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217
Section 3
Nutritional
and Technical
Aspects
218
Traditional processes and
Technological Innovations
in Quinoa Harvesting, Processing
and Industrialization
*Corresponding author: Carla QUIROGA ccquiroga@upb.edu
:
CARLA QUIROGAa, RAMIRO ESCALERAa, GENARO ARONIb, ALEJANDRO BONIFACIOb, JUAN
ANTONIO GONZÁLEZc, MILTON VILLCAb, RAÚL SARAVIAb, ANTONIO RUIZd
a Universidad Privada Boliviana, Av. Capitán Víctor Ustariz km 6,5 Cochabamba – Bolivia
b Fundación para la Promoción e Invesgación de Productos Andinos, Av. Meneces km 4
Cochabamba - Bolivia
c Fundación Miguel Lillo, Miguel Lillo 251 (4000) Tucumán - Argenna
d Centro de Promoción de Tecnologías Sostenibles, c. Prolongación Cordero 220 La Paz – Bolivia
The growth in global demand for quinoa has led to
an increase in producon in its areas of origin, as
well as its introducon in other regions. Most of the
increased producon is of variees and ecotypes
rich in saponins; these need to be removed from
the surface of the grain prior to consumpon, be-
cause of their annutrional properes and unde-
sirable organolepc qualies.
Industrial-scale innovaons have, therefore, been
introduced in the harvest and post-harvest phases
(including reaping or cung, placing in sheaves or
arcs, threshing, winnowing and cleaning of grains,
drying, selecon, storing, processing, manufactur-
ing of high value-added products, and direct use of
products), to replace tradional pracces that were
generally conceived for small-scale producon.
Successful producon of high commercial quality
grains depends to a large extent on what occurs
at harvesng. The mely introducon of mecha-
nized systems, such as mowers, blowers, winnow-
ers, threshers, brushes, and combined threshing
and siing equipment, on medium and large-sized
farms has various advantages over tradional man-
ual pracces. These technologies reduce impuries,
as well as damage to and loss of grains; they also
require less labour, which can be scarce in the farm-
ing areas. These systems have been introduced and
improved to migate the intrinsic, negave envi-
ronmental impacts.
In the processing stage, tradional saponin removal
methods have been improved, with the develop-
ment and use of industrial-scale equipment and
technology. Combined methods are most com-
monly used; they guarantee the nutrional quality
and morphological stability of the grain, and result
in a nal saponin content well below internaonal
standards. Such systems involve the removal of,
saponins in two stages: hulling and washing, fol-
lowed by centrifuging and drying of the grains.
In opmized processes, up to 95% of saponins
are eliminated in the hulling machine; the rest is
washed away with water.
The volumes of water needed are sll quite high,
generally above 5 m3/tonne of quinoa processed,
and the euent generated is contaminated with
saponins. Impuries, such as gravel, twigs, and
unripe, broken or dierent coloured grains, are re-
moved using sieves, sorters, spreaders, and mag-
nec or opcal systems. These systems are almost
always supplemented by manual work.
219
Market forces – combined with more stringent en-
vironmental standards, beer prices and limited
water resources in producon areas – will connue
to drive the development of increasingly ecient
and innovave equipment and technology. There
is a trend towards dry saponin removal methods;
they do not require water, and also allow the collec-
on of the saponins, which then fetch good prices
on the market because they can be used in various
areas of the industrial sector. Arsanal models for
dry processing of quinoa are being researched, but
further tests are needed before they can be pro-
posed at industrial level.
Quinoa-based foods have been a part of the diet
of Andean populaons for centuries. Thanks to its
nutrional qualies, quinoa is now used elsewhere
in a wide variety of derived products (our, akes,
popped seeds) or in blends with cereals, oleaginous
seeds and other foods (mixed our breads, noo-
dles, extruded products and gluten-free pasta). It
is hoped that the expansion of the quinoa market
will lead to the development of other derived prod-
ucts, such as protein concentrates and isolates, oils,
starches, and high value-added saponin derivaves.
According to the human nutrion standards dened
by the Food and Agricultural Organizaon of the
United Naons (FAO), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa
Willd.) is the only plant food that provides all essen-
al amino acids (Koziol 1992; González et al., 2012).
Not only does quinoa have high nutrional value, it
is also cheap to produce due to its broad genec vari-
ability and its capacity to adapt to dierent climate
and soil condions (Fundación PROINPA, 2011).
These characteriscs, combined with its mulple
possible uses, have led to an increasing global de-
mand for this strategic crop capable of contribung
to food sovereignty in various regions. Countries in
Europe, North America, Africa and Asia are aware
of this and have begun to culvate this Andean
grain (Jacobsen, 2003).
For example, between 2005 and 2012, the demand
for Bolivian quinoa in the United States of America
increased by 1120%, in France by 207%, and in Ger-
many by 361%. A total of 25 660 tonnes were ex-
ported, for a total value of USD78.9 million at a price
of USD3 075/tonne (INE, 2013). Producon of both
convenonal and organic quinoa has increased in
recent years to meet this demand. Figure 1 shows
that both the culvated surface area and produc-
on increased considerably between 1990 and 2010.
The area under quinoa quadrupled compared with
1970–1980, and had reached 69 970 ha by 2012.
Total quinoa producon also increased signicantly
from 23 240 tonnes in 2000 to 44 260 tonnes in 2012
(INE, 2013). Also, in Peru, according to the export-
ers’ associaon (La República, 2013), in 2012, quinoa
exports reached 10 402 tonnes and USD30.7 million,
23% more than in the previous year. Annual quinoa
producon was 39 398 tonnes in 2009 and increased
to 44 207 tonnes in 2012 (MINAG, 2013). These two
countries alone represent more than 90% of global
producon (Baudoin and Avitabile, 2013). Quinoa
producon in the Andean region of Ecuador (exports
941 tonnes, USD2 694/tonne), Chile and Argenna
is sll rather low (a few thousand tonnes per year).
To handle this increase in producon, various indus-
trial-scale innovaons have been introduced in the
harvest and post-harvest phases (including reap-
ing or cung, placing in sheaves or arcs, threshing,
winnowing and cleaning of grains, drying, selecon,
storage, processing, manufacturing of high value-
added products, and direct use of the product) to
replace tradional pracces inially conceived for
small-scale producon. The most signicant inno-
vaons in quinoa processing are in the area of sapo-
nin removal.
This chapter seeks to describe the state of the art
in current use of tradional pracces, as well as the
various technological innovaons developed for
the various harvest and post-harvest phases, with a
parcular emphasis on processing.
Culvated surface area, quinoa producon
and yield per hectare in Bolivia between 1970 and 2012
(Source: IBCE/FAOSTAT, 2012)
Thousands: hectares and metric tons
1970
Surface
Producon
Yield
1980
1990
2000
2010
2012
12.20
15.64
16.08
35.72
23.24
64.77
69.97
44.26
36,85
36.85
38,62
38.62
9.70
8,94
8.94
0.80
0.57
0.42
0.65
0.57
0.63
0
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
220
Quinoa is harvested when the plant reaches physio-
logical maturity, a state that is easily recognizable as
it changes colour, taking on a characterisc yellow,
reddish, pink, purple or black nt, depending on the
ecotype and/or variety. The state of maturity is con-
rmed by the hardness or resistance of the grain
when pressed under a ngernail. The grains must
be harvested within the recommended period in
the reproducve cycle, to avoid losses from thresh-
ing or aacks by birds, and to avoid a deterioraon
in grain quality as a result of unexpected rain, hail
or snow (Apaza et al., 2006).
Table 1 (Bonifacio et al., 2012) and Table 2 (Espín-
dola and Bonifacio, 1996) show the dierent phe-
notypic characteriscs (e.g. tassel colour and grain
colour) of various ‘Quinoa Real’ ecotypes grown in
the southern Alplano region of Bolivia, and of im-
proved variees, at the end of their respecve veg-
etave cycles, when they have reached physiologi-
cal maturity. Moisture content in the quinoa grain
at maturity is 10–13% and in the plant, 16–20%.
These characteriscs can help idenfy the right
me to harvest. Delaying the harvest by 2–3 weeks
could lead to signicant grain losses through wind-
induced threshing (chang between plants and tas-
sels), in addion to threshing when the plants are
cut and stacked in sheaves. Figure 2 shows ‘White
Quinoa Real’ and ‘Pink Quinoa Canchis’ at physi-
ological maturity.
Depending on the technology used, harvesng qui-
noa involves various stages. When harvesng is
done manually with staonary threshers, the steps
are: reaping or cung, placing in sheaves or arcs,
threshing, winnowing and cleaning of grains, dry-
ing, sorng, bagging and storage. When it is mecha-
nized, using combine harvesters, reaping, thresh-
ing, and winnowing are done simultaneously, fol-
lowed by sorng, bagging and storage.
2.1. Uproong and reaping
Grains may be reaped manually in dierent ways.
According to a survey carried out in the southern
Alplano in 2008, 57% of producers uprooted the
plants, 42% used a sickle and 2% used a motorized
mower (Aroni et al., 2009).
Uproong plants is an ancestral pracce, especially
used in areas with sandy soil. With this method, the
lumps of soil that generally sck to the roots of the
plant are partly removed by careful shaking or by
lightly rubbing the roots together. The plants are
then deposited on the ground in sheaves.
