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Traditional processes and Technological Innovations in Quinoa Harvesting, Processing and Industrialization

Authors:
  • Universidad Privada Boliviana (UPB)

Abstract and Figures

The growth in global demand for quinoa has led to an increase in production in its areas of origin, as well as its introduction in other regions. Most of the increased production is of varieties and ecotypes rich in saponins; these need to be removed from the surface of the grain prior to consumption, because of their antinutritional properties and undesirable organoleptic qualities. Industrial-scale innovations have, therefore, been introduced in the harvest and post-harvest phases (including reaping or cutting, placing in sheaves or arcs, threshing, winnowing and cleaning of grains, drying, selection, storing, processing, manufacturing of high value-added products, and direct use of products), to replace traditional practices that were generally conceived for small-scale production. Successful production of high commercial quality grains depends to a large extent on what occurs at harvesting. The timely introduction of mechanized systems, such as mowers, blowers, winnowers, threshers, brushes, and combined threshing and sifting equipment, on medium and large-sized farms has various advantages over traditional manual practices. These technologies reduce impurities, as well as damage to and loss of grains; they also require less labour, which can be scarce in the farming areas. These systems have been introduced and improved to mitigate the intrinsic, negative environmental impacts. In the processing stage, traditional saponin removal methods have been improved, with the development and use of industrial-scale equipment and technology. Combined methods are most commonly used; they guarantee the nutritional quality and morphological stability of the grain, and result in a final saponin content well below international standards. Such systems involve the removal of, saponins in two stages: hulling and washing, followed by centrifuging and drying of the grains. In optimized processes, up to 95% of saponins are eliminated in the hulling machine; the rest is washed away with water. The volumes of water needed are still quite high, generally above 5 m3/tonne of quinoa processed, and the effluent generated is contaminated with saponins. Impurities, such as gravel, twigs, and unripe, broken or different coloured grains, are removed using sieves, sorters, spreaders, and magnetic or optical systems. These systems are almost always supplemented by manual work. Market forces – combined with more stringent environmental standards, better prices and limited water resources in production areas – will continue to drive the development of increasingly efficient and innovative equipment and technology. There is a trend towards dry saponin removal methods; they do not require water, and also allow the collection of the saponins, which then fetch good prices on the market because they can be used in various areas of the industrial sector. Artisanal models for dry processing of quinoa are being researched, but further tests are needed before they can be proposed at industrial level. Quinoa-based foods have been a part of the diet of Andean populations for centuries. Thanks to its nutritional qualities, quinoa is now used elsewhere in a wide variety of derived products (flour, flakes, popped seeds) or in blends with cereals, oleaginous seeds and other foods (mixed flour breads, noodles, extruded products and gluten-free pasta). It is hoped that the expansion of the quinoa market will lead to the development of other derived products, such as protein concentrates and isolates, oils, starches, and high value-added saponin derivatives.
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217
Section 3
Nutritional
and Technical
Aspects
218

Traditional processes and
Technological Innovations
in Quinoa Harvesting, Processing
and Industrialization
*Corresponding author: Carla QUIROGA ccquiroga@upb.edu
:
CARLA QUIROGAa, RAMIRO ESCALERAa, GENARO ARONIb, ALEJANDRO BONIFACIOb, JUAN
ANTONIO GONZÁLEZc, MILTON VILLCAb, RAÚL SARAVIAb, ANTONIO RUIZd
a Universidad Privada Boliviana, Av. Capitán Víctor Ustariz km 6,5 Cochabamba – Bolivia
b Fundación para la Promoción e Invesgación de Productos Andinos, Av. Meneces km 4
Cochabamba - Bolivia
c Fundación Miguel Lillo, Miguel Lillo 251 (4000) Tucumán - Argenna
d Centro de Promoción de Tecnologías Sostenibles, c. Prolongación Cordero 220 La Paz – Bolivia

The growth in global demand for quinoa has led to
an increase in producon in its areas of origin, as
well as its introducon in other regions. Most of the
increased producon is of variees and ecotypes
rich in saponins; these need to be removed from
the surface of the grain prior to consumpon, be-
cause of their annutrional properes and unde-
sirable organolepc qualies.
Industrial-scale innovaons have, therefore, been
introduced in the harvest and post-harvest phases
(including reaping or cung, placing in sheaves or
arcs, threshing, winnowing and cleaning of grains,
drying, selecon, storing, processing, manufactur-
ing of high value-added products, and direct use of
products), to replace tradional pracces that were
generally conceived for small-scale producon.
Successful producon of high commercial quality
grains depends to a large extent on what occurs
at harvesng. The mely introducon of mecha-
nized systems, such as mowers, blowers, winnow-
ers, threshers, brushes, and combined threshing
and siing equipment, on medium and large-sized
farms has various advantages over tradional man-
ual pracces. These technologies reduce impuries,
as well as damage to and loss of grains; they also
require less labour, which can be scarce in the farm-
ing areas. These systems have been introduced and
improved to migate the intrinsic, negave envi-
ronmental impacts.
In the processing stage, tradional saponin removal
methods have been improved, with the develop-
ment and use of industrial-scale equipment and
technology. Combined methods are most com-
monly used; they guarantee the nutrional quality
and morphological stability of the grain, and result
in a nal saponin content well below internaonal
standards. Such systems involve the removal of,
saponins in two stages: hulling and washing, fol-
lowed by centrifuging and drying of the grains.
In opmized processes, up to 95% of saponins
are eliminated in the hulling machine; the rest is
washed away with water.
The volumes of water needed are sll quite high,
generally above 5 m3/tonne of quinoa processed,
and the euent generated is contaminated with
saponins. Impuries, such as gravel, twigs, and
unripe, broken or dierent coloured grains, are re-
moved using sieves, sorters, spreaders, and mag-
nec or opcal systems. These systems are almost
always supplemented by manual work.
219
Market forces – combined with more stringent en-
vironmental standards, beer prices and limited
water resources in producon areas – will connue
to drive the development of increasingly ecient
and innovave equipment and technology. There
is a trend towards dry saponin removal methods;
they do not require water, and also allow the collec-
on of the saponins, which then fetch good prices
on the market because they can be used in various
areas of the industrial sector. Arsanal models for
dry processing of quinoa are being researched, but
further tests are needed before they can be pro-
posed at industrial level.
Quinoa-based foods have been a part of the diet
of Andean populaons for centuries. Thanks to its
nutrional qualies, quinoa is now used elsewhere
in a wide variety of derived products (our, akes,
popped seeds) or in blends with cereals, oleaginous
seeds and other foods (mixed our breads, noo-
dles, extruded products and gluten-free pasta). It
is hoped that the expansion of the quinoa market
will lead to the development of other derived prod-
ucts, such as protein concentrates and isolates, oils,
starches, and high value-added saponin derivaves.
 
