure compared with 1 repetition before self-determined failure (11,12). Therefore, it is of interest to explore whether the accuracy of ERF during a traditional set to failure improves after regular practice while performing traditional or cluster set configurations. ...
... Comparison of mean concentric velocity variables for the bench press using 85% 1RM at preintervention and postintervention.* † from RM (self-determined) leads to greater muscular performance (11,12). However, the magnitude of error in the prediction of RM from this previous study is unknown. ...
... However, the magnitude of error in the prediction of RM from this previous study is unknown. In addition, the findings from this previous study may have been influenced by other acute programming variables that were not controlled (i.e., repetition tempo and using drop sets) (11,12). Evidence suggests that failure compared with nonfailure sets do not offer any advantage for the promotion of muscle strength, provided a sufficient resistance training load is used ($70% 1RM). ...
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Davies, TB, Li, J, and Hackett, DA. Effect of high-volume cluster sets vs. lower-volume traditional sets on accuracy of estimated repetitions to failure. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-This study investigated the effects of resistance training using cluster (CLUS) vs. traditional (TRAD) set structures on the accuracy of estimated repetitions to failure (ERF). Nineteen healthy male resistance trainers (age 21.0 ± 4.4 years) were randomized into 1 of the 2 bench press training routines performed for 6 weeks. Cluster (n = 10) performed 6 sets of 5 repetitions at 85% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM) with 30-second interrepetition rest and 3 minutes of interset rest. Traditional (n = 9) performed 3 sets of 5 repetitions at 85% 1RM with 5 minutes of interset rest. Maximum repetitions at 85% 1RM was performed before and after intervention to assess error in ERF and mean concentric velocity (MCV). The ERF, rating of perceived exertion, and maintenance of MCV were assessed throughout the intervention. Rating of perceived exertion was lower for sets 1-3 in CLUS compared with TRAD from weeks 1 to 4 (effect size [ES] = 0.8-2.4, p ≤ 0.04). The ERF was greater for sets 1-3 in CLUS than in TRAD during all intervention weeks (ES = 1.0-5.1, p ≤ 0.04). Maintenance of MCV was greater in CLUS compared with TRAD for all sets at week 1 (ES = 0.76, p = 0.002) and sets 4-6 at week 6 (ES = 0.77, p = 0.006). After the intervention, error in ERF did not change, and no differences were found between the groups. Findings indicate that accuracy of ERF does not improve after resistance training using set structures that induce different transient fatigue-related effects when using high loads in experienced resistance trainers.
... Resistance exercise promotes muscular fitness (i.e., an increase in muscle strength and work economy, and improvement in power and speed during daily living or sporting tasks), which is undoubtedly accompanied by physiological and morphological muscle adaptations [1][2][3]. Nonetheless, muscle adaptation to resistance training requires that variables are planned (choice of exercise, order of exercise, load, volume, rest, frequency, and repetition velocity) to match a specific goal [2,4,5]. Indeed, when dealing with advanced practitioners (i.e., many years of training), further improvements in strength and muscle hypertrophy require the adequate management of training variables (e.g., load, repetition, sets, rest, and motor task) during a single session or throughout planning [1]. ...
... Resistance exercise promotes muscular fitness (i.e., an increase in muscle strength and work economy, and improvement in power and speed during daily living or sporting tasks), which is undoubtedly accompanied by physiological and morphological muscle adaptations [1][2][3]. Nonetheless, muscle adaptation to resistance training requires that variables are planned (choice of exercise, order of exercise, load, volume, rest, frequency, and repetition velocity) to match a specific goal [2,4,5]. Indeed, when dealing with advanced practitioners (i.e., many years of training), further improvements in strength and muscle hypertrophy require the adequate management of training variables (e.g., load, repetition, sets, rest, and motor task) during a single session or throughout planning [1]. ...
... The findings from the present study showed that both UL-and LL-FFM are powerful indexes that are related to 1RM measurements for single-or multi-joint resistance exercises engaging upper-and lower-limb actions. Therefore, our findings are aligned with the assumption that resistance training can improve muscle strength, weight lifting capacity, and fat-free body mass [2,18]. However, information on the propensity of regional body composition to analyze muscle strength variance in different weight lifting exercises is still lacking in the literature. ...