The mature plant may be reaped or mowed 10–15
cm above the surface of the land. Parts of the stem
and the roots remain in the soil to protect it from
erosion, and are subsequently converted into or-
ganic maer through a natural composng process
(Aroni et al., 2009). Quinoa producers are gradually
adopng the pracce of using sickles, hoes or me-
chanical mowers for reaping. These slight innova-
ons result in a signicant reducon in contamina-
on of the grain with sand, small stones and soil,
which is extremely important for subsequent pro-
: (a) “White Quinoa Real” at physiological
maturity (Palaya, Potosí); (b) “Pink Quinoa Canchis”
at physiological maturity (Chacala, Potosí) (Fundación
PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
221
: Characteriscs of improved variees of quinoa at physiological maturity
Achachino 180 Creamy red Red White
Chuku Puñete 172 Cream Cream White
Mok’o Rosado 172 Pink Pink White
Negra 172 Black Black Black
Pandela 175 Pink Pink White
Pisankalla 170 Reddish mocha Reddish mocha Cafe
K’ellu 172 Burnished gold Burnished gold White
K’ellu 176 Grey Grey Cafe
Real Blanca 171 Tobacco Tobacco White
Rosa Blanca 178 Pinkish grey Pinkish tobacco White
Timsa 180 Cream Cream White
Toledo 181 Orange red Pinkish mocha White
Tres Hermanos 176 Blend Blend White
Huallata 176 Blend Blend White
Chillpi Blanco 156 Cream Cream Crystalline
Kairoja 164 Pink Pink White
Lipeña 163 White Tobacco White
Manzano 167 Reddish mocha Reddish mocha White
Mok’o 161 Cream Cream White
Quinua Roja 164 Reddish mocha Reddish mocha White
Señora 161 Cream Cream so White
Utusaya 165 Light cream Cream White
Wila Jipina 155 Cream pink So cream pink White
Cariquimeña 144 Cream Cream White
Mañiqueña 143 Cream Cream White
Canchis Amarillo 144 Pale yellow Light yellow White
Canchis Rosado 147 Pink Pink White
(Source: Bonifacio et al., 2012)
cessing of the grain. Figure 3 illustrates reaping with
a sickle and with a manually operated mechanical
mower.
Another task during harvest is sorng out atypical
plants, in parcular those with dierent seed co-
lours, to avoid blends that reduce both quality and
price. For example, in order to meet the Bolivian
standard NB NA0038 of ≤ 1% of grains of another
colour (IBNORCA, 2007), any plants with mocha or
black grains must be removed if it is a white grain
variety. Similarly, when it is a black or red-coloured
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
222 Characteriscs of some improved variees at physiological maturity
Kurmi 170 Pink White White
Blanquita 176 Cream to white White White
Sajama 160 Yellowish cream White White
Chucapaca 160 Light pink Grayish white White
Surumi 165 Light pink Light pink White
Innayra 165 Deep yellow Yellow White
Sayaña 165 Grainy So yellow White
Jacha Grano 135 Light yellow White White
Aynoq’a 140 Cream White White
Horizontes 140 Cream White White
Patacamaya 147 Pink White White
Kosuña 150 Cream White White
(Source: Espíndola and Bonifacio, 1996)
variety, care must be taken to avoid the presence of
white grains. Even when cered and/or selected
seeds are used, there are almost always some atypi-
cal plants that could lead to undesirable blends.
This phenomenon is the result of the natural ge-
nec segregaon that occurs in quinoa.
If plants are reaped a few weeks aer their physi-
ological maturity, there is a higher probability of
grain loss during this exercise. In this case, it is rec-
ommended to harvest them during the morning
hours when there is sll dew on the plant, because
the mature quinoa plant is highly hygroscopic and
retains humidity.
(a) Reaping plants with a sickle (Palaya, Potosí); (b) Reaping plants with a mower (Palaya, Potosí) (Courtesy
of: Fundación PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
223
2.2. Sheaving
Sheaving quinoa involves piling together the reaped
plants in arcs or spikes to let the plants and panicles
dry. It is thus possible to avoid wastage of the har-
vested plant due to adverse climac events, such as
unseasonal rains and hail that could leave marks on
the grain (León, 2003; Apaza et al., 2006).
There is a wide range of forms and methods of sheav-
ing. The most common is to make small heaps within
the plot; another is to make linear sheaves with the
panicles to one side, or circular sheaves with the
panicles turned inwards. The most commonly used
method in the southern Alplano is to form an arc
with the plants aached in the form of an “X” and
the panicles poinng upwards. This form of sheav-
ing allows for proper airing, and the drying process is
much faster than with other methods. The sheaves
must remain in the eld no longer than necessary, to
avoid further aacks by rodents and birds.
Linear, circular and arc sheaving all allow the har-
vest to be protected against late rains, as the up-
per part of the sheaves (panicles) are covered with
polyethylene. If this is not done carefully, signicant
losses can occur as a result of seeds germinang
within the panicle aer being moistened by the
rain. Figure 4 shows linear and cross sheaves.
2.3 Threshing
Threshing involves separang the grain from the
panicle (glomerulus) (Calla and Cortez, 2011). Prior
to threshing, it is important to check that the mois-
ture content of the grain is ≤ 15%. (Apaza et al.,
2006). The method adopted for threshing depends
on the available machinery and the local topography.
Tradional threshing can sll be observed in places
where quinoa is produced on slopes (Figure 5a) – the
“huajtana”, a stout baton, is used to beat the pani-
cles and remove the grains. In the plains, threshing is
done with successive runs by a tractor (Figure 5b) or
other vehicle, or using staonary threshers. Tractors
and other vehicles are used for threshing on tarpau-
lins spread out on a raised threshing oor (plaorm).
The tarpaulin must cover the enre surface to avoid
the tyres of the vehicle coming into constant contact
with the soil and/or sand, which would result in
contaminaon of the grain.
For threshing on a raised plaorm, the dry plants
are laid out in two parallel lines, generally with the
heads turned inwards (Figure 6a). The gap between
the rows is the same width as the gauge or the dis-
tance between the tyres of the vehicle. As the vehi-
cle moves back and forth over the rows of panicles,
the grain is separated from the heads. The cha
is gradually removed using rakes and is deposited
outside the plaorm. This operaon is repeated
several mes unl a parally cleaned grain is ob-
tained, although it may sll be mixed with debris
from the plant.
2.3.1. Threshing machines
Various types of staonary threshers have been
tested in recent years, including the Vencedora (Fig-
ure 6b) and the Alban Blach. They have not been
: (Le) Line-cut black quinoa sheaves (Chacala, Potosí); (Right) Sheaves crossed to facilitate drying (Rio Grande,
Potosí) (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
224
(a) Threshing quinoa with a truck (Chacala, Potosí); (b) The Vencedor thresher (Villa Esperanza, Potosí)
(Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
widely adopted, however, because they are quite
costly and tend to result in a high level of grain
breakage (Aroni et al., 2009).Other types of ma-
chines are currently being promoted, including:
The TR-C thresher
The TR-C thresher (Figure 7) was developed by the
FAUTAPO Foundaon and the Mechanized Agricul-
ture Research, Training and Extension Centre (CI-
FEMA) (Aroni et al., 2009). The machine comprises a
huller and a system of sieves that separate the thick
parts of the plant from the grain. Because this ma-
chine is smaller than other, similar machines, it can
be carried on a light vehicle (small truck, culvator
etc.). The machine is easy to use, also for women. It
has an easy–to-manoeuvre, low-consumpon (5.5
hp and 1 litre/h) gasoline engine; it includes two
exchangeable sieves, and its yield is 276–368 kg/h
(CIFEMA, 2006).
MASEMA FAUTAPO I Thresher
This machine was nanced by the FAUTAPO foun-
daon of Bolivia and the PRONORTE foundaon
of Salta, Argenna. It was constructed by students
at the Universidad Tecnológica Nacional Regional
Córdoba, and tested in Uyuni (Figure 8, Turismo Ru-
ral Comunitario, 2013). The thresher uses a conven-
onal transverse rotaonal cylinder equipped with
plasc and rubber millstones, where the stems are
separated and the fruit or grain of the plant is sepa-
rated from its owers. The grains and cha are sep-
arated using two moving siers; the rst of these,
(a) Tradional quinoa threshing on slopes (Miraores, Potosí); (b) Threshing using a tractor (Palaya, Potosí)
(Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
225
The TR-C Thresher (Source: CIFEMA 2006) The MASEMA FAUTAPO thresher/winnower
(Source: Turismo Rural Comunitario 2013)
commonly known as a “sacapaja” (straw remover),
removes the larger pieces and only the grains or
pieces with a diameter of < 3 mm pass through the
second sier unl the last stage of separaon. The
grains are then winnowed and sorted by size, and
small bits of owers and straw are removed. This is
done using a fan and a wind tunnel, where grains
are selected according to size and weight and the
lighter bits of grain are blown out of the machine.
The prototype includes triphase electrical engines
for each funcon, making it possible to adjust the
specic capacity at each stage of the sorng pro-
cess. Each stage has a speed control, and the en-
ergy source is an Oo cycle convenonal electric-
ity generator. Field tests showed no deterioraon
in grains. There is however a need to make some
adjustments to the winnowing phase.
Modied Vencedora thresher
The Vencedora thresher is a Brazilian machine that
yields 320 kg/h. In the Alplano, it needs to be
pulled by a tractor transported on a truck. It is not
parcularly suited to the condions of small-scale
producers with dispersed plots. It was, therefore,
adapted locally in 2007 to reduce its size, while
maintaining the threshing and fanning funcons
(Figure 9). The machine was tested in the northern
and central Alplano regions in Bolivia. It yielded
180–210 kg/h, with an eciency of 85% grain and
15% cha (leaves and crushed pedicels) (Aroni et
al., 2009).