According to the human nutrion standards dened
by the Food and Agricultural Organizaon of the
United Naons (FAO), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa
Willd.) is the only plant food that provides all essen-
al amino acids (Koziol 1992; González et al., 2012).
Not only does quinoa have high nutrional value, it
is also cheap to produce due to its broad genec vari-
ability and its capacity to adapt to dierent climate
and soil condions (Fundación PROINPA, 2011).
These characteriscs, combined with its mulple
possible uses, have led to an increasing global de-
mand for this strategic crop capable of contribung
to food sovereignty in various regions. Countries in
Europe, North America, Africa and Asia are aware
of this and have begun to culvate this Andean
grain (Jacobsen, 2003).
For example, between 2005 and 2012, the demand
for Bolivian quinoa in the United States of America
increased by 1120%, in France by 207%, and in Ger-
many by 361%. A total of 25 660 tonnes were ex-
ported, for a total value of USD78.9 million at a price
of USD3 075/tonne (INE, 2013). Producon of both
convenonal and organic quinoa has increased in
recent years to meet this demand. Figure 1 shows
that both the culvated surface area and produc-
on increased considerably between 1990 and 2010.
The area under quinoa quadrupled compared with
1970–1980, and had reached 69 970 ha by 2012.
Total quinoa producon also increased signicantly
from 23 240 tonnes in 2000 to 44 260 tonnes in 2012
(INE, 2013). Also, in Peru, according to the export-
ers’ associaon (La República, 2013), in 2012, quinoa
exports reached 10 402 tonnes and USD30.7 million,
23% more than in the previous year. Annual quinoa
producon was 39 398 tonnes in 2009 and increased
to 44 207 tonnes in 2012 (MINAG, 2013). These two
countries alone represent more than 90% of global
producon (Baudoin and Avitabile, 2013). Quinoa
producon in the Andean region of Ecuador (exports
941 tonnes, USD2 694/tonne), Chile and Argenna
is sll rather low (a few thousand tonnes per year).
To handle this increase in producon, various indus-
trial-scale innovaons have been introduced in the
harvest and post-harvest phases (including reap-
ing or cung, placing in sheaves or arcs, threshing,
winnowing and cleaning of grains, drying, selecon,
storage, processing, manufacturing of high value-
added products, and direct use of the product) to
replace tradional pracces inially conceived for
small-scale producon. The most signicant inno-
vaons in quinoa processing are in the area of sapo-
nin removal.
This chapter seeks to describe the state of the art
in current use of tradional pracces, as well as the
various technological innovaons developed for
the various harvest and post-harvest phases, with a
parcular emphasis on processing.
  Culvated surface area, quinoa producon
and yield per hectare in Bolivia between 1970 and 2012
(Source: IBCE/FAOSTAT, 2012)
Thousands: hectares and metric tons
1970
Surface
Producon
Yield
1980
1990
2000
2010
2012
12.20
16.08
35.72
64.77
69.97
44.26
36,85
36.85
38,62
38.62
9.70
8,94
8.94
0.80
0.57
0.42
0.65
0.57
0.63
0
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
220 
Quinoa is harvested when the plant reaches physio-
logical maturity, a state that is easily recognizable as
it changes colour, taking on a characterisc yellow,
reddish, pink, purple or black nt, depending on the
ecotype and/or variety. The state of maturity is con-
rmed by the hardness or resistance of the grain
when pressed under a ngernail. The grains must
be harvested within the recommended period in
the reproducve cycle, to avoid losses from thresh-
ing or aacks by birds, and to avoid a deterioraon
in grain quality as a result of unexpected rain, hail
or snow (Apaza et al., 2006).
Table 1 (Bonifacio et al., 2012) and Table 2 (Espín-
dola and Bonifacio, 1996) show the dierent phe-
notypic characteriscs (e.g. tassel colour and grain
colour) of various ‘Quinoa Real’ ecotypes grown in
the southern Alplano region of Bolivia, and of im-
proved variees, at the end of their respecve veg-
etave cycles, when they have reached physiologi-
cal maturity. Moisture content in the quinoa grain
at maturity is 10–13% and in the plant, 16–20%.
These characteriscs can help idenfy the right
me to harvest. Delaying the harvest by 2–3 weeks
could lead to signicant grain losses through wind-
induced threshing (chang between plants and tas-
sels), in addion to threshing when the plants are
cut and stacked in sheaves. Figure 2 shows ‘White
Quinoa Real’ and ‘Pink Quinoa Canchis’ at physi-
ological maturity.
Depending on the technology used, harvesng qui-
noa involves various stages. When harvesng is
done manually with staonary threshers, the steps
are: reaping or cung, placing in sheaves or arcs,
threshing, winnowing and cleaning of grains, dry-
ing, sorng, bagging and storage. When it is mecha-
nized, using combine harvesters, reaping, thresh-
ing, and winnowing are done simultaneously, fol-
lowed by sorng, bagging and storage.
2.1. Uproong and reaping
Grains may be reaped manually in dierent ways.
According to a survey carried out in the southern
Alplano in 2008, 57% of producers uprooted the
plants, 42% used a sickle and 2% used a motorized
mower (Aroni et al., 2009).
Uproong plants is an ancestral pracce, especially
used in areas with sandy soil. With this method, the
lumps of soil that generally sck to the roots of the
plant are partly removed by careful shaking or by
lightly rubbing the roots together. The plants are
then deposited on the ground in sheaves.
The mature plant may be reaped or mowed 10–15
cm above the surface of the land. Parts of the stem
and the roots remain in the soil to protect it from
erosion, and are subsequently converted into or-
ganic maer through a natural composng process
(Aroni et al., 2009). Quinoa producers are gradually
adopng the pracce of using sickles, hoes or me-
chanical mowers for reaping. These slight innova-
ons result in a signicant reducon in contamina-
on of the grain with sand, small stones and soil,
which is extremely important for subsequent pro-
 : (a) “White Quinoa Real” at physiological
maturity (Palaya, Potosí); (b) “Pink Quinoa Canchis”
at physiological maturity (Chacala, Potosí) (Fundación
PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
221
: Characteriscs of improved variees of quinoa at physiological maturity
 








Achachino 180 Creamy red Red White
Chuku Puñete 172 Cream Cream White
Mok’o Rosado 172 Pink Pink White
Negra 172 Black Black Black
Pandela 175 Pink Pink White
Pisankalla 170 Reddish mocha Reddish mocha Cafe
K’ellu 172 Burnished gold Burnished gold White
K’ellu 176 Grey Grey Cafe
Real Blanca 171 Tobacco Tobacco White
Rosa Blanca 178 Pinkish grey Pinkish tobacco White
Timsa 180 Cream Cream White
Toledo 181 Orange red Pinkish mocha White
Tres Hermanos 176 Blend Blend White
Huallata 176 Blend Blend White

Chillpi Blanco 156 Cream Cream Crystalline
Kairoja 164 Pink Pink White
Lipeña 163 White Tobacco White
Manzano 167 Reddish mocha Reddish mocha White
Mok’o 161 Cream Cream White
Quinua Roja 164 Reddish mocha Reddish mocha White
Señora 161 Cream Cream so White
Utusaya 165 Light cream Cream White
Wila Jipina 155 Cream pink So cream pink White

Cariquimeña 144 Cream Cream White
Mañiqueña 143 Cream Cream White
Canchis Amarillo 144 Pale yellow Light yellow White
Canchis Rosado 147 Pink Pink White
(Source: Bonifacio et al., 2012)
cessing of the grain. Figure 3 illustrates reaping with
a sickle and with a manually operated mechanical
mower.
Another task during harvest is sorng out atypical
plants, in parcular those with dierent seed co-
lours, to avoid blends that reduce both quality and
price. For example, in order to meet the Bolivian
standard NB NA0038 of 1% of grains of another
colour (IBNORCA, 2007), any plants with mocha or
black grains must be removed if it is a white grain
variety. Similarly, when it is a black or red-coloured
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
222 Characteriscs of some improved variees at physiological maturity
 








Kurmi 170 Pink White White
Blanquita 176 Cream to white White White

Sajama 160 Yellowish cream White White
Chucapaca 160 Light pink Grayish white White
Surumi 165 Light pink Light pink White
Innayra 165 Deep yellow Yellow White
Sayaña 165 Grainy So yellow White