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This study aimed to analyze whether the relationship between regional and whole-body fat-free mass (FFM) and strength is related to FFM distribution and area according to limb involvement. Thirty well-trained male young adults underwent one-repetition maximum test (1RM) to assess the strength in arm curl (AC), bench press (BP), seated row (SR), leg press 45° (LP45), knee extension (KE), and leg curl (LC). Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry was used to evaluate FFM. The values for 1RM in AC, BP, and R correlated to FFM in upper limb (R 2 = 0.69, 0.84 and 0.75), without an effect of appendicular mass index (API) or area. For 1RM in KE, the correlation with FFM in lower limb increased with thigh area (R 2 = 0.56), whereas 1RM in LC and LP45° correlation to whole-body FFM increased with API (R 2 = 0.64 and 0.49). The upper limb's FFM may be reliable for indexing the arms and upper trunk strengths, whereas the relationships between FFM and strength in lower limb improve as muscle mass and thigh area increases between subjects.
... This action had resulted a trivial performance due to volume has reached a minimum threshold [28]. According to [29], High intensity is perfectly matched with lower volume training to avoid injury and thus increase strength, stamina, and power training. Regarding the use of heavy load with low volume in resistance training, a study reported improvement in muscle gain in the upper part of the force-velocity curve [30]. ...
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The objective of this pilot study is to find the well-trained football players' force-velocity profile based on their sprint and jump performances. The participants of the study were boys (n=28), aged 19-21. To achieve the tasks, participants will be recruited to perform vertical squat jump tests against multiple external loads (vertical) by using the My jump 2 application and linear 30m sprints (horizontal) by using the My Sprint application to evaluate lower and upper limbs' force-velocity profiles of the players. The vertical and horizontal force-velocity profiling (i.e., theoretical maximal values of force (Fo), the maximal value of velocity (Vo), and maximal power (Pmax) as well as the main performances variable (unloaded Squat Jump height in jumping and 30m-sprint time will be measured. The slopes of those profiles will be calculated. If the player's Force-velocity profile (0-90%), players are force deficient. Strength-orientated training should be enforced on the player. If the player's Force-velocity profile (>120%), players are velocity deficient. Speed training should be focused on the player. This study is to identify which players are force deficit and velocity deficit. This pilot study provided a descriptive reference for the player to have more individualized training programs and thus increase the player's sprint and jump performances
... High Intensity Resistance Training (HI-RT) was administered in accordance with the guidelines established in the previous study [19]. The guidelines recommend conducting HI-RT sessions twice per week for a duration of 32 min per session. ...
Article
Purpose: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of low-intensity blood flow restriction (BFR) training and high-intensity resistance training (HI-RT) on the leaping performance of long-jumpers. Materials and methods: Long jump players were divided into two groups; one group (group A) receiving HI-RT (n = 8) and the other group (group B) receiving combined low-intensity BFR training plus HI-RT (n = 8). Muscle power and knee muscle strength was assessed at baseline, 3 weeks and 6 weeks of intervention. Results: 1-RM was found to be significantly different between Group A and Group B at 3 and 6 weeks. Further, IKDQR, IKDHR and IKDQL was significantly improved in group B as compared to group A both at 3 and 6 weeks. There was significant time effect, group effect and time-group interaction in the strength of quadriceps and hamstring of both left and right leg measured through isokinetic device. Post-hoc analysis for 1-RM in group B showed a significant improvement at baseline and 6 weeks and the broad jump was significant at baseline and 3 weeks and at baseline and 6 weeks. Conclusion: The combined effects of low-intensity BFR training and HI-RT is effective in improving the muscle strength and power of lower limbs in long jumpers.
... Traditional resistance training (TRT) is an effective strategy to induce gains in muscle size and strength, however, alternative strategies, such as drop-sets (DS) have been purported to further enhance these adaptations (Krzysztofik et al., 2019;Angleri et al., 2017). TRT is characterized by multiple sets performed with the same load (i.e., % of 1-RM) with a pre-determined rest interval (Enes et al., 2021;Giessing, et al., 2016). In contrast, DS training involves performing an exercise to (or in close proximity to) momentary failure followed by an immediate reduction in load prior to performing an additional set (Lasevicius et al., 2022;Nuzzo et al., 2023). ...