Tubular thresher
The tubular thresher (Figure 10) developed by the
Foundaon for Promoon and Research on Andean
Products (PROINPA) is a very light machine with an
independent power take-o; it can be transported
on a pick-up truck. Its components comprise: load-
ing plaorm, thresher body, grain outlet sorter,
cha outlet, engine base, 5 hp gasoline engine, and
collector for the grain aer threshing. Its service life
is > 10 years.
The tubular thresher has an average yield of 95
kg/h in processing quinoa grains, with 15% husks
separated from the grain by the winnowing fan.
The outlet sieve gives almost clean grain, minimiz-
ing the need for the successive siing required with
The modied Vencedora thresher (Source: Fun-
dación PROINPA 2008)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
226
other threshers. Table 3 shows the yields obtained
with mechanized threshing of three quinoa variet-
ies (Fundación PROINPA, 2008).
2.4 Siing or sieving
Siing or sieving consists of separang the grain
from the cha, which includes bits of leaf, small
stones, pedicels, inorescences and small twigs
(Apaza et al., 2006). The sieves used for this manual
task generally measure 0.80 × 1.50 m and are made
of mesh or of wood drilled with 3.5–4 mm holes.
Operators shake them back and forth to separate
the grain and the husks from the cha. Siing is a
very tedious and dusty task (Figure 11). The wind
can be a help or a hindrance depending on how
hard it blows.
2.5. Winnowing
Winnowing involves the removal of small, light
impuries. In tradional pracces, wind energy is
used, while mechanized winnowers use a blower or
fan.
Tradional winnowing is done manually, using a
tray or other recipient to collect a poron of si-
ed quinoa, which is then poured out in a stream,
transverse to the direcon of the wind. Since this
method depends on the wind – variability of direc-
on and intensity – it is not very ecient, the grain
obtained is heterogeneous and not all impuries
are removed.
Improved winnowing methods use mechanical win-
nowers, operated either manually or by engine
power. These winnowers generate a regular air cur-
rent with rotang blades, and are equipped with a
receiving hopper where a constant, regulated quan-
ty of grain is poured (Figure 12). These machines
are relavely cheap. Their most important charac-
terisc, however, is that they are not dependent
on the wind and can be used for winnowing at any
me of the year. They yield about 500–800 kg/h. By
2008, roughly 77% of the southern Alplano farm-
ers in Oruro, and 14% in Potosí were using mechani-
cal winnowers (Aroni et al., 2009).
Figure 13 shows the motorized winnower at work
on the harvest (grain + husks + cha). This improved
yield machine (1 600 kg/h) was built by Consultora
y Taller Mecánico Aroni in Uyuni, Bolivia. The win-
nower includes a mechanism that separates the
cha, in addion to winnowing.
V-M winnower
The receiving hopper of the V-M winnower includes
a rotary cylinder that ensures that the quinoa grains
are fed in connually and also that the smaller quinoa
grains are recovered during the winnowing process.
Tubular thresher yield with three variees of quinoa
Línea Purpura 50 16 34 10 96
Jacha Grano 56 19 37 12 95
Surumi 33 11 22 7 94
(Source: Fundación PROINPA 2008)
Tubular thresher (Source: Fundación PROINPA
2008)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
227
This machine, which is ideal for the working condi-
ons in Bolivia, has a 5 hp, 1 litre/h diesel engine
and is capable of processing 600–650 kg of grain
and fragments per hour at the ideal blade rotaon
speed of 550–600 rpm (CIFEMA, 2007).
2.6 Combine harvesters
During the 2012/13 crop year, two types of engine-
driven combine harvester were tested in Challapata
and El Choro, in the Oruro district in Bolivia. The
CLAAS and DIMA harvesters (Figure 15) are small-
er models, designed for working on medium- and
small-sized plots. This type of harvester does the
shearing, threshing, siing, and cleaning simul-
taneously and avoids contaminaon with impuri-
es. Following the trials, it was seen that there was
scope for improvement both in crop management
and in the equipment itself.
In terms of crop management, improvements can be
made in several areas: soil preparaon (in parcular
in levelling or matching); appropriate sowing den-
sity; and use of variees with a simple growth habit,
homogeneous crop maturity, producing plants with
a single panicle. The shearing system used by the
machines also needs to be adjusted to reduce the
high percentage of losses resulng from shaering
and shorn panicles that remain on the ground.
2.7 Transport
Quinoa is transported from producon zones to
storage areas using various types of vehicle: pick-
ups, trucks, tractors etc. (Figure 16).
Secondary roads provide access for vehicles to the
growing areas in the plains and highlands, facilitat-
ing the transfer of the bags of grain to storage de-
pots in the quinoa-producing communies.
2.8. Storage in harvest areas
Storage involves ensuring that the grain remains
clean for a given period of me, and preserving
grain quality (Calla and Cortez, 2011). Every year,
there are more storage facilies on farmers’ own
premises to meet the requirements of organic pro-
ducon and food safety. Storehouses must be con-
structed according to set specicaons regarding
the materials. The construcon must have the right
environmental condions (temperature and hu-
(a) Siing (Chacala, Potosí); (b) Siing on a slope (Palaya, Potosí) (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
Winnowing quinoa (Salinas de Garci Men-
doza, Oruro) (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
228
Quinoa cleaning and winnowing with a stalk
shredder (Palaya, Potosí) (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
midity), facilitate cleaning and provide protecon
from rodents and other animals that could cause
contaminaon. Figure 17 shows a storehouse con-
structed with brick walls and the inside of another
depot with gypsum wall coangs and a cement
oor, both of which are appropriate for ensuring
cleanliness.
It is worth nong here, in this secon on harvest,
that the CPTS has developed a range of technolo-
gies based on cleaner producon principles for
quinoa culvaon in the arid lands of the Bolivian
Alplano. Technologies include seed drills, fumiga-
tors–liquid ferlizer dispensers–sprinklers, harvest-
ers, solar-powered dryers, and threshers–winnow-
ers–seed sorters. The machines have reached the
nal prototype stage and are currently being tested
in conjuncon with appropriate agricultural meth-
ods, prior to moving on to commercial producon.
Grains are not uniform in size aer harvesng and
winnowing. On average, grain size varies between
1.4 and 2 mm in diameter, and the grain contains
impuries (especially cha residue, twigs, leaves,
and small stones, as well as broken, damaged, co-
loured, germinated, covered, and unripe seeds).
Quinoa is processed to obtain grains that meet
quality standards in terms of size, impuries or ex-
traneous material and sasfy bromatological and
microbiological requirements (IBNORCA, 2007).
The grains therefore have to undergo a series of
processes including: preliminary sorng and re-
The V-M Winnower (Source: CIFEMA 2007)
(a) CLAAS combine harvester (Challapata, Oruro) (Bretel, 2013); (b) DIMA combine harvester (El Choro,
Oruro) (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
229
(a) Quinoa being transported (Palaya, Potosí); (b) Quinoa transported by tractor (Palaya, Potosí) (Courtesy
of: Fundación PROINPA)
(a) Construcon of a quinoa depot, PAR project (Bella Vista, Potosí); (b) Farmers’ organizaon quinoa
warehouse (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
moval of impuries; saponin removal, which is nor-
mally carried out using both hulling (dry method)
and washing (wet method); drying; sorng by size;
separang of dierent coloured grains; and removal
of residual impuries.
3.1 Preliminary sorng and removal of impuries
Before being transported to the processing plant,
generally in 100-kg bags made of polypropylene or
other materials, the inial product is sorted using
simple sieves made of a plate perforated with 3 mm
diameter openings and a woven mesh with a spac-
ing of 1.2 mm between the threads (Quiroga et al.,
2010). The processing speed is 100 kg every 2–3
minutes. The machine runs on a 1.5 hp motor. The
sorng process generates ve products:
• Parculate maer (mainly dust and saponins)
• Light, coarse impuries (twigs, leaves)
• First grade grain (grain with a diameter of > 2.2
mm) (90–95%)
• Second grade grain (grain with a diameter of <
2.2 mm)
• Heavy impuries (stones)
Parculate maer is discharged into the atmo-
sphere, impuries are discarded, and second grade
quinoa is either returned to the farmer or pur-
chased at a lower price at the same me as the rst
grade. Both products are weighed on a scale.
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
230 Some processing companies are equipped with
the CIFEMA grain sorter (CIFEMA, 2013) or with
similar prototypes that sort the grain by size using
two sets of dierent-sized, interchangeable sieves,
which can also be used to sort dierent variees of
quinoa. The sorter (Figure 18) runs on a 5 hp die-
sel engine and has a processing capacity of 700–
1 000 kg/h. The sieves measure 60 × 100 cm, and
are equipped with a mesh with 2 and 1 mm
openings.
Once the quinoa has been purchased, it is stored
in 100-kg bags of plasc or other materials in fa-
cilies that are capable of processing hundreds of
tonnes of grain each month. Some large processing
plants use metal silos (Figure 19), to avoid rodents
and moths.
3.2 Saponin removal
The process of removing saponins is one of the
most important stages in grain processing and in re-
cent years, various appropriate technologies have
been developed for removing saponins to levels
within the acceptable limits, without aecng the
grain’s nutrional properes.
This secon aims to: demonstrate the progress
made in saponin removal; describe the main tech-
nologies currently adopted by quinoa processing
companies; and outline the chemical and funcon-
al characteriscs of saponins, and their concentra-
on and localizaon in the grain structure.
3.2.1 Saponins
At least 20 dierent types of saponin have been
idened in quinoa (Kuljanabhagavad et al., 2008).