Jacha Grano 135 Light yellow White White
Aynoq’a 140 Cream White White
Horizontes 140 Cream White White
Patacamaya 147 Pink White White
Kosuña 150 Cream White White
(Source: Espíndola and Bonifacio, 1996)
variety, care must be taken to avoid the presence of
white grains. Even when cered and/or selected
seeds are used, there are almost always some atypi-
cal plants that could lead to undesirable blends.
This phenomenon is the result of the natural ge-
nec segregaon that occurs in quinoa.
If plants are reaped a few weeks aer their physi-
ological maturity, there is a higher probability of
grain loss during this exercise. In this case, it is rec-
ommended to harvest them during the morning
hours when there is sll dew on the plant, because
the mature quinoa plant is highly hygroscopic and
retains humidity.
(a) Reaping plants with a sickle (Palaya, Potosí); (b) Reaping plants with a mower (Palaya, Potosí) (Courtesy
of: Fundación PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
223
2.2. Sheaving
Sheaving quinoa involves piling together the reaped
plants in arcs or spikes to let the plants and panicles
dry. It is thus possible to avoid wastage of the har-
vested plant due to adverse climac events, such as
unseasonal rains and hail that could leave marks on
the grain (León, 2003; Apaza et al., 2006).
There is a wide range of forms and methods of sheav-
ing. The most common is to make small heaps within
the plot; another is to make linear sheaves with the
panicles to one side, or circular sheaves with the
panicles turned inwards. The most commonly used
method in the southern Alplano is to form an arc
with the plants aached in the form of an “X” and
the panicles poinng upwards. This form of sheav-
ing allows for proper airing, and the drying process is
much faster than with other methods. The sheaves
must remain in the eld no longer than necessary, to
avoid further aacks by rodents and birds.
Linear, circular and arc sheaving all allow the har-
vest to be protected against late rains, as the up-
per part of the sheaves (panicles) are covered with
polyethylene. If this is not done carefully, signicant
losses can occur as a result of seeds germinang
within the panicle aer being moistened by the
rain. Figure 4 shows linear and cross sheaves.
2.3 Threshing
Threshing involves separang the grain from the
panicle (glomerulus) (Calla and Cortez, 2011). Prior
to threshing, it is important to check that the mois-
ture content of the grain is ≤ 15%. (Apaza et al.,
2006). The method adopted for threshing depends
on the available machinery and the local topography.
Tradional threshing can sll be observed in places
where quinoa is produced on slopes (Figure 5a) – the
“huajtana”, a stout baton, is used to beat the pani-
cles and remove the grains. In the plains, threshing is
done with successive runs by a tractor (Figure 5b) or
other vehicle, or using staonary threshers. Tractors
and other vehicles are used for threshing on tarpau-
lins spread out on a raised threshing oor (plaorm).
The tarpaulin must cover the enre surface to avoid
the tyres of the vehicle coming into constant contact
with the soil and/or sand, which would result in
contaminaon of the grain.
For threshing on a raised plaorm, the dry plants
are laid out in two parallel lines, generally with the
heads turned inwards (Figure 6a). The gap between
the rows is the same width as the gauge or the dis-
tance between the tyres of the vehicle. As the vehi-
cle moves back and forth over the rows of panicles,
the grain is separated from the heads. The cha
is gradually removed using rakes and is deposited
outside the plaorm. This operaon is repeated
several mes unl a parally cleaned grain is ob-
tained, although it may sll be mixed with debris
from the plant.
2.3.1. Threshing machines
Various types of staonary threshers have been
tested in recent years, including the Vencedora (Fig-
ure 6b) and the Alban Blach. They have not been
: (Le) Line-cut black quinoa sheaves (Chacala, Potosí); (Right) Sheaves crossed to facilitate drying (Rio Grande,
Potosí) (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
224
(a) Threshing quinoa with a truck (Chacala, Potosí); (b) The Vencedor thresher (Villa Esperanza, Potosí)
(Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
widely adopted, however, because they are quite
costly and tend to result in a high level of grain
breakage (Aroni et al., 2009).Other types of ma-
chines are currently being promoted, including:
The TR-C thresher
The TR-C thresher (Figure 7) was developed by the
FAUTAPO Foundaon and the Mechanized Agricul-
ture Research, Training and Extension Centre (CI-
FEMA) (Aroni et al., 2009). The machine comprises a
huller and a system of sieves that separate the thick
parts of the plant from the grain. Because this ma-
chine is smaller than other, similar machines, it can
be carried on a light vehicle (small truck, culvator
etc.). The machine is easy to use, also for women. It
has an easy–to-manoeuvre, low-consumpon (5.5
hp and 1 litre/h) gasoline engine; it includes two
exchangeable sieves, and its yield is 276–368 kg/h
(CIFEMA, 2006).
MASEMA FAUTAPO I Thresher
This machine was nanced by the FAUTAPO foun-
daon of Bolivia and the PRONORTE foundaon
of Salta, Argenna. It was constructed by students
at the Universidad Tecnológica Nacional Regional
Córdoba, and tested in Uyuni (Figure 8, Turismo Ru-
ral Comunitario, 2013). The thresher uses a conven-
onal transverse rotaonal cylinder equipped with
plasc and rubber millstones, where the stems are
separated and the fruit or grain of the plant is sepa-
rated from its owers. The grains and cha are sep-
arated using two moving siers; the rst of these,
 (a) Tradional quinoa threshing on slopes (Miraores, Potosí); (b) Threshing using a tractor (Palaya, Potosí)
(Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
225
The TR-C Thresher (Source: CIFEMA 2006)   The MASEMA FAUTAPO thresher/winnower
(Source: Turismo Rural Comunitario 2013)
commonly known as a “sacapaja” (straw remover),
removes the larger pieces and only the grains or
pieces with a diameter of < 3 mm pass through the
second sier unl the last stage of separaon. The
grains are then winnowed and sorted by size, and
small bits of owers and straw are removed. This is
done using a fan and a wind tunnel, where grains
are selected according to size and weight and the
lighter bits of grain are blown out of the machine.
The prototype includes triphase electrical engines
for each funcon, making it possible to adjust the
specic capacity at each stage of the sorng pro-
cess. Each stage has a speed control, and the en-
ergy source is an Oo cycle convenonal electric-
ity generator. Field tests showed no deterioraon
in grains. There is however a need to make some
adjustments to the winnowing phase.
Modied Vencedora thresher
The Vencedora thresher is a Brazilian machine that
yields 320 kg/h. In the Alplano, it needs to be
pulled by a tractor transported on a truck. It is not
parcularly suited to the condions of small-scale
producers with dispersed plots. It was, therefore,
adapted locally in 2007 to reduce its size, while
maintaining the threshing and fanning funcons
(Figure 9). The machine was tested in the northern
and central Alplano regions in Bolivia. It yielded
180–210 kg/h, with an eciency of 85% grain and
15% cha (leaves and crushed pedicels) (Aroni et
al., 2009).
Tubular thresher
The tubular thresher (Figure 10) developed by the
Foundaon for Promoon and Research on Andean
Products (PROINPA) is a very light machine with an
independent power take-o; it can be transported
on a pick-up truck. Its components comprise: load-
ing plaorm, thresher body, grain outlet sorter,
cha outlet, engine base, 5 hp gasoline engine, and
collector for the grain aer threshing. Its service life
is > 10 years.
The tubular thresher has an average yield of 95
kg/h in processing quinoa grains, with 15% husks
separated from the grain by the winnowing fan.
The outlet sieve gives almost clean grain, minimiz-
ing the need for the successive siing required with
The modied Vencedora thresher (Source: Fun-
dación PROINPA 2008)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
226
other threshers. Table 3 shows the yields obtained
with mechanized threshing of three quinoa variet-
ies (Fundación PROINPA, 2008).
2.4 Siing or sieving
Siing or sieving consists of separang the grain
from the cha, which includes bits of leaf, small
stones, pedicels, inorescences and small twigs
(Apaza et al., 2006). The sieves used for this manual
task generally measure 0.80 × 1.50 m and are made
of mesh or of wood drilled with 3.5–4 mm holes.
Operators shake them back and forth to separate
the grain and the husks from the cha. Siing is a
very tedious and dusty task (Figure 11). The wind
can be a help or a hindrance depending on how
hard it blows.
2.5. Winnowing
Winnowing involves the removal of small, light
impuries. In tradional pracces, wind energy is
used, while mechanized winnowers use a blower or
fan.
Tradional winnowing is done manually, using a
tray or other recipient to collect a poron of si-
ed quinoa, which is then poured out in a stream,
transverse to the direcon of the wind. Since this
method depends on the wind – variability of direc-
on and intensity – it is not very ecient, the grain
obtained is heterogeneous and not all impuries
are removed.
Improved winnowing methods use mechanical win-
nowers, operated either manually or by engine
power. These winnowers generate a regular air cur-
rent with rotang blades, and are equipped with a
receiving hopper where a constant, regulated quan-
ty of grain is poured (Figure 12). These machines
are relavely cheap. Their most important charac-
terisc, however, is that they are not dependent
on the wind and can be used for winnowing at any
me of the year. They yield about 500–800 kg/h. By
2008, roughly 77% of the southern Alplano farm-
ers in Oruro, and 14% in Potosí were using mechani-
cal winnowers (Aroni et al., 2009).
Figure 13 shows the motorized winnower at work
on the harvest (grain + husks + cha). This improved
yield machine (1 600 kg/h) was built by Consultora
y Taller Mecánico Aroni in Uyuni, Bolivia. The win-
nower includes a mechanism that separates the
cha, in addion to winnowing.
V-M winnower
The receiving hopper of the V-M winnower includes
a rotary cylinder that ensures that the quinoa grains
are fed in connually and also that the smaller quinoa
grains are recovered during the winnowing process.
 Tubular thresher yield with three variees of quinoa
 









Línea Purpura 50 16 34 10 96
Jacha Grano 56 19 37 12 95
Surumi 33 11 22 7 94
     
(Source: Fundación PROINPA 2008)
Tubular thresher (Source: Fundación PROINPA
2008)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
227
This machine, which is ideal for the working condi-
ons in Bolivia, has a 5 hp, 1 litre/h diesel engine
and is capable of processing 600–650 kg of grain
and fragments per hour at the ideal blade rotaon
speed of 550–600 rpm (CIFEMA, 2007).
2.6 Combine harvesters
During the 2012/13 crop year, two types of engine-
driven combine harvester were tested in Challapata
and El Choro, in the Oruro district in Bolivia. The
CLAAS and DIMA harvesters (Figure 15) are small-
er models, designed for working on medium- and
small-sized plots. This type of harvester does the
shearing, threshing, siing, and cleaning simul-
taneously and avoids contaminaon with impuri-
es. Following the trials, it was seen that there was
scope for improvement both in crop management
and in the equipment itself.
In terms of crop management, improvements can be
made in several areas: soil preparaon (in parcular
in levelling or matching); appropriate sowing den-
sity; and use of variees with a simple growth habit,
homogeneous crop maturity, producing plants with
a single panicle. The shearing system used by the
machines also needs to be adjusted to reduce the
high percentage of losses resulng from shaering
and shorn panicles that remain on the ground.
2.7 Transport
Quinoa is transported from producon zones to
storage areas using various types of vehicle: pick-
ups, trucks, tractors etc. (Figure 16).
Secondary roads provide access for vehicles to the
growing areas in the plains and highlands, facilitat-
ing the transfer of the bags of grain to storage de-
pots in the quinoa-producing communies.
2.8. Storage in harvest areas
Storage involves ensuring that the grain remains
clean for a given period of me, and preserving
grain quality (Calla and Cortez, 2011). Every year,
there are more storage facilies on farmers’ own
premises to meet the requirements of organic pro-
ducon and food safety. Storehouses must be con-
structed according to set specicaons regarding
the materials. The construcon must have the right
environmental condions (temperature and hu-
(a) Siing (Chacala, Potosí); (b) Siing on a slope (Palaya, Potosí) (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
 Winnowing quinoa (Salinas de Garci Men-
doza, Oruro) (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
228
Quinoa cleaning and winnowing with a stalk
shredder (Palaya, Potosí) (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
midity), facilitate cleaning and provide protecon
from rodents and other animals that could cause
contaminaon. Figure 17 shows a storehouse con-
structed with brick walls and the inside of another
depot with gypsum wall coangs and a cement
oor, both of which are appropriate for ensuring
cleanliness.
It is worth nong here, in this secon on harvest,
that the CPTS has developed a range of technolo-
gies based on cleaner producon principles for
quinoa culvaon in the arid lands of the Bolivian
Alplano. Technologies include seed drills, fumiga-
tors–liquid ferlizer dispensers–sprinklers, harvest-
ers, solar-powered dryers, and threshers–winnow-
ers–seed sorters. The machines have reached the
nal prototype stage and are currently being tested
in conjuncon with appropriate agricultural meth-
ods, prior to moving on to commercial producon.
 