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The purpose was to examine two drop-set (DS) protocols (single step vs. multi-step) compared to traditional resistance training (TRT) over 8 weeks on changes in muscular strength, endurance and body composition. Twenty-seven trained males were randomized to one of three groups: traditional resistance training (TRT: n = 9), the single step drop set group (DS-S: n = 10) and the multi-step drop set group (DS-M: n = 8). Before and after training, body composition (percent body fat and skeletal muscle mass), and muscular strength and endurance (bench and leg press) were determined. Results: There was a significant interaction for leg press 1-RM (p < .001) and absolute change for leg-press 1-RM was significantly greater for both drop set protocols compared to TRT (p < .001). There were significant interactions for both leg press and bench press endurance (p < .001), with post hoc analyses revealing that only DS-M was superior to TRT (p < .001). There was a significant main effect of time for % body fat (p = .020), SMM (p < .001), however there were no differences between groups. Conclusions: Overall, single-step and multi-step drop-set training to failure appear to be effective strategies to enhance lower body strength, while only the multi-step drop set training enhanced muscular endurance compared to TRT.
... From our literature search, four studies measure muscle hypertrophy directly by MRI or ultrasound [11,4,15,22] and one measures muscle hypertrophy indirectly by bod pod [12]. We identi ed two studies that used a within-subject design (i.e. ...
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Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of two strength training protocols, equated in volume, on the elbow flexor muscle thickness (MT) in women. Methods Twenty-seven women (mean±sd, age 21.89±2.85 years; stature,167.82±5.90 cm; body mass 63.01±7.20 kg; estimate of body fat mass, 19.19±2.88%) were divided in three experimental groups: a drop-set (DS), a traditional (TR), and a control group (CG). The CG maintained regular strength training without perform any upper body exercises. The participants performed a dumbbell biceps curl for two days per week for 12 weeks 4 sets of 3 blocks of 10 repetitions at 75%, 55%, and 35% of their 1 Repetition Maximum (RM) for the DS group, and 8 sets of 11 repetitions at 75% of the 1RM for the TR protocol. Rest interval between sets was 120 seconds for both groups. The MT was acquired in the anterior face of both upper arms at 50% and 60% of the distance between the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and the acromial process of the scapula before (T0) and after the 24 training sessions (T1). Results There was a significant increase in all MT measurements between T0 and T1for the training groups(p<0.05). In addition, significantly higher values of MT were found in the training groups compared to the control group for all local measurements in T1 (p<0.05). No significant differences were found between training the groups for MT. Conclusion It appears that both training groups (DS and TR), were effective in promoting MT of the elbow flexors muscles of young women with no differences between training strategies.
... Low-volume, high-effort resistance training can be an efficacious and time-efficient approach to increasing muscular size and strength [9,23,49]. Furthermore, muscular strength and muscle mass are independently strong predictors of longevity and quality of life [46,52]. However, most published research considering strength training has utilized supervised resistance training to deliver the exercise protocol and promote adherence and progression. ...
Article
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Several design programme variables are very important in resistance training. Until now, the comparison of the effectiveness of one versus two sets or multiple sets of resistance training on trained population was still inconclusive. This study was conducted to compare the effects of one versus two sets of resistance training on upper and lower body muscular strength, upper and lower body muscular endurance and body fat percentages among recreationally trained men. A total of 32 trained men were recruited in this study. They had been randomized into two groups (one set, n = 16 or two set, n = 16) based on their body weight. The muscular strength was measured by bench press and squat using multiple-RM assessment. Muscular endurance had been measured by push-up and 70 % 1 RM on leg extension, while body fat percentages were measured using 8-site skinfold measurement. Both groups engaged in 6 weeks of training. Significant improvement was noted throughout 6 weeks of training for both groups in all variables (p < 0.05). No significant differences between single set and two sets were found for all the variables (p > 0.05) except for leg extension muscular endurance test between both groups (p < 0.05). In conclusion, single set had been found to produce similar effects as two sets on muscular strength, upper body muscular endurance and fat percentages among recreationally trained men.
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