These chemical compounds include various mono-
saccharide units that are aached via a glycosidic
bond to a triterpene skeleton, known as an aglycone
or sapogenin. Depending on the number of saccha-
ride chains in the structure, they may be classied
as mono-, di- or tridemosidic. Monodesmosidic sa-
ponins contain a single saccharide chain, generally
located in C-3. Bidesmosidic saponins contain two
saccharide chains, one of them generally aached
by an ether bond to C-3, and the other aached to
C-18 or C-26 by an ester bond. The most common
monosaccharides are D-glucose, D-galactose, D-
glucuronic acid, D-galacturonic acid, L-rhamnose, L-
arabinose, D-xylose and D-fructose. Four aglycones
Storage silos at the Complejo Industrial y Tec-
nológico Yanapasiñani S.R.L. (CITY) Company. (Courtesy
of: UPB).
Grain sorter (Source: CIFEMA, 2013)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
231
have been idened in quinoa saponins: oleonolic
acid, phytolaccagenic acid, hederagenin (Ridout
et al., 1991; Ng et al., 1994; Ahamed et al., 1998).
Some authors count serjanic acid as the fourth agly-
cone (Madl et al., 2006), while others consider it to
be spergulagenic acid (Kuljanabhagavad and Wink,
2009).
Saponins in the quinoa seed are located in the rst
external coat of the episperm, which is itself made
up of four layers (Villacorta and Talavera, 1976; Pra-
do et al., 1996; Jiménez et al., 2010). This external
coat is rough, brile and dry, and can be partly re-
moved using abrasive methods or by washing with
cold water. Removal improves considerably when
warm water or alkaline or acid soluons are used.
Figure 20 shows the various parts of the quinoa
seed and the layers of the episperm.
The physicochemical and biological properes of
saponins have been used in many commercial ap-
plicaons in the food, cosmecs, agricultural and
pharmaceucal sectors (Ahamed et al., 1998). De-
spite being considered as annutrional substance
(like tannins, phyc acid and protease inhibitors,
Ruales, 1992), and although it has a negave ef-
fect on red blood cell levels in blood types A and O
(González et al., 1989), there is scienc proof of
their benecial health eects due to their ancar-
cinogenic properes (Güçlü-Üstündağ and Mazza,
2007) and cholesterol lowering eect (Taka et al.,
2005). Some studies have also demonstrated their
anfungal properes (Woldemichael and Wink,
2001; Stuardo and San Marn, 2008).
In current characterizaons, various quinoa variet-
ies and ecotypes are designated as “bier”, “semi-
sweet” and “sweet”. This classicaon is based on
saponin content, which is generally 0–3% in dry
grains. Saponin content in “bier” grains is 1–3%,
in “sweet” grains 0.0–0.1%, and in “semi-sweet”
grains 0.1–1% (Güçlü-Üstündağ and Mazza, 2007).
Other authors believe that a variety or ecotype may
be considered “sweet” if the saponin content is 20–
40 mg/100 g dry weight, and “bier” if the saponin
content is > 470 mg/100 g dry weight (Mastebroek
et al., 2000).
The only real proxy for determining if a type of qui-
noa may be classied as “sweet” is its organolepc
acceptability for human consumpon, which varies
between 0.06 and 0.12%. This is in line with the re-
sults obtained at the Universidad de Ambato (Ecua-
dor), which indicated that the maximum acceptable
limit of saponin content in the cooked grain is 0.1%
(Nieto and Soria, 1991).
3.2.2 Bier and sweet quinoa genotypes
Aempts have been made to obtain low saponin
content variees, for example, through conven-
onal genec selecon. The ‘Sajama’ variety, which
is considered “sweet”, was obtained through selec-
on, as were ‘Kurmi’, ‘Aynoq’a’, ‘K’osuña’ and ‘Blan-
quita’ in Bolivia (grain size around 2 mm), ‘Blanca
de Junin’ in Peru and ‘Tunkahuán’ in Ecuador.
SEM micrograph, principle parts of ‘White Quinoa Real’ ecotype seed (Source: Quiroga et al., 2011)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
232 In convenonal improvement, two selected pro-
genitors are arcially crossed and the rst gen-
eraons are then selected individually, followed
by combined mass and individual selecon in later
generaons (Fundación PROINPA, 2005). Although
it is a predominantly autogamous species, cross-
breeding may sll occur. This means that in crop-
ping, even low saponin content variees and eco-
types could once again display a high saponin con-
tent. Nevertheless, with proper crop management
techniques, saponin levels could be guaranteed
over me, for example, by avoiding cross-breeding
with “bier” quinoa variees and/or ecotypes.
Gandarillas (1979) suggested that the presence or
absence of saponins in quinoa might be controlled
by a locus (or loci). Using hybridizaon and pedi-
gree selecon, Ward (2000) aempted to reduce
saponin content by taking into account the fact that
F6 progeny could be highly homozygous. However,
it was found that aer three pedigree selecon cy-
cles, the saponin content in plants with < 1 mg/g of
saponins had increased by 3.57% in S1 and 11% in
S4. These results led to the conclusion that, since
this is an allotetraploid species with occasional re-
combinaon between homologous chromosomes,
it is dicult to reduce the saponin content. Just the
fact that there are over 20 types of saponin in exis-
tence (Kuljanabhagavad et al., 2008), suggests that
a considerable number of loci may be involved in
producing the various saponin levels detected. To
a certain extent, this indicates that achieving ho-
mozygosis is not feasible, or at least would require
greater knowledge about the genecs of the spe-
cies. This conclusion was somewhat foreshadowed
in the works of Risi and Galwey (1989) and Jacobsen
et al. (1996), who reported that since saponin con-
tent was a connuous distribuon variable, it might
be subject to polygenec control. It should be men-
oned, however, that these studies did not specify
the type of material used and whether it was a pop-
ulaon that included “sweet” and “bier” quinoa
variees and/or ecotypes in varying proporons, as
expected in normal distribuon.
The link between the presence or absence of sapo-
nins and enhanced resistance to certain pests has
led some researchers to invesgate the role of sa-
ponins in the plant. Evidence of its protecve capac-
ity has to date come from observaons in the eld,
in parcular in the northern, central and southern
Alplano regions of Bolivia, where – depending on
the degree of humidity and the variees and eco-
types of quinoa culvated – it is possible to study
the presence or absence of saponins and how this
relates to known pests.
Table 4 shows some of the quinoa variees and
ecotypes culvated in the Andean region and their
saponin levels (Miranda, 2010; Ward, 2000). They
include the ‘Quinoa Real’ ecotypes found in the Bo-
livian southern Alplano region, which are in high
demand and obtain good prices on the internaon-
al market because of their grain size (Bonifacio et
al., 2012). Figure 21 shows the crop on the farm.
The list also includes some variees currently being
grown in Europe (Pulvento et al., 2010).
All of the above consideraons have led to the
development of agro-industrial processing for sa-
ponin removal (Bacigalupo and Tapia, 2000).
“BlackQuinoa Real” ecotype at physiological
maturity, “bier” quinoa (Courtesy of: Fundación PRO-
INPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
233
In the Andean region, most of the tradional vari-
ees and ecotypes of quinoa are bier and need
to be hulled, washed and/or roasted, according to
the end use, namely, for producon of our, soups,
drinks, popped quinoa etc. (Alcocer, 2010). Table 5
describes the dierent stages and processing mes
for quinoa, according to its end use.
In some communities in the salt marsh areas of
Uyuni and Coipasa in Bolivia, dry methods are used
to remove saponins. In other communies (Cha-
cala, Potosí), however, both dry and wet methods
are used and the work is generally done by wom-
en. Quinoa grains are roasted in a metal container
(bateas) for approximately 30–40 minutes, unl
they are golden brown. Removing moisture from
the grain makes the episperm more fragile and fa-
cilitates its removal. While the roasted quinoa is sll
warm, it is mixed with an abrasive clay material ex-
tracted in the Llica region and known as “pojkera”
and then trodden for 30–60 minutes on a rough
stone surface known as a “saruna” or “tarquinaso”.
A large percentage of saponins are removed during
this stage.
Subsequently, the rest of the episperm and the
abrasives are winnowed away from the grain for
20–40 minutes. In the nal stage of saponin re-
Examples of some quinoa variees and ecotypes, classied as “sweet”, “semi-sweet” and “bier” (Source:
Miranda, 2010; Ward, 2000; Bonifacio et al., 2012; Pulvento et al., 2010) aPrincipal producon is ‘White Real’
white, ‘Toledo’, ‘Phisanqalla’ (red- or mocha-coloured grain) and ‘Ch’iara’ (black grain)
Aynoq´a (Alplano Central de Bolivia) Chukapaca (Bolivia) Horizontes (Bolivia)
Blanquita (northern Alplano, Bolivia and
the transional zone between northern
Alplano and Central)
Kamiri (Bolivia) Real (southern Alplano, Bolivia)a
Huaranga (Bolivia) Boliviana Jujuy Amarilla de Marangani (Peru)
Kancolla (Bolivia) Regalona Baer (Chile) CICA (Peru y Argenna)
K’osuña (southern and central Alplano,
Bolivia) KVLQ520Y (Denmark)
Kurmi (northern and central Alplano,
Bolivia) Cochasqui
Ratuqui (Bolivia) Huatzontle
Robura (Bolivia) Imbaya
Sajama (Bolivia) Witulla
Samaran (Bolivia)
Sayaña (Bolivia)
Ingapirca (Ecuador)
Tunkahuán (Ecuador)
Blanca de Juli (Puno, Peru)
Blanca de Junin (Junin, Peru)
Chewenca
Illpa INIA
Nariño
Pasankalla
Witulla
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
234 Saponin removal on quinoa grain according to end use. aThe data relate to processing of approximately
11 kg of quinoa. bRoasted and ground quinoa cLightly roasted and ground quinoa. dQuinoa cooked in a light broth
with meat or dried beef, tubers and vegetables. eSteam-cooked rolls made with quinoa our, similar to tamales or
humitas, with some dressing in the centre.
a
e
Roasng 29 36 33 36
Treading 24 60 40 60
Winnowing 20 40 40 40
Washing 25 35 30 35
Drying 180 180 180
Winnowing 10 10 10
Roasng-Milling 90 0 0 0
moval, and of removal of impuries such as small
stones and seeds collected during harvest, the qui-
noa grains are washed in various stages over 25–35
minutes. The euent is inspected visually to check
for foam formaon, the quality control parameter.