Grains are not uniform in size aer harvesng and
winnowing. On average, grain size varies between
1.4 and 2 mm in diameter, and the grain contains
impuries (especially cha residue, twigs, leaves,
and small stones, as well as broken, damaged, co-
loured, germinated, covered, and unripe seeds).
Quinoa is processed to obtain grains that meet
quality standards in terms of size, impuries or ex-
traneous material and sasfy bromatological and
microbiological requirements (IBNORCA, 2007).
The grains therefore have to undergo a series of
processes including: preliminary sorng and re-
The V-M Winnower (Source: CIFEMA 2007)
(a) CLAAS combine harvester (Challapata, Oruro) (Bretel, 2013); (b) DIMA combine harvester (El Choro,
Oruro) (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
229
 (a) Quinoa being transported (Palaya, Potosí); (b) Quinoa transported by tractor (Palaya, Potosí) (Courtesy
of: Fundación PROINPA)
(a) Construcon of a quinoa depot, PAR project (Bella Vista, Potosí); (b) Farmers’ organizaon quinoa
warehouse (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
moval of impuries; saponin removal, which is nor-
mally carried out using both hulling (dry method)
and washing (wet method); drying; sorng by size;
separang of dierent coloured grains; and removal
of residual impuries.
3.1 Preliminary sorng and removal of impuries
Before being transported to the processing plant,
generally in 100-kg bags made of polypropylene or
other materials, the inial product is sorted using
simple sieves made of a plate perforated with 3 mm
diameter openings and a woven mesh with a spac-
ing of 1.2 mm between the threads (Quiroga et al.,
2010). The processing speed is 100 kg every 2–3
minutes. The machine runs on a 1.5 hp motor. The
sorng process generates ve products:
Parculate maer (mainly dust and saponins)
Light, coarse impuries (twigs, leaves)
First grade grain (grain with a diameter of > 2.2
mm) (90–95%)
Second grade grain (grain with a diameter of <
2.2 mm)
Heavy impuries (stones)
Parculate maer is discharged into the atmo-
sphere, impuries are discarded, and second grade
quinoa is either returned to the farmer or pur-
chased at a lower price at the same me as the rst
grade. Both products are weighed on a scale.
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
230 Some processing companies are equipped with
the CIFEMA grain sorter (CIFEMA, 2013) or with
similar prototypes that sort the grain by size using
two sets of dierent-sized, interchangeable sieves,
which can also be used to sort dierent variees of
quinoa. The sorter (Figure 18) runs on a 5 hp die-
sel engine and has a processing capacity of 700–
1 000 kg/h. The sieves measure 60 × 100 cm, and
are equipped with a mesh with 2 and 1 mm
openings.
Once the quinoa has been purchased, it is stored
in 100-kg bags of plasc or other materials in fa-
cilies that are capable of processing hundreds of
tonnes of grain each month. Some large processing
plants use metal silos (Figure 19), to avoid rodents
and moths.
3.2 Saponin removal
The process of removing saponins is one of the
most important stages in grain processing and in re-
cent years, various appropriate technologies have
been developed for removing saponins to levels
within the acceptable limits, without aecng the
grain’s nutrional properes.
This secon aims to: demonstrate the progress
made in saponin removal; describe the main tech-
nologies currently adopted by quinoa processing
companies; and outline the chemical and funcon-
al characteriscs of saponins, and their concentra-
on and localizaon in the grain structure.
3.2.1 Saponins
At least 20 dierent types of saponin have been
idened in quinoa (Kuljanabhagavad et al., 2008).
These chemical compounds include various mono-
saccharide units that are aached via a glycosidic
bond to a triterpene skeleton, known as an aglycone
or sapogenin. Depending on the number of saccha-
ride chains in the structure, they may be classied
as mono-, di- or tridemosidic. Monodesmosidic sa-
ponins contain a single saccharide chain, generally
located in C-3. Bidesmosidic saponins contain two
saccharide chains, one of them generally aached
by an ether bond to C-3, and the other aached to
C-18 or C-26 by an ester bond. The most common
monosaccharides are D-glucose, D-galactose, D-
glucuronic acid, D-galacturonic acid, L-rhamnose, L-
arabinose, D-xylose and D-fructose. Four aglycones
Storage silos at the Complejo Industrial y Tec-
nológico Yanapasiñani S.R.L. (CITY) Company. (Courtesy
of: UPB).
Grain sorter (Source: CIFEMA, 2013)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
231
have been idened in quinoa saponins: oleonolic
acid, phytolaccagenic acid, hederagenin (Ridout
et al., 1991; Ng et al., 1994; Ahamed et al., 1998).
Some authors count serjanic acid as the fourth agly-
cone (Madl et al., 2006), while others consider it to
be spergulagenic acid (Kuljanabhagavad and Wink,
2009).
Saponins in the quinoa seed are located in the rst
external coat of the episperm, which is itself made
up of four layers (Villacorta and Talavera, 1976; Pra-
do et al., 1996; Jiménez et al., 2010). This external
coat is rough, brile and dry, and can be partly re-
moved using abrasive methods or by washing with
cold water. Removal improves considerably when
warm water or alkaline or acid soluons are used.
Figure 20 shows the various parts of the quinoa
seed and the layers of the episperm.
The physicochemical and biological properes of
saponins have been used in many commercial ap-
plicaons in the food, cosmecs, agricultural and
pharmaceucal sectors (Ahamed et al., 1998). De-
spite being considered as annutrional substance
(like tannins, phyc acid and protease inhibitors,
Ruales, 1992), and although it has a negave ef-
fect on red blood cell levels in blood types A and O
(González et al., 1989), there is scienc proof of
their benecial health eects due to their ancar-
cinogenic properes (Güçlü-Üstündağ and Mazza,
2007) and cholesterol lowering eect (Taka et al.,
2005). Some studies have also demonstrated their
anfungal properes (Woldemichael and Wink,
2001; Stuardo and San Marn, 2008).
In current characterizaons, various quinoa variet-
ies and ecotypes are designated as “bier”, “semi-
sweet” and “sweet”. This classicaon is based on
saponin content, which is generally 0–3% in dry
grains. Saponin content in “bier” grains is 1–3%,
in “sweet” grains 0.0–0.1%, and in “semi-sweet”
grains 0.1–1% (Güçlü-Üstündağ and Mazza, 2007).
Other authors believe that a variety or ecotype may
be considered “sweet” if the saponin content is 20–
40 mg/100 g dry weight, and “bier” if the saponin
content is > 470 mg/100 g dry weight (Mastebroek
et al., 2000).
The only real proxy for determining if a type of qui-
noa may be classied as “sweet” is its organolepc
acceptability for human consumpon, which varies
between 0.06 and 0.12%. This is in line with the re-
sults obtained at the Universidad de Ambato (Ecua-
dor), which indicated that the maximum acceptable
limit of saponin content in the cooked grain is 0.1%
(Nieto and Soria, 1991).
3.2.2 Bier and sweet quinoa genotypes
Aempts have been made to obtain low saponin
content variees, for example, through conven-
onal genec selecon. The ‘Sajama’ variety, which
is considered “sweet”, was obtained through selec-
on, as were ‘Kurmi’, ‘Aynoq’a’, ‘K’osuña’ and ‘Blan-
quita’ in Bolivia (grain size around 2 mm), ‘Blanca
de Junin’ in Peru and ‘Tunkahuán’ in Ecuador.
 SEM micrograph, principle parts of ‘White Quinoa Real’ ecotype seed (Source: Quiroga et al., 2011)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
232 In convenonal improvement, two selected pro-
genitors are arcially crossed and the rst gen-
eraons are then selected individually, followed
by combined mass and individual selecon in later
generaons (Fundación PROINPA, 2005). Although
it is a predominantly autogamous species, cross-
breeding may sll occur. This means that in crop-
ping, even low saponin content variees and eco-
types could once again display a high saponin con-
tent. Nevertheless, with proper crop management
techniques, saponin levels could be guaranteed
over me, for example, by avoiding cross-breeding
with “bier” quinoa variees and/or ecotypes.
Gandarillas (1979) suggested that the presence or
absence of saponins in quinoa might be controlled
by a locus (or loci). Using hybridizaon and pedi-
gree selecon, Ward (2000) aempted to reduce
saponin content by taking into account the fact that
F6 progeny could be highly homozygous. However,
it was found that aer three pedigree selecon cy-
cles, the saponin content in plants with < 1 mg/g of
saponins had increased by 3.57% in S1 and 11% in
S4. These results led to the conclusion that, since
this is an allotetraploid species with occasional re-
combinaon between homologous chromosomes,
it is dicult to reduce the saponin content. Just the
fact that there are over 20 types of saponin in exis-
tence (Kuljanabhagavad et al., 2008), suggests that
a considerable number of loci may be involved in
producing the various saponin levels detected. To
a certain extent, this indicates that achieving ho-
mozygosis is not feasible, or at least would require
greater knowledge about the genecs of the spe-
cies. This conclusion was somewhat foreshadowed
in the works of Risi and Galwey (1989) and Jacobsen
et al. (1996), who reported that since saponin con-
tent was a connuous distribuon variable, it might
be subject to polygenec control. It should be men-
oned, however, that these studies did not specify
the type of material used and whether it was a pop-
ulaon that included “sweet” and “bier” quinoa
variees and/or ecotypes in varying proporons, as
expected in normal distribuon.
The link between the presence or absence of sapo-
nins and enhanced resistance to certain pests has
led some researchers to invesgate the role of sa-
ponins in the plant. Evidence of its protecve capac-
ity has to date come from observaons in the eld,
in parcular in the northern, central and southern
Alplano regions of Bolivia, where – depending on
the degree of humidity and the variees and eco-
types of quinoa culvated – it is possible to study
the presence or absence of saponins and how this
relates to known pests.
Table 4 shows some of the quinoa variees and
ecotypes culvated in the Andean region and their
saponin levels (Miranda, 2010; Ward, 2000). They
include the ‘Quinoa Real’ ecotypes found in the Bo-
livian southern Alplano region, which are in high
demand and obtain good prices on the internaon-
al market because of their grain size (Bonifacio et
al., 2012). Figure 21 shows the crop on the farm.
The list also includes some variees currently being
grown in Europe (Pulvento et al., 2010).
All of the above consideraons have led to the
development of agro-industrial processing for sa-
ponin removal (Bacigalupo and Tapia, 2000).
“BlackQuinoa Real” ecotype at physiological
maturity, “bierquinoa (Courtesy of: Fundación PRO-
INPA)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
233
In the Andean region, most of the tradional vari-
ees and ecotypes of quinoa are bier and need
to be hulled, washed and/or roasted, according to
the end use, namely, for producon of our, soups,
drinks, popped quinoa etc. (Alcocer, 2010). Table 5
describes the dierent stages and processing mes
for quinoa, according to its end use.
In some communities in the salt marsh areas of
Uyuni and Coipasa in Bolivia, dry methods are used
to remove saponins. In other communies (Cha-
cala, Potosí), however, both dry and wet methods
are used and the work is generally done by wom-
en. Quinoa grains are roasted in a metal container
(bateas) for approximately 30–40 minutes, unl
they are golden brown. Removing moisture from
the grain makes the episperm more fragile and fa-
cilitates its removal. While the roasted quinoa is sll
warm, it is mixed with an abrasive clay material ex-
tracted in the Llica region and known as “pojkera”
and then trodden for 30–60 minutes on a rough
stone surface known as a “saruna” or “tarquinaso”.
A large percentage of saponins are removed during
this stage.
Subsequently, the rest of the episperm and the
abrasives are winnowed away from the grain for
20–40 minutes. In the nal stage of saponin re-
 Examples of some quinoa variees and ecotypes, classied as “sweet, “semi-sweet” and “bier” (Source:
Miranda, 2010; Ward, 2000; Bonifacio et al., 2012; Pulvento et al., 2010) aPrincipal producon is ‘White Real’
white, ‘Toledo’, ‘Phisanqalla’ (red- or mocha-coloured grain) and ‘Ch’iara’ (black grain)
  
Aynoq´a (Alplano Central de Bolivia) Chukapaca (Bolivia) Horizontes (Bolivia)
Blanquita (northern Alplano, Bolivia and
the transional zone between northern
Alplano and Central)
Kamiri (Bolivia) Real (southern Alplano, Bolivia)a
Huaranga (Bolivia) Boliviana Jujuy Amarilla de Marangani (Peru)
Kancolla (Bolivia) Regalona Baer (Chile) CICA (Peru y Argenna)
K’osuña (southern and central Alplano,
Bolivia) KVLQ520Y (Denmark)
Kurmi (northern and central Alplano,
Bolivia) Cochasqui
Ratuqui (Bolivia) Huatzontle
Robura (Bolivia) Imbaya
Sajama (Bolivia) Witulla
Samaran (Bolivia)
Sayaña (Bolivia)
Ingapirca (Ecuador)
Tunkahuán (Ecuador)
Blanca de Juli (Puno, Peru)
Blanca de Junin (Junin, Peru)
Chewenca
Illpa INIA
Nariño
Pasankalla
Witulla
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
234 Saponin removal on quinoa grain according to end use. aThe data relate to processing of approximately
11 kg of quinoa. bRoasted and ground quinoa cLightly roasted and ground quinoa. dQuinoa cooked in a light broth
with meat or dried beef, tubers and vegetables. eSteam-cooked rolls made with quinoa our, similar to tamales or
humitas, with some dressing in the centre.
 a
e
Roasng 29 36 33 36
Treading 24 60 40 60
Winnowing 20 40 40 40
Washing 25 35 30 35
Drying 180 180 180
Winnowing 10 10 10
Roasng-Milling 90 0 0 0
    