When the euent is clear of foam, this indicates
that the saponins have been removed. Finally, the
quinoa is dried for 2–4 hours, unl the nal mois-
ture content is about 18%. Depending on what it
is to be used for, the grain may somemes be win-
nowed and roasted again (Figure 22).
The saponin removal process used in Argenna in
the region close to the Chilean border (Santa Catali-
na, Jujuy) is very similar to the one described above.
In the northeast, however, saponin is tradionally
removed simply by washing. A certain quanty of
grain (5–10 kg) is placed in 50-kg bags made of cloth
or synthec materials. The bag is then submerged
in the water of a river and/or a brook and, held at
both ends, it is moved up and down so that the
grains rub together. The water helps the saponins
dissolve and they are washed downstream. The
movement is repeated unl there is no longer any
foam in the water. The grains are then dried on zinc
sheets laid outside.
In Peru and Ecuador, saponins are tradionally re-
moved from quinoa mainly using the wet method,
i.e. manual washing with a large amount of water
on an abrasive (stone) surface unl the outer layers
of the grain are removed (Nieto and Valdivia, 2001).
Tradional saponin removal takes me and eort.
For example, in the quinoa-producing zones of the
Bolivian Alplano, it takes 3–6 hours to clean ap-
proximately 11 kg of quinoa. Such techniques are
appropriate for small quanes of quinoa, for ex-
ample, for family consumpon.
(b) Modern saponin removal systems
For many years, quinoa processing companies used
or adapted machines, equipment and technology
inially developed for processing rice, wheat, soy-
bean and sorghum. The low volumes of producon,
compared with these other crops, and the existence
of only a small number of milling companies glob-
ally, provided lile incenve for developing specic
machines, equipment and technology for this sector.
In the last 10 years, however, quinoa has experi-
enced a quiet boom: once a product consumed
solely by the farmers growing it in the Alplano and
Inter-Andean valleys, it has become a global, high
commercial value crop culvated in extensive areas,
not only in the countries where it originated, but
in others where it has been introduced. This phe-
nomenon is mainly due to: the increased demand
for gluten-free cereals from the 0.4% of the world
populaon that suer from coeliac disease; the in-
creased demand for high quality, aordable organic
products; and the implementaon of ecient food
programmes in various countries by organizaons
such as FAO (Birbuet and Machicado, 2009).
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
235
There has also been a rising demand for appropri-
ate machines, equipment and technologies to meet
the parcular requirements and characteriscs of
quinoa. Machines need to increase eciency and
processing capacity while being economically ac-
cessible for processing companies. Various teams
of researchers and technicians have begun work on
new, innovave opons.
Tradional, arsanal saponin removal pro-
cess (Bolivian Alplano): roasng, treading, winnowing,
washing and drying (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
Bacigalupo and Tapia (2000) carried out an excel-
lent review of the mechanized processes used in
removing quinoa saponins in the Andean region
(Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador), with a descripon of
the various processes and conguraons devel-
oped since 1950, both as pilot projects and on an
industrial scale. They compared the advantages
and disadvantages of the wet, dry and combined
methods with respect to the eects on nutrional
quality of the processed grain, eecve saponin re-
moval, water and energy consumpon and the cost
of these processes.
Among the dry methods, two studies in parcular
stand out: i) the 1980 Torres and Minaya huller, with
95% eciency and a grain saponin content of 0.04–
0.25%, depending on the quinoa variety or ecotype
processed; and ii) the dry method connuous ow
prototype developed in Ecuador by Valdivieso and
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
236 Rivadeneira in 1992, where the grain saponin con-
tent in 75 kg/h bier quinoa batches was reduced
to 0.026% and broken grain was reduced to 1.5%.
Among the wet methods, the Huarina project
stands out. In 1983, Reggiardo and Rodríguez de-
veloped a pilot washing system with three stages:
soaking, centrifuging and rinsing, followed by dry-
ing in a tunnel of warm air; this produced a good
quality grain that was well accepted on the Bolivian
market.
Finally, among the combined methods (hulling,
washing and drying), the process developed by
Derpic in 1988 stands out. This method is charac-
terized by its eciency in removing the hulled layer
(65%), the low amount of moisture absorbed by
the grain during washing (17–30%), which makes it
easier to dry, and the low saponin concentraon in
the euent, which migates the possible environ-
mental eects of the combined method (although,
since saponins are soluble in water, they are not
removed from the euents). The work done by Za-
valeta (1982) contributed greatly to understanding
how saponins are extracted using this method. The
authors recommend hulling for sweet variees and
the combined method for variees with a high sa-
ponin content, because this method uses less wa-
ter, ensures good protein quality in the processed
grain, uses a minimum amount of energy and costs
lile.
In industry, most processing companies currently
prefer the combined method, because it eciently
removes saponins and maintains grain quality, thus
sasfying internaonal requirements, in parcular
for organic ‘Quinoa Real’. The Bolivian Naonal As-
sociaon of Quinoa Producers has had a vital role in
promong the industry, resulng in the processing
of larger volumes.
This secon describes and analyses recent innova-
ons based on previous experience and developed
mainly since 2000. They apply Cleaner Producon
criteria in the design and operaon of the hulling,
washing and drying phases. Other innovaons in
dry processing at laboratory and semi-industrial
level are also described, as well as small-scale de-
velopments in combined systems.
Medium-scale systems
In the 1980s, a small-scale Tangenal Abrasive De-
hulling Device was developed in Canada to simulate
the abrasive acon of industrial hullers (Reichhert
et al., 1986). The authors reported 85–95% sapo-
nin removal achieved for quinoa. The equipment
(designed for hulling also other seeds) comprises a
horizontally rotang abrasive wheel, with a staon-
ary plate holding eight stainless steel boomless
cups, mounted vercally on the rotang wheel. A
rubber ed lid is used to cover the cups when the
machine is operated. Wedges are used to adjust the
space between the rotang disc and the cups where
the grains are fed, so that hulls, broken grains and
ne parcles are blown by a fan into a container at-
tached to the huller. The hulled grains are collected
by means of a vacuum aspirang device (Opoku et
al., 2003).
In Argenna, industrial blenders/mixers adapted for
grain washing are used to process greater volumes
of seeds. Operang at low rotaonal speeds, they
have a processing capacity of 10–20 kg for each
30-minute wash. The seeds are subsequently dried
in tunnels used for drying pepper – aerial hothous-
es with a polyethylene oor and ceiling to create a
dierenal heang eect. The two ends of the tun-
nel are open so that the air can enter and exit easily.
As part of a project in Bolivia aimed at facilitang
quinoa processing and consumpon and improv-
ing the nutrional status of rural quinoa-producing
communies in the southern Alplano, a small-
scale saponin removal machine was developed,
with the capacity to process 12 kg in 7 minutes
using the tradional method of roasng, hulling,
winnowing, washing and drying – processes which
could take women up to 12 hours to complete
(Astudillo, 2007). The operaon of the machine was
demonstrated in various areas and it was quite well
accepted by rural women.
To promote quinoa consumpon among producing
families in the southern Alplano in Bolivia, follow-
ing a drasc reducon in consumpon as a result
of changing dietary habits, poor arsanal saponin
removal methods and high prices on the interna-
onal market, in 2008, the Rowland company built
a small capable of processing 45 kg of quinoa per
hour. PROINPA promoted the use of this equipment
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
237
among producers in Chacala, Chita and other areas.
The equipment weighs 30 kg and measures 70 cm
(length) × 30 cm (width) × 80 cm (height). It runs
on an electric engine (or gasoline, for those areas
where there is no electricity). The smallest gasoline
engine on the market is a 5.5 hp engine, but this
machine only uses 0.5 hp, which corresponds to
gasoline consumpon of 0.25 litres/h. The quinoa
grains are fed in through a 30° inclined receiving
hopper before passing through a cylindrical huller
(15 cm long and 60 cm wide) with a 2 × 6 cm inlet
and outlet.
In the huller, the grains rub against each other and
against the walls of the cylinder while they are trans-
ported by a constantly moving worm wheel through
a meshed cylinder where the saponins are ejected
by the air current generated by the movement of
the blades mounted on the worm wheel. The feed
rate can be controlled mechanically through an ac-
cess hatch and the force exerted by an engine-op-
erated pulley. Pojkera can be fed in with the quinoa.
Figure 23 shows the small commercial.
In 2010, a group of researchers at the Universidad
Privada Boliviana (UPB) developed a laboratory
model of a novel applicaon of the spouted bed
that is commonly used to dry cereal grains, apply-
ing it to dry saponin removal from bier quinoa. In
a spouted bed, air is introduced upwards through
nozzles, forming a central channel where grains
are pushed to the top of the container, from where
they fall in a ring-shaped solid downwards ow un-
l they reach the base where they are once again
pushed upwards at high linear speed. The momen-
tum and energy generated by the process as the
grains rub against each other cause the abrasion of
the episperm. Figure 24 shows the pilot prototype.