moval, and of removal of impuries such as small
stones and seeds collected during harvest, the qui-
noa grains are washed in various stages over 25–35
minutes. The euent is inspected visually to check
for foam formaon, the quality control parameter.
When the euent is clear of foam, this indicates
that the saponins have been removed. Finally, the
quinoa is dried for 2–4 hours, unl the nal mois-
ture content is about 18%. Depending on what it
is to be used for, the grain may somemes be win-
nowed and roasted again (Figure 22).
The saponin removal process used in Argenna in
the region close to the Chilean border (Santa Catali-
na, Jujuy) is very similar to the one described above.
In the northeast, however, saponin is tradionally
removed simply by washing. A certain quanty of
grain (5–10 kg) is placed in 50-kg bags made of cloth
or synthec materials. The bag is then submerged
in the water of a river and/or a brook and, held at
both ends, it is moved up and down so that the
grains rub together. The water helps the saponins
dissolve and they are washed downstream. The
movement is repeated unl there is no longer any
foam in the water. The grains are then dried on zinc
sheets laid outside.
In Peru and Ecuador, saponins are tradionally re-
moved from quinoa mainly using the wet method,
i.e. manual washing with a large amount of water
on an abrasive (stone) surface unl the outer layers
of the grain are removed (Nieto and Valdivia, 2001).
Tradional saponin removal takes me and eort.
For example, in the quinoa-producing zones of the
Bolivian Alplano, it takes 3–6 hours to clean ap-
proximately 11 kg of quinoa. Such techniques are
appropriate for small quanes of quinoa, for ex-
ample, for family consumpon.
(b) Modern saponin removal systems
For many years, quinoa processing companies used
or adapted machines, equipment and technology
inially developed for processing rice, wheat, soy-
bean and sorghum. The low volumes of producon,
compared with these other crops, and the existence
of only a small number of milling companies glob-
ally, provided lile incenve for developing specic
machines, equipment and technology for this sector.
In the last 10 years, however, quinoa has experi-
enced a quiet boom: once a product consumed
solely by the farmers growing it in the Alplano and
Inter-Andean valleys, it has become a global, high
commercial value crop culvated in extensive areas,
not only in the countries where it originated, but
in others where it has been introduced. This phe-
nomenon is mainly due to: the increased demand
for gluten-free cereals from the 0.4% of the world
populaon that suer from coeliac disease; the in-
creased demand for high quality, aordable organic
products; and the implementaon of ecient food
programmes in various countries by organizaons
such as FAO (Birbuet and Machicado, 2009).
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
235
There has also been a rising demand for appropri-
ate machines, equipment and technologies to meet
the parcular requirements and characteriscs of
quinoa. Machines need to increase eciency and
processing capacity while being economically ac-
cessible for processing companies. Various teams
of researchers and technicians have begun work on
new, innovave opons.
 Tradional, arsanal saponin removal pro-
cess (Bolivian Alplano): roasng, treading, winnowing,
washing and drying (Courtesy of: Fundación PROINPA)
Bacigalupo and Tapia (2000) carried out an excel-
lent review of the mechanized processes used in
removing quinoa saponins in the Andean region
(Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador), with a descripon of
the various processes and conguraons devel-
oped since 1950, both as pilot projects and on an
industrial scale. They compared the advantages
and disadvantages of the wet, dry and combined
methods with respect to the eects on nutrional
quality of the processed grain, eecve saponin re-
moval, water and energy consumpon and the cost
of these processes.
Among the dry methods, two studies in parcular
stand out: i) the 1980 Torres and Minaya huller, with
95% eciency and a grain saponin content of 0.04–
0.25%, depending on the quinoa variety or ecotype
processed; and ii) the dry method connuous ow
prototype developed in Ecuador by Valdivieso and
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
236 Rivadeneira in 1992, where the grain saponin con-
tent in 75 kg/h bier quinoa batches was reduced
to 0.026% and broken grain was reduced to 1.5%.
Among the wet methods, the Huarina project
stands out. In 1983, Reggiardo and Rodríguez de-
veloped a pilot washing system with three stages:
soaking, centrifuging and rinsing, followed by dry-
ing in a tunnel of warm air; this produced a good
quality grain that was well accepted on the Bolivian
market.
Finally, among the combined methods (hulling,
washing and drying), the process developed by
Derpic in 1988 stands out. This method is charac-
terized by its eciency in removing the hulled layer
(65%), the low amount of moisture absorbed by
the grain during washing (17–30%), which makes it
easier to dry, and the low saponin concentraon in
the euent, which migates the possible environ-
mental eects of the combined method (although,
since saponins are soluble in water, they are not
removed from the euents). The work done by Za-
valeta (1982) contributed greatly to understanding
how saponins are extracted using this method. The
authors recommend hulling for sweet variees and
the combined method for variees with a high sa-
ponin content, because this method uses less wa-
ter, ensures good protein quality in the processed
grain, uses a minimum amount of energy and costs
lile.
In industry, most processing companies currently
prefer the combined method, because it eciently
removes saponins and maintains grain quality, thus
sasfying internaonal requirements, in parcular
for organic ‘Quinoa Real’. The Bolivian Naonal As-
sociaon of Quinoa Producers has had a vital role in
promong the industry, resulng in the processing
of larger volumes.
This secon describes and analyses recent innova-
ons based on previous experience and developed
mainly since 2000. They apply Cleaner Producon
criteria in the design and operaon of the hulling,
washing and drying phases. Other innovaons in
dry processing at laboratory and semi-industrial
level are also described, as well as small-scale de-
velopments in combined systems.
Medium-scale systems
In the 1980s, a small-scale Tangenal Abrasive De-
hulling Device was developed in Canada to simulate
the abrasive acon of industrial hullers (Reichhert
et al., 1986). The authors reported 85–95% sapo-
nin removal achieved for quinoa. The equipment
(designed for hulling also other seeds) comprises a
horizontally rotang abrasive wheel, with a staon-
ary plate holding eight stainless steel boomless
cups, mounted vercally on the rotang wheel. A
rubber ed lid is used to cover the cups when the
machine is operated. Wedges are used to adjust the
space between the rotang disc and the cups where
the grains are fed, so that hulls, broken grains and
ne parcles are blown by a fan into a container at-
tached to the huller. The hulled grains are collected
by means of a vacuum aspirang device (Opoku et
al., 2003).
In Argenna, industrial blenders/mixers adapted for
grain washing are used to process greater volumes
of seeds. Operang at low rotaonal speeds, they
have a processing capacity of 10–20 kg for each
30-minute wash. The seeds are subsequently dried
in tunnels used for drying pepper – aerial hothous-
es with a polyethylene oor and ceiling to create a
dierenal heang eect. The two ends of the tun-
nel are open so that the air can enter and exit easily.
As part of a project in Bolivia aimed at facilitang
quinoa processing and consumpon and improv-
ing the nutrional status of rural quinoa-producing
communies in the southern Alplano, a small-
scale saponin removal machine was developed,
with the capacity to process 12 kg in 7 minutes
using the tradional method of roasng, hulling,
winnowing, washing and drying – processes which
could take women up to 12 hours to complete
(Astudillo, 2007). The operaon of the machine was
demonstrated in various areas and it was quite well
accepted by rural women.
To promote quinoa consumpon among producing
families in the southern Alplano in Bolivia, follow-
ing a drasc reducon in consumpon as a result
of changing dietary habits, poor arsanal saponin
removal methods and high prices on the interna-
onal market, in 2008, the Rowland company built
a small capable of processing 45 kg of quinoa per
hour. PROINPA promoted the use of this equipment
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
237
among producers in Chacala, Chita and other areas.
The equipment weighs 30 kg and measures 70 cm
(length) × 30 cm (width) × 80 cm (height). It runs
on an electric engine (or gasoline, for those areas
where there is no electricity). The smallest gasoline
engine on the market is a 5.5 hp engine, but this
machine only uses 0.5 hp, which corresponds to
gasoline consumpon of 0.25 litres/h. The quinoa
grains are fed in through a 30° inclined receiving
hopper before passing through a cylindrical huller
(15 cm long and 60 cm wide) with a 2 × 6 cm inlet
and outlet.
In the huller, the grains rub against each other and
against the walls of the cylinder while they are trans-
ported by a constantly moving worm wheel through
a meshed cylinder where the saponins are ejected
by the air current generated by the movement of
the blades mounted on the worm wheel. The feed
rate can be controlled mechanically through an ac-
cess hatch and the force exerted by an engine-op-
erated pulley. Pojkera can be fed in with the quinoa.
Figure 23 shows the small commercial.
In 2010, a group of researchers at the Universidad
Privada Boliviana (UPB) developed a laboratory
model of a novel applicaon of the spouted bed
that is commonly used to dry cereal grains, apply-
ing it to dry saponin removal from bier quinoa. In
a spouted bed, air is introduced upwards through
nozzles, forming a central channel where grains
are pushed to the top of the container, from where
they fall in a ring-shaped solid downwards ow un-
l they reach the base where they are once again
pushed upwards at high linear speed. The momen-
tum and energy generated by the process as the
grains rub against each other cause the abrasion of
the episperm. Figure 24 shows the pilot prototype.
Working on three commercial ecotypes of ‘Quinoa
Real’ and their blends, in less than 30 minutes, the
dry process reduced the saponin concentraon in
the grains to < 0.01%, in line with commercial ex-
port standards and well below the 0.12% required
by the Bolivian NB 063 standard. The powdered sa-
ponins were also completely recovered (Escalera et
al., 2010; Quiroga et al., 2011). Losses in mass were
limited to < 5% (commonly accepted value in con-
venonal processes using the combined method),
and specic energy consumpon was also reduced
to 0.23 kWh/kg (Obando et al., 2011). Further-
more, saponin concentraon in the recovered dust
increased to approximately 6%, which is above the
average of 3.9%, obtained during the hulling stage
in the convenonal combined method (Subieta et
al., 2011).
The increase in protein and lipid content induced
by the loss of the episperm mass also demonstrates
that the grain does not lose its nutrional quality
(Quiroga and Escalera, 2010). The processed quinoa
grains show no visible signs of surface damage, in-
cluding in the embryo. In the dry processing meth-
od suggested here, removal of the outer episperm
Small processing 45 kg/h of quinoa (Source:
Astudillo, 2007)
Spouted bed reactor for dry saponin removal
(Courtesy of UPB)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
238 layers is more homogeneous and controlled than in
the combined processing method, where grains are
hulled, washed, dried and winnowed. The nal ap-
pearance and thickness of the remaining episperm
on the nished product is very similar to that of
quinoa processed using the technology available
on the market (Figures 25 and 26) (Quiroga et al.,
2010).
These results demonstrate the potenal of this in-
novaon to overcome the technical and environ-
mental issues raised by exisng technologies used
for processing quinoa. The process now needs to be
studied on a semi-industrial scale.
(c) Industrial methods
Quinoa processing companies mostly use the com-
bined method to remove saponins and comply with
the established market quality standards. Never-
theless, the process has always presented major
dicules with regard to removal of saponins and
impuries and concerning grain moisture content.
There are currently 62 processing plants in Bolivia
(Table 6), comprising 16% arsanal processors, 27%
semi-industrial and 57% industrial companies. Of
the industrial processing plants, 40% are found in
Oruro, 25% in La Paz and 35% in Potosí, Cochabam-
ba and Chuquisaca. The technologies used range
from arsanal technologies to very complex and
sophiscated processes (IBCE, 2012).
One of the most signicant industrial contribuons
has been the technology developed by the Sustain-
able Technologies Promoon Centre (CPTS), which
uses the physical properes of the seed episperm.
The grain undergoes a cleaning process to remove
impuries in a preliminary sorter (Figure 27), fol-
lowed by saponin removal in a huller (Figure 28)
with dual compartments: i) the hulling system, and
ii) the parcle extracon and collecon system.
Spouted bed reactor for dry saponin removal
(Courtesy of: UPB)

SEM micrograph of ‘Quino Real’ nished prod-
uct from the
Cereales Andina company, using technology
from the Centro de Promoción de Tecnologías Sostenibles
(Source: Quiroga and Escalera, 2010)
: Quinoa processing plants by department (Bolivia) (Source: IBCE 2012)
   
Chuquisaca - - 3
Cochabambaa - 5 4
La Paz 3 8 9
Oruro 6 214
Potosí 1 2 5
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
239
Inside the cylindrical drum of the huller is a revolv-
ing rotor equipped with “ribs” installed so as to
push the quinoa grains, pressing them against each
other. This design produces intense fricon be-
tween the grains, resulng in a more uniform wear-
ing down of the episperm. The lower part of the cy-
lindrical drum is equipped with a perforated metal
plate that does not allow the quinoa grain through,
but allows the saponin powder (also known as
“mojuelo”, bran) to fall through for evacuaon by
the parcle extracon and collecon system. The
episperm is extracted using the abrasive proper-
es of the grain surface itself, thereby reducing the
damage to the germ that occurs when grains are
“brushed” or rubbed against an abrasive surface.
The huller removes 90–95% of saponins.
The size of the outer diameter and the length of
the cylinder, in conjuncon with other design pa-
rameters, determine the processing capacity of the
huller. The rotaon speed of the rotor may vary be-
tween 1 200 and 1 600 rpm, and the pressure and
ejector ribs are 8–12 mm wide.
The parcle extracon and collecon system com-
prises a trapezoidal collector, an air turbine for ex-
tracon and a system to collect the saponin dust.
The trapezoidal collector is built out of 1 mm thick
common iron. At the end of the collector is a cylin-
drical outlet connected to the turbine air inlet by an
elbow-shaped rubber, to reduce the pressure and
facilitate maintenance of the turbine. The parcle
extracon secon comprises an air turbine with a
25 cm diameter rotor. Finally, the saponin dust col-
lector is made of two cubic jute containers, one
inside the other. The total surface area of the in-
ner container is just over 5 m², and the ow of air
and dust expelled by the extractor passes through a
tube inserted in the external container, terminang
in the inner container.
Saponin removal is completed through a wet clean-
ing process where the grains are rst picked to re-
move stones and then soaked. This is followed by a
wash, a second picking and a pre-rinse, rinse (Figure
29) and nally centrifuging (Figure 30). The system
includes pumps for the water supply and to recircu-
late the rinse water that runs out of the centrifuge.
 Preliminary sorter (Courtesy of: CITY and
UPB)
Huller (Courtesy of: CITY and UPB)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
240
The washer simulates a laminar trajectory of the
grain through the turbulent water ow, which en-
sures that the rst grains in are the rst out. Grains
remain in the water for approximately 5 minutes;
due to the high eciency level, this stage of hull-
ing requires only 5–7 m3 of water per tonne of
processed quinoa. The process eliminates 100% of
high density and 60% of low density small stones,
and reduces the saponin content in the washed
grain to 0.01%.
The grain is subsequently dried in a drier compris-
ing an LPG or natural gas-operated warm air gen-
erator (Figure 31), 4 drying tables (Figure 32) and a
38 m3/min ow of air expelled by a high eciency 2
hp turbine, for a processing capacity of 600 kg/h of
dry grain (CPTS 2006).
The dry grain is then re-sorted to obtain the most
homogeneous grain in a granulometric sorter. It
is cleaned in a specic gravity cleaner (Figure 33)
and straw is removed in an electric engine powered
winnower. Dierent colour grains are separated
through an opcal-pneumac sorter in two or three
runs (Figure 34). Finally, the grain is picked manu-
ally, to eliminate 100% of any remaining impuries
in the quinoa grain before being bagged as an end
product for export.
It is currently esmated that about 75–80% of all
organic ‘Quinoa Real’ exported from Bolivia is pro-
cessed using this technology, which has made it pos-
sible to increase eighold the connuous process-
ing capacity. Implementaon of Cleaner Producon
principles in designing and building equipment has
resulted in: migaon of the impact on the envi-
ronment, especially with regard to water and en-
ergy consumpon; and enhanced residue (saponin
dust) reducon and recovery. Both the hulling sys-
tem and the washing system have reduced material
losses while maintaining the nutrional qualies of
the grain.
Table 7 shows the results of the use of prototypes
based on the technology developed by the CPTS
in the Andean Valley company. These prototypes
were installed in 2006 and are sll funconing in
the company.
This equipment is currently available from the build-
ers, Complejo Industrial y Tecnológico Yanapasiñani
S.R.L. (CITY) in El Alto, La Paz.

Processing, both small-scale and industrial,of qui-
noa produces pearled quinoa, granules, akes,
our, expanded products, dyes, pasta and extruded
 Wet cleaning system (Courtesy of: CITY and
UPB)
Centrifuge (Courtesy of: CITY and UPB)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
241
products etc. (Mujica et al., 2006). This secon de-
scribes the basic processes used to obtain some of
these products, and presents the results of research
into their eects on the nutrional quality of the
by-products, and into the development of poten-
al products (e.g. oil, concentrates and protein iso-
lates).
4.1. Quinoa akes
To obtain quinoa akes, grain saponins are rst re-
moved using the process for pearled quinoa. The
grains are then dried unl the moisture content
reaches approximately 15–16%. Quinoa akes are
obtained by pressing the grains between two con-
verging rollers, a process very similar to that used
 Warm air generator (Courtesy of: CPTS)
Drying tables (Courtesy of: CITY and UPB)
 Specic gravity sorter (Courtesy of: CITY and
UPB)
  Opcal-pneumac sorter (Courtesy of: CITY
and UPB)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
242
for oat akes. The size of the akes depends on the
variety and the end use of the product. It is pos-
sible, for example, to achieve a thickness of 0.1–0.5
mm (Mujica et al., 2006). How well the akes hold
depends on the variety and, above all, the plascity
of the grain starch (perisperm) and the degree of
adherence of the embryo to the perisperm. Sweet
variees beer preserve the integrity of the leaf-
lets, while bier variees tend to disintegrate re-
sulng in a greater proporon of ne grit or embryo
parcles (protein).
Quinoa akes have a wide range of potenal uses:
in juices combining quinoa with fruits (apple, pine-
apple and mango); in soups; and in pies, tarts and
cakes. For soups and juices, quinoa akes require
less cooking me than the grain, making them
easier to use and consume.
4.2. Expanded quinoa products or pisankalla
Expanded quinoa is made from the pearled grain.
The processed grain, with a moisture content of
14–15%, is pressure cooked (145–165 psi) at high
temperature and high pressure, then forcibly ex-
pelled. This causes a sudden change in tempera-
ture and a sharp drop in pressure, which makes the
grains pop as they expand immediately, releasing
their internal moisture in the form of vapour. The
result is a good volume, light product that can be
avoured or sweetened (Mujica, 2013).
Reynaga et al. (2013b), studied ecotypes of ‘Qui-
noa Real’ in the grain-popping process, and found
that the ‘Pisankalla’ and ‘Mok’o’ ecotypes have high
expansion indices (1.95 for both ecotypes). The
‘Pisankalla’ ecotype or variety is known to expand
more in the tradional roasng process;this is con-
rmed in the cited reports. Popped quinoa can be
used in many ways, including as instant cereals and
as a base for energy bars. In Peru and other areas,
popped quinoa is known as quinoa manna (Mujica
et al., 2006).
The nutrional quality of quinoa may however de-
teriorate during this process. Talavera (2003, cited
by Mujica et al., 2006), found a wide range of pro-
tein levels in popped products of dierent variees:
12.6% for ‘Salcedo INIA’, 10.4% for ‘Sajama’, 9.4%
for ‘Blanca de Juli’ and 6.9% for ‘Kancolla’. It appears
that the percentage of protein diminishes consid-
erably in popped products. According to Villacres
et al. (2013), the process of popping also causes a
drop in palmic, oleic and linoleic acid levels.
In local lore, pisankalla is the popped form of qui-
noa processed using arsanal methods; it has been
part of the local diet for several millennia. The spe-
cic variees of quinoa used to make pisankalla
may have red or black grains, depending on the co-
lour of the episperm. These variees are known as
‘Pisankalla’ and ‘Quytu’. Grains are popped by put-
ng a handful of condioned grains (appropriate
moisture level) into a clay pot (jiwki) and heang it
over a re fuelled by cow or llama dung. The grain
is constantly srred as it roasts. The roasted grain
can be consumed directly or ground into an instant
product.
Situaon at Andean Valley S.A. before and aer implementaon of the technology developed by the Cen-
tro de Promoción de Tecnologías Sostenibles.
  