Working on three commercial ecotypes of ‘Quinoa
Real’ and their blends, in less than 30 minutes, the
dry process reduced the saponin concentraon in
the grains to < 0.01%, in line with commercial ex-
port standards and well below the 0.12% required
by the Bolivian NB 063 standard. The powdered sa-
ponins were also completely recovered (Escalera et
al., 2010; Quiroga et al., 2011). Losses in mass were
limited to < 5% (commonly accepted value in con-
venonal processes using the combined method),
and specic energy consumpon was also reduced
to 0.23 kWh/kg (Obando et al., 2011). Further-
more, saponin concentraon in the recovered dust
increased to approximately 6%, which is above the
average of 3.9%, obtained during the hulling stage
in the convenonal combined method (Subieta et
al., 2011).
The increase in protein and lipid content induced
by the loss of the episperm mass also demonstrates
that the grain does not lose its nutrional quality
(Quiroga and Escalera, 2010). The processed quinoa
grains show no visible signs of surface damage, in-
cluding in the embryo. In the dry processing meth-
od suggested here, removal of the outer episperm
Small processing 45 kg/h of quinoa (Source:
Astudillo, 2007)
Spouted bed reactor for dry saponin removal
(Courtesy of UPB)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
238 layers is more homogeneous and controlled than in
the combined processing method, where grains are
hulled, washed, dried and winnowed. The nal ap-
pearance and thickness of the remaining episperm
on the nished product is very similar to that of
quinoa processed using the technology available
on the market (Figures 25 and 26) (Quiroga et al.,
2010).
These results demonstrate the potenal of this in-
novaon to overcome the technical and environ-
mental issues raised by exisng technologies used
for processing quinoa. The process now needs to be
studied on a semi-industrial scale.
(c) Industrial methods
Quinoa processing companies mostly use the com-
bined method to remove saponins and comply with
the established market quality standards. Never-
theless, the process has always presented major
dicules with regard to removal of saponins and
impuries and concerning grain moisture content.
There are currently 62 processing plants in Bolivia
(Table 6), comprising 16% arsanal processors, 27%
semi-industrial and 57% industrial companies. Of
the industrial processing plants, 40% are found in
Oruro, 25% in La Paz and 35% in Potosí, Cochabam-
ba and Chuquisaca. The technologies used range
from arsanal technologies to very complex and
sophiscated processes (IBCE, 2012).
One of the most signicant industrial contribuons
has been the technology developed by the Sustain-
able Technologies Promoon Centre (CPTS), which
uses the physical properes of the seed episperm.
The grain undergoes a cleaning process to remove
impuries in a preliminary sorter (Figure 27), fol-
lowed by saponin removal in a huller (Figure 28)
with dual compartments: i) the hulling system, and
ii) the parcle extracon and collecon system.
Spouted bed reactor for dry saponin removal
(Courtesy of: UPB)
SEM micrograph of ‘Quino Real’ nished prod-
uct from the
Cereales Andina company, using technology
from the Centro de Promoción de Tecnologías Sostenibles
(Source: Quiroga and Escalera, 2010)
: Quinoa processing plants by department (Bolivia) (Source: IBCE 2012)
Chuquisaca - - 3
Cochabambaa - 5 4
La Paz 3 8 9
Oruro 6 214
Potosí 1 2 5
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
239
Inside the cylindrical drum of the huller is a revolv-
ing rotor equipped with “ribs” installed so as to
push the quinoa grains, pressing them against each
other. This design produces intense fricon be-
tween the grains, resulng in a more uniform wear-
ing down of the episperm. The lower part of the cy-
lindrical drum is equipped with a perforated metal
plate that does not allow the quinoa grain through,
but allows the saponin powder (also known as
“mojuelo”, bran) to fall through for evacuaon by
the parcle extracon and collecon system. The
episperm is extracted using the abrasive proper-
es of the grain surface itself, thereby reducing the
damage to the germ that occurs when grains are
“brushed” or rubbed against an abrasive surface.
The huller removes 90–95% of saponins.
The size of the outer diameter and the length of
the cylinder, in conjuncon with other design pa-
rameters, determine the processing capacity of the
huller. The rotaon speed of the rotor may vary be-
tween 1 200 and 1 600 rpm, and the pressure and
ejector ribs are 8–12 mm wide.
The parcle extracon and collecon system com-
prises a trapezoidal collector, an air turbine for ex-
tracon and a system to collect the saponin dust.
The trapezoidal collector is built out of 1 mm thick
common iron. At the end of the collector is a cylin-
drical outlet connected to the turbine air inlet by an
elbow-shaped rubber, to reduce the pressure and
facilitate maintenance of the turbine. The parcle
extracon secon comprises an air turbine with a
25 cm diameter rotor. Finally, the saponin dust col-
lector is made of two cubic jute containers, one
inside the other. The total surface area of the in-
ner container is just over 5 m², and the ow of air
and dust expelled by the extractor passes through a
tube inserted in the external container, terminang
in the inner container.
Saponin removal is completed through a wet clean-
ing process where the grains are rst picked to re-
move stones and then soaked. This is followed by a
wash, a second picking and a pre-rinse, rinse (Figure
29) and nally centrifuging (Figure 30). The system
includes pumps for the water supply and to recircu-
late the rinse water that runs out of the centrifuge.
Preliminary sorter (Courtesy of: CITY and
UPB)
Huller (Courtesy of: CITY and UPB)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
240
The washer simulates a laminar trajectory of the
grain through the turbulent water ow, which en-
sures that the rst grains in are the rst out. Grains
remain in the water for approximately 5 minutes;
due to the high eciency level, this stage of hull-
ing requires only 5–7 m3 of water per tonne of
processed quinoa. The process eliminates 100% of
high density and 60% of low density small stones,
and reduces the saponin content in the washed
grain to 0.01%.
The grain is subsequently dried in a drier compris-
ing an LPG or natural gas-operated warm air gen-
erator (Figure 31), 4 drying tables (Figure 32) and a
38 m3/min ow of air expelled by a high eciency 2
hp turbine, for a processing capacity of 600 kg/h of
dry grain (CPTS 2006).
The dry grain is then re-sorted to obtain the most
homogeneous grain in a granulometric sorter. It
is cleaned in a specic gravity cleaner (Figure 33)
and straw is removed in an electric engine powered
winnower. Dierent colour grains are separated
through an opcal-pneumac sorter in two or three
runs (Figure 34). Finally, the grain is picked manu-
ally, to eliminate 100% of any remaining impuries
in the quinoa grain before being bagged as an end
product for export.
It is currently esmated that about 75–80% of all
organic ‘Quinoa Real’ exported from Bolivia is pro-
cessed using this technology, which has made it pos-
sible to increase eighold the connuous process-
ing capacity. Implementaon of Cleaner Producon
principles in designing and building equipment has
resulted in: migaon of the impact on the envi-
ronment, especially with regard to water and en-
ergy consumpon; and enhanced residue (saponin
dust) reducon and recovery. Both the hulling sys-
tem and the washing system have reduced material
losses while maintaining the nutrional qualies of
the grain.
Table 7 shows the results of the use of prototypes
based on the technology developed by the CPTS
in the Andean Valley company. These prototypes
were installed in 2006 and are sll funconing in
the company.
This equipment is currently available from the build-
ers, Complejo Industrial y Tecnológico Yanapasiñani
S.R.L. (CITY) in El Alto, La Paz.
Processing, both small-scale and industrial,of qui-
noa produces pearled quinoa, granules, akes,
our, expanded products, dyes, pasta and extruded
Wet cleaning system (Courtesy of: CITY and
UPB)
Centrifuge (Courtesy of: CITY and UPB)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
241
products etc. (Mujica et al., 2006). This secon de-
scribes the basic processes used to obtain some of
these products, and presents the results of research
into their eects on the nutrional quality of the
by-products, and into the development of poten-
al products (e.g. oil, concentrates and protein iso-
lates).
4.1. Quinoa akes
To obtain quinoa akes, grain saponins are rst re-
moved using the process for pearled quinoa. The
grains are then dried unl the moisture content
reaches approximately 15–16%. Quinoa akes are
obtained by pressing the grains between two con-
verging rollers, a process very similar to that used
Warm air generator (Courtesy of: CPTS)
Drying tables (Courtesy of: CITY and UPB)
Specic gravity sorter (Courtesy of: CITY and
UPB)
Opcal-pneumac sorter (Courtesy of: CITY
and UPB)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
242
for oat akes. The size of the akes depends on the
variety and the end use of the product. It is pos-
sible, for example, to achieve a thickness of 0.1–0.5
mm (Mujica et al., 2006). How well the akes hold
depends on the variety and, above all, the plascity
of the grain starch (perisperm) and the degree of
adherence of the embryo to the perisperm. Sweet
variees beer preserve the integrity of the leaf-
lets, while bier variees tend to disintegrate re-
sulng in a greater proporon of ne grit or embryo
parcles (protein).
Quinoa akes have a wide range of potenal uses:
in juices combining quinoa with fruits (apple, pine-
apple and mango); in soups; and in pies, tarts and
cakes. For soups and juices, quinoa akes require
less cooking me than the grain, making them
easier to use and consume.
4.2. Expanded quinoa products or pisankalla
Expanded quinoa is made from the pearled grain.
The processed grain, with a moisture content of
14–15%, is pressure cooked (145–165 psi) at high
temperature and high pressure, then forcibly ex-
pelled. This causes a sudden change in tempera-
ture and a sharp drop in pressure, which makes the
grains pop as they expand immediately, releasing
their internal moisture in the form of vapour. The
result is a good volume, light product that can be
avoured or sweetened (Mujica, 2013).
Reynaga et al. (2013b), studied ecotypes of ‘Qui-
noa Real’ in the grain-popping process, and found
that the ‘Pisankalla’ and ‘Mok’o’ ecotypes have high
expansion indices (1.95 for both ecotypes). The
‘Pisankalla’ ecotype or variety is known to expand
more in the tradional roasng process;this is con-
rmed in the cited reports. Popped quinoa can be
used in many ways, including as instant cereals and
as a base for energy bars. In Peru and other areas,
popped quinoa is known as quinoa manna (Mujica
et al., 2006).
The nutrional quality of quinoa may however de-
teriorate during this process. Talavera (2003, cited
by Mujica et al., 2006), found a wide range of pro-
tein levels in popped products of dierent variees:
12.6% for ‘Salcedo INIA’, 10.4% for ‘Sajama’, 9.4%
for ‘Blanca de Juli’ and 6.9% for ‘Kancolla’. It appears
that the percentage of protein diminishes consid-
erably in popped products. According to Villacres
et al. (2013), the process of popping also causes a
drop in palmic, oleic and linoleic acid levels.
In local lore, pisankalla is the popped form of qui-
noa processed using arsanal methods; it has been
part of the local diet for several millennia. The spe-
cic variees of quinoa used to make pisankalla
may have red or black grains, depending on the co-
lour of the episperm. These variees are known as
‘Pisankalla’ and ‘Quytu’. Grains are popped by put-
ng a handful of condioned grains (appropriate
moisture level) into a clay pot (jiwki) and heang it
over a re fuelled by cow or llama dung. The grain
is constantly srred as it roasts. The roasted grain
can be consumed directly or ground into an instant
product.
Situaon at Andean Valley S.A. before and aer implementaon of the technology developed by the Cen-
tro de Promoción de Tecnologías Sostenibles.
Quinoa grain processing capacity [tonnes/h] 0.09 0.66 0.57 (800%)
Percentage raw material lost [%] 3.5 1.0 2.5
Percentage of saponin dust recovered [%] 0.0 85.0 85.0
Installed electric power of the replaced technology [kVA] 31.5 15.3 16.2 (51%)
Specic electricity consumpon [kWh/tonne of quinoa] 101.6 23.2 77 (80%)
Specic water consumpon [m3/tonne of quinoa] 14 95 (36%)
Specic LPG consumpon [kg/tonne of quinoa] 33 12 21 (64%)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
243
4.3. Flour
Quinoa our is obtained by grinding quinoa from
which the saponins have been removed, using pres-
sure and fricon, and later airing it to obtain a light
powder. Quinoa our can be used in almost all prod-
ucts manufactured by the our industry, and up to
40% quinoa our may be used in making bread,
40% in pasta, 60% in sponge cakes and 70% in bis-
cuits (Mujica et al., 2006). Reynaga et al. (2013b)
report that for bread-making, the suggested rao is
19% quinoa our and 81% wheat our.
Quinoa our is tradionally obtained through a
process known as aku jupa, using appropriate va-
riees with small-sized grains. Once the saponins
are removed, the grains are ground on a tradional
grinding stone (qhuna). The our obtained is used
in various tradional dishes and pastries. Farmer
experience has shown that our processed on the
qhuna keeps longer without spoiling. Reynaga et al.
(2013b) suggest that our obtained using the grind-
ing stone has beer parcle size characteriscs
than our obtained from a hammer mill.
Bonifacio et al. (2013) suggest that some variees
can be used in baby formula, due to the shorter
me required for gelanizaon of their starch. Fur-
thermore, starch from white quinoa and ‘Pisankal-
la’ can be used as a thickener in creams and soups
(Pumacahua et al., 2013).
4.4. Noodles
Noodles or pastas are food products derived from
kneading and moulding unfermented blends of
wheat ours with potable water (Mujica et al.,
2006). Quinoa our provides an alternave for the
noodle and pasta industry, although it is not yet
known which of the dierent exisng variees are
best suited to the needs of the pasta industry. Rey-
naga et al. (2013a) studied industrial quality Boliv-
ian ‘Quinoa Real’ and found that the best rao for
noodles is 21% rice our (type 45) and 79% quinoa
our (type 45).
Reynaga et al. (2013b) tried quinoa our in the
preparaon of gluten-free pasta. They obtained
good results with the local ‘Pisankalla’ variety and
also with a blend of 50% rice our and 50% quinoa.
They experimented further by reducing the rice
our to 25% and increasing the quinoa our to 75%,
with sasfactory results.
4.5. Extruded products
Food extrusion is a cooking system that involves
high temperatures, high pressure and tangenal
stress (shearing) in a short period. It is used as a
means of restructuring starch and protein content
food material, thereby producing dierent types of
textured foods.
According to Mujica et al. (2006), the process in-
cludes the following events: a) starch gelanizaon
and dextrinizaon, protein texturing and paral de-
naturaon of the vitamins present; b) melng and
plascising of the food; and c) expansion by ash
evaporaon of moisture.
In the case of extruded quinoa alone and/or com-
bined, pearled quinoa is hydrated to 15% moisture
every 25 minutes; it is fed into the extruder and
goes through the mechanical thermal transion
area, where the raw material is mixed, compressed
and kneaded, transforming it from a granular struc-
ture to a semi-solid plasc dough. This process is
carried out at 150°–160°C and 1.2 atm of pres-
sure for 5–12 s. The dough is extruded through the
openings at the mouth of the machine and sheared
at the outlet with a rotatory cuer to obtain the de-
sired shape for the nal product. This system does
not aect the nutrional and organolepc quality:
the chemical content and protein rang remain al-
most stable compared with non-extruded granular
material. Indeed, the end product obtained is an
asepc food product is acceptable to the consumer
(Mujica et al., 2006).
4.6. Potenal products
Oils
The oil content in quinoa is quite high and varied
from 2% to 11% in the 555 Bolivian strains studied,
with an average of 6.39%. The quality of oil is good,
due to the high percentage of unsaturated fay
acids (approximately 89%), and includes 50–56%
linoleic acid (omega 6), 21–26% oleic acid (omega
6) and 4.8–8.1% linolenic acid (omega 3) (PROINPA
Foundaon, 2011). On account of these character-
iscs, quinoa helps to reduce bad cholesterol (LDL)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
244 and increase good cholesterol (HDL), thus making
it a potenal source for the producon of oil as a
by-product.
Protein concentrates and isolates
Due to its high protein content (12–18.9% in the
555 Bolivian strains studied by PROINPA), and be-
cause it provides all the essenal amino acids, qui-
noa is of parcular interest for the producon of
protein concentrates and isolates (> 80%), for use
as the main ingredients in high value-added food
formulas.
To obtain protein concentrates or isolates from qui-
noa in a typical laboratory process (Mujica et al.,
2006), the fat-free germ or embryo of quinoa must
rst be isolated. To do this, the quinoa grain is rst
cleaned to remove all impuries, soil and small har-
vest residues before being washed to completely
eliminate the saponins. The grain is le to soak unl
it germinates, at which point it is ground roughly to
separate the embryo from the starch. Subsequently,
the germ is dried and ground and the fat extracted.
The quinoa germ from which the fat has been re-
moved goes through a process of high temperature
alkaline extracon (pH 11.5 at 50°C), centrifuging,
washing with water, followed by another round of
centrifuging. The result is a solid residue, which is
subjected to isoelectric precipitaon at a pH value
of 4.8 to centrifuge it again to remove the liquid.
The solid maer is subsequently washed with wa-
ter, centrifuged and nally put through a vacuum
drying process (30°C) toobtain quinoa protein iso-
lates and concentrates with adequate funconal
characteriscs.
Using the defaed germ of the ‘Kancolla’ variety,
Guerrero (1989, cited by Mujica et al., 2006) ob-
tained a dry isolate in granulated form and a cream-
coloured colourless, tasteless powder. The proximal
chemical composion in the dry base was: 87.8%
protein, 0.22% fat, 1.3% bre, 1.4% ashes and
9.28% carbohydrates. Similarly, it contained an ad-
equate balance of amino acids except for sulphur
compounds, with a net protein ulizaon of 48.5.
Mufari et al. (2013) compared convenonal iso-
electric precipitaon and the enzymac method of
obtaining quinoa protein concentrates. The enzy-
mac method used four enzymes: α-amylase, glu-
coamylase, pullulanase and cellulase, in the pres-
ence of a pH 5 sodium acetate buer, to convert
starch and cellulose into soluble glucose, producing
a protein-enriched residue. The protein concentra-
ons obtained were lower (38%) than the conven-
onal method (53%). The enzymac method allows
for a higher recovery of inial proteins: 43% against
15% recovery using the tradional method, and it
has the added advantage of producing a glucose-
rich supernatant by-product. The authors suggest
opmizing the condions to obtain higher protein
concentraons.
Starches
Quinoa is also a major source of carbohydrates. The
starch content in the dry maer is 54%, the gran-
ule is polygonal in shape, with a size of 0.6–2.0 μm,
and is located in the perisperm as individual enes
or compound aggregates of spherical or oval shape
and measuring 16–34 μm (Ruales and Nair, 1994a).
Other authors (González et al., 1989) reported val-
ues of 32.6% for the ‘Sajama’ variety. The amylose
content is 7.1–11.2% and the molecular structure
of the amylopecn is very similar to waxy starch,
with approximately 35% grade crystallinity (Tang et
al., 2002; Qian and Kuhn, 1999).
Starch digesbility does not vary signicantly when
grains are processed; unprocessed grain has a di-
gesve ulizaon rao of 72%, while grain that has
been parboiled at 60°C for 20 minutes has a 77%
digesve ulizaon rao. A higher degree of starch
dextrinizaon improves binding and savoury quali-
es, i.e. the taste and texture, of the nal product
(Ruales and Nair, 1994b).
Compared to wheat and barley starch, quinoa starch
is more viscous and has beer water retenon and
expansion capacies. Gelanizaon also occurs at
a slightly higher temperature. These results trans-
late into beer performance as a thickening agent
for llings, but are not so good for preparing quinoa
starch-based breads and cakes (Lorenz, 1990). Com-
pared with maize starch, however, quinoa starch is
less soluble and less viscous (Ahamed et al., 1996).
Due to its physicochemical properes, quinoa starch
has been used in the preparaon of baby foods. It
has good stability when subjected to freezing and
thawing – a phenomenon known as freeze-thaw
stability – and is thus suitable for use in manufac-
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
245
turing preprepared frozen foods. Other authors also
point to the opacity of the gelanized starch, which
makes it ideal for use in emulsied food products,
such as salad dressings. (Ahamed et al., 1996).
In response to the increase in quinoa producon in
recent years, there have been ongoing eorts to de-
velop industrial-scale technological innovaons for
the harvest and post-harvest stages, to replace the
tradional manual cropping pracces used in pro-
ducing the Andean grain. Inially, agricultural ma-
chinery designed for other types of grain was used.
These technologies were later gradually adapted to
suit the requirements of quinoa and nally, eorts
were made to promote the development and con-
strucon of purpose-built machines for this crop.
The current mechanizaon of quinoa producon
has advantages and disadvantages. Despite in-
creased recovery of the grain produced and a re-
ducon of impuries (resulng in improvement of
the nal quality of harvested and processed grain),
the environmental impact could sll be negave
due to loss of plant cover, soil degradaon and ero-
sion in producon areas. It is, therefore, important
to incorporate environmentally friendly and conser-
vaon-conscious principles when developing new
technologies. The rising demand for organic quinoa
makes a posive contribuon in this direcon.
Despite the fact that convenonal breeding meth-
ods have produced low saponin content quinoa vari-
ees and generated more knowledge about the ge-
nec structure of this species, the most commonly
culvated variees today are the bier, high saponin
content variees and ecotypes with grains requiring
saponin removal prior to consumpon. It is believed
that the saponins themselves are a defence mecha-
nism protecng the plant against pests and diseases
(i.e. invasion by insects, birds and rodents). Further-
more, some of the bier ecotypes and variees
are more genecally stable and are endowed with
special characteriscs, as is the case of the ‘Quinoa
Real’ ecotype – in high demand on the internaonal
market for its grain size of about 2.5 mm.
Although current saponin removal methods sll ap-
ply the basic principles of tradional processes, it is
worth nong that with enhanced scienc knowl-
edge about the characteriscs of the episperm
and the properes of saponins, major progress has
been made in the development of equipment and
appropriate technology.
Saponins are easily removed because they are lo-
cated in the outer layers of the grain. Dry saponin
removal methods make use of the inherent abra-
sive qualies of the episperm resulng from the
structure of the plant ssue. Removal is a lot more
eecve and uniform when grains rub against each
other, since the friconal force is similar to or less
than that when the grains are rubbed against a
rough surface. It is, therefore, possible to beer
control the hulling process and obtain higher and
more uniform episperm removal (and hence sapo-
nin-removal percentages). Despite the ovoid shape
of the seed, the fragility of its embryo and exposure
to the environment, the nutrional quality of the
seed is not aected by the friconal force between
the grains.
Heang, an element used in both tradional dry
and wet methods, has not yet been incorporated
into the design of new saponin removal processes.
The tradional grain roasng technique is not se-
riously considered, because it colours the grain as
a result of the reacon between proteins and re-
ducing sugars present in the grain, and there is a
possible breakdown of the saponins. Nevertheless,
increasing the temperature of the water used to
wash the grain may improve the process of extract-
ing the saponins, as it soens the episperm ssue
and makes it more soluble, which facilitates and ac-
celerates leaching. In order to avoid modifying the
physical and chemical properes of the grain, the
temperature must under no circumstances exceed
the protein denaturaon temperature or the starch
gelanizaon temperature.
A greater understanding of water absorpon mech-
anisms and the distribuon of saponins in the grain
has made it possible to idenfy the best periods for
washing and to achieve more appropriate designs,
so that the water penetrates only as far as the lay-
ers where saponins are found. Consequently, the
other layers of the episperm are not hydrated, the
amount of water used is signicantly reduced and
drying me is much shorter. Drying is also a crical
stage that needs to be adequately controlled to pre-
vent microbial growth. The nal moisture content
of the grain should be < 13.5 %.
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
246 Although combined methods have been improved,
the amounts of water used in the washing phase
are sll signicantly high at 5–15 m3/tonne of pro-
cessed quinoa, especially in regions where water is
scarce. In the Bolivian Alplano, for example, an-
nual rainfall is only 150–200 mm (Fundación PIEB,
2010). These processes also generate residual
waters contaminated with saponins that, in many
cases, are discharged untreated into natural bodies,
with the risk that they may upset the balance of the
ecosystems. Furthermore, environmental regula-
ons on water and soil polluon are becoming in-
creasingly stringent with regard to accepted limits
of discharge. This could lead to an overhaul or even
the eliminaon of the wet or combined saponin re-
moval methods.
Enhanced recovery of residues (episperm and sa-
ponins)s is another aspect to be considered when
designing saponin removal equipment and technol-
ogy. Saponins have mulple uses in the industrial
sector (Kuljanabhagavad and Wink, 2009), and resi-
due from hulling is no longer considered “waste”
residue with no commercial value; on the contrary,
it is seen as a by-product with a good market price.
There is a need to develop methods that make it
possible, not only to recover a greater quanty of
saponins in dry removal, but to isolate the porons
with the highest concentraon of saponins. This
comparave advantage could be used to promote
the culvaon of other variees and ecotypes of
quinoa. Variees and ecotypes with smaller grains
and perhaps lower nutrional quality, but high sa-
ponin content, could be culvated in regions out-
side the tradional producing areas; this is the case
for quinoa culvated in the Inter-Andean valleys.
When developing equipment and technology for sa-
ponin removal, it is important to consider, not only
good processing capacity the ability to provide an
end product of internaonal quality standards, but
also environmental protecon and conservaon
factors: i) reducon of water and energy consump-
on; and ii) reducon of contaminated solid and
liquid residues. To this end, many of the prototypes
constructed have good potenal for adaptaon to
industrial level, responding both to the technical
requirements of eciency and grain quality and to
environmental and economic requirements.
There are currently many quinoa products on the
market (e.g. expanded products, our, noodles,
akes, extruded products, cereal and energy bars)
made from saponin-free grains. In addion, re-
search connues on the development of new com-
bined products that could generate more interest
in quinoa consumpon. However, lile has been
done to date to develop products requiring more
complex technologies for separang acve ingredi-
ents and nutrional components, such as oil, pro-
tein concentrates and isolates, starch, quinoa milk,
saponin derivaves, dyes from leaves and seeds.
These high value-added products, which are sll
being researched, are considered to represent the
economic potenal of quinoa: they make use of not
only its nutrional properes, but also its physi-
cochemical characteriscs. In the light of the vast
genec variety that exists in the Andean regions,
quinoa could transcend the food industry to pro-
vide products for the chemical, pharmaceucal and
cosmec industries. In order to develop this poten-
al, local producon capacity needs to be boosted
through appropriate planning, including research
on process and product development and subse-
quent technology transfer.
Projecons in the sector indicate that demand for
this ancestral grain – especially organic quinoa –
will connue to rise,. This will inspire the improve-
ment of agricultural machinery currently available
on the market, with the opmizaon of processes
and technological innovaon, not only in the har-
vest and post-harvest stages, but throughout the
producon chain. The objecves will be to increase
yield, improve grain quality, reduce water and ener-
gy consumpon and generaon of waste, and mi-
gate the intrinsic negave environmental impacts.
Industrial saponin removal uses the combined
method, to meet the quality standards for commer-
cializaon of quinoa grain, especially with regard to:
i) grain integrity, ii) nutrional value, and iii) nal sa-
ponin content. Current combined processes enable
saponin removal to reach levels of 0.01–0.06% (as
required on the internaonal market), which is far
below the values detected by the palate. The most
eecve systems use the dry method to remove up
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
247
to 95% of saponins in the huller, with a grain mass
loss of approximately 5–7%. The rest of the saponin
is removed during washing, when the grain remains
in contact with the water for barely 2 minutes – or
even just seconds.
With the equipment and technology currently avail-
able, it is not yet possible to process large volumes
of quinoa using the dry method, without compro-
mising the nutrional quality and changing the
grain shape. There are some arsanal dry-method
prototypes with high eciency in terms of saponin
removal and recovery of the saponins, but these
are yet to be developed on an industrial scale.
The latest technologies recognize the value of the
saponin-rich episperm residues, which have mul-
ple uses in the industrial sector and therefore seek
to recover as much of these chemical components
as possible during the removal the process. The
presence of saponin should be considered yet an-
other opportunity presented by quinoa.
Because of its physicochemical, rheological, nu-
trional properes and its agronomic versality,
quinoa is increasingly incorporated in the prepara-
on of a range of foods; nevertheless, only a small
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