 
Quinoa grain processing capacity [tonnes/h] 0.09 0.66 0.57 (800%)
Percentage raw material lost [%] 3.5 1.0 2.5
Percentage of saponin dust recovered [%] 0.0 85.0 85.0
Installed electric power of the replaced technology [kVA] 31.5 15.3 16.2 (51%)
Specic electricity consumpon [kWh/tonne of quinoa] 101.6 23.2 77 (80%)
Specic water consumpon [m3/tonne of quinoa] 14 95 (36%)
Specic LPG consumpon [kg/tonne of quinoa] 33 12 21 (64%)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
243
4.3. Flour
Quinoa our is obtained by grinding quinoa from
which the saponins have been removed, using pres-
sure and fricon, and later airing it to obtain a light
powder. Quinoa our can be used in almost all prod-
ucts manufactured by the our industry, and up to
40% quinoa our may be used in making bread,
40% in pasta, 60% in sponge cakes and 70% in bis-
cuits (Mujica et al., 2006). Reynaga et al. (2013b)
report that for bread-making, the suggested rao is
19% quinoa our and 81% wheat our.
Quinoa our is tradionally obtained through a
process known as aku jupa, using appropriate va-
riees with small-sized grains. Once the saponins
are removed, the grains are ground on a tradional
grinding stone (qhuna). The our obtained is used
in various tradional dishes and pastries. Farmer
experience has shown that our processed on the
qhuna keeps longer without spoiling. Reynaga et al.
(2013b) suggest that our obtained using the grind-
ing stone has beer parcle size characteriscs
than our obtained from a hammer mill.
Bonifacio et al. (2013) suggest that some variees
can be used in baby formula, due to the shorter
me required for gelanizaon of their starch. Fur-
thermore, starch from white quinoa and ‘Pisankal-
la’ can be used as a thickener in creams and soups
(Pumacahua et al., 2013).
4.4. Noodles
Noodles or pastas are food products derived from
kneading and moulding unfermented blends of
wheat ours with potable water (Mujica et al.,
2006). Quinoa our provides an alternave for the
noodle and pasta industry, although it is not yet
known which of the dierent exisng variees are
best suited to the needs of the pasta industry. Rey-
naga et al. (2013a) studied industrial quality Boliv-
ian ‘Quinoa Real’ and found that the best rao for
noodles is 21% rice our (type 45) and 79% quinoa
our (type 45).
Reynaga et al. (2013b) tried quinoa our in the
preparaon of gluten-free pasta. They obtained
good results with the local ‘Pisankalla’ variety and
also with a blend of 50% rice our and 50% quinoa.
They experimented further by reducing the rice
our to 25% and increasing the quinoa our to 75%,
with sasfactory results.
4.5. Extruded products
Food extrusion is a cooking system that involves
high temperatures, high pressure and tangenal
stress (shearing) in a short period. It is used as a
means of restructuring starch and protein content
food material, thereby producing dierent types of
textured foods.
According to Mujica et al. (2006), the process in-
cludes the following events: a) starch gelanizaon
and dextrinizaon, protein texturing and paral de-
naturaon of the vitamins present; b) melng and
plascising of the food; and c) expansion by ash
evaporaon of moisture.
In the case of extruded quinoa alone and/or com-
bined, pearled quinoa is hydrated to 15% moisture
every 25 minutes; it is fed into the extruder and
goes through the mechanical thermal transion
area, where the raw material is mixed, compressed
and kneaded, transforming it from a granular struc-
ture to a semi-solid plasc dough. This process is
carried out at 150°–160°C and 1.2 atm of pres-
sure for 5–12 s. The dough is extruded through the
openings at the mouth of the machine and sheared
at the outlet with a rotatory cuer to obtain the de-
sired shape for the nal product. This system does
not aect the nutrional and organolepc quality:
the chemical content and protein rang remain al-
most stable compared with non-extruded granular
material. Indeed, the end product obtained is an
asepc food product is acceptable to the consumer
(Mujica et al., 2006).
4.6. Potenal products
Oils
The oil content in quinoa is quite high and varied
from 2% to 11% in the 555 Bolivian strains studied,
with an average of 6.39%. The quality of oil is good,
due to the high percentage of unsaturated fay
acids (approximately 89%), and includes 50–56%
linoleic acid (omega 6), 21–26% oleic acid (omega
6) and 4.8–8.1% linolenic acid (omega 3) (PROINPA
Foundaon, 2011). On account of these character-
iscs, quinoa helps to reduce bad cholesterol (LDL)
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
244 and increase good cholesterol (HDL), thus making
it a potenal source for the producon of oil as a
by-product.
Protein concentrates and isolates
Due to its high protein content (12–18.9% in the
555 Bolivian strains studied by PROINPA), and be-
cause it provides all the essenal amino acids, qui-
noa is of parcular interest for the producon of
protein concentrates and isolates (> 80%), for use
as the main ingredients in high value-added food
formulas.
To obtain protein concentrates or isolates from qui-
noa in a typical laboratory process (Mujica et al.,
2006), the fat-free germ or embryo of quinoa must
rst be isolated. To do this, the quinoa grain is rst
cleaned to remove all impuries, soil and small har-
vest residues before being washed to completely
eliminate the saponins. The grain is le to soak unl
it germinates, at which point it is ground roughly to
separate the embryo from the starch. Subsequently,
the germ is dried and ground and the fat extracted.
The quinoa germ from which the fat has been re-
moved goes through a process of high temperature
alkaline extracon (pH 11.5 at 50°C), centrifuging,
washing with water, followed by another round of
centrifuging. The result is a solid residue, which is
subjected to isoelectric precipitaon at a pH value
of 4.8 to centrifuge it again to remove the liquid.
The solid maer is subsequently washed with wa-
ter, centrifuged and nally put through a vacuum
drying process (30°C) toobtain quinoa protein iso-
lates and concentrates with adequate funconal
characteriscs.
Using the defaed germ of the ‘Kancolla’ variety,
Guerrero (1989, cited by Mujica et al., 2006) ob-
tained a dry isolate in granulated form and a cream-
coloured colourless, tasteless powder. The proximal
chemical composion in the dry base was: 87.8%
protein, 0.22% fat, 1.3% bre, 1.4% ashes and
9.28% carbohydrates. Similarly, it contained an ad-
equate balance of amino acids except for sulphur
compounds, with a net protein ulizaon of 48.5.
Mufari et al. (2013) compared convenonal iso-
electric precipitaon and the enzymac method of
obtaining quinoa protein concentrates. The enzy-
mac method used four enzymes: α-amylase, glu-
coamylase, pullulanase and cellulase, in the pres-
ence of a pH 5 sodium acetate buer, to convert
starch and cellulose into soluble glucose, producing
a protein-enriched residue. The protein concentra-
ons obtained were lower (38%) than the conven-
onal method (53%). The enzymac method allows
for a higher recovery of inial proteins: 43% against
15% recovery using the tradional method, and it
has the added advantage of producing a glucose-
rich supernatant by-product. The authors suggest
opmizing the condions to obtain higher protein
concentraons.
Starches
Quinoa is also a major source of carbohydrates. The
starch content in the dry maer is 54%, the gran-
ule is polygonal in shape, with a size of 0.6–2.0 μm,
and is located in the perisperm as individual enes
or compound aggregates of spherical or oval shape
and measuring 16–34 μm (Ruales and Nair, 1994a).
Other authors (González et al., 1989) reported val-
ues of 32.6% for the ‘Sajama’ variety. The amylose
content is 7.1–11.2% and the molecular structure
of the amylopecn is very similar to waxy starch,
with approximately 35% grade crystallinity (Tang et
al., 2002; Qian and Kuhn, 1999).
Starch digesbility does not vary signicantly when
grains are processed; unprocessed grain has a di-
gesve ulizaon rao of 72%, while grain that has
been parboiled at 60°C for 20 minutes has a 77%
digesve ulizaon rao. A higher degree of starch
dextrinizaon improves binding and savoury quali-
es, i.e. the taste and texture, of the nal product
(Ruales and Nair, 1994b).
Compared to wheat and barley starch, quinoa starch
is more viscous and has beer water retenon and
expansion capacies. Gelanizaon also occurs at
a slightly higher temperature. These results trans-
late into beer performance as a thickening agent
for llings, but are not so good for preparing quinoa
starch-based breads and cakes (Lorenz, 1990). Com-
pared with maize starch, however, quinoa starch is
less soluble and less viscous (Ahamed et al., 1996).
Due to its physicochemical properes, quinoa starch
has been used in the preparaon of baby foods. It
has good stability when subjected to freezing and
thawing – a phenomenon known as freeze-thaw
stability – and is thus suitable for use in manufac-
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
245
turing preprepared frozen foods. Other authors also
point to the opacity of the gelanized starch, which
makes it ideal for use in emulsied food products,
such as salad dressings. (Ahamed et al., 1996).

In response to the increase in quinoa producon in
recent years, there have been ongoing eorts to de-
velop industrial-scale technological innovaons for
the harvest and post-harvest stages, to replace the
tradional manual cropping pracces used in pro-
ducing the Andean grain. Inially, agricultural ma-
chinery designed for other types of grain was used.
These technologies were later gradually adapted to
suit the requirements of quinoa and nally, eorts
were made to promote the development and con-
strucon of purpose-built machines for this crop.
The current mechanizaon of quinoa producon
has advantages and disadvantages. Despite in-
creased recovery of the grain produced and a re-
ducon of impuries (resulng in improvement of
the nal quality of harvested and processed grain),
the environmental impact could sll be negave
due to loss of plant cover, soil degradaon and ero-
sion in producon areas. It is, therefore, important
to incorporate environmentally friendly and conser-
vaon-conscious principles when developing new
technologies. The rising demand for organic quinoa
makes a posive contribuon in this direcon.
Despite the fact that convenonal breeding meth-
ods have produced low saponin content quinoa vari-
ees and generated more knowledge about the ge-
nec structure of this species, the most commonly
culvated variees today are the bier, high saponin
content variees and ecotypes with grains requiring
saponin removal prior to consumpon. It is believed
that the saponins themselves are a defence mecha-
nism protecng the plant against pests and diseases
(i.e. invasion by insects, birds and rodents). Further-
more, some of the bier ecotypes and variees
are more genecally stable and are endowed with
special characteriscs, as is the case of the ‘Quinoa
Real’ ecotype – in high demand on the internaonal
market for its grain size of about 2.5 mm.
Although current saponin removal methods sll ap-
ply the basic principles of tradional processes, it is
worth nong that with enhanced scienc knowl-
edge about the characteriscs of the episperm
and the properes of saponins, major progress has
been made in the development of equipment and
appropriate technology.
Saponins are easily removed because they are lo-
cated in the outer layers of the grain. Dry saponin
removal methods make use of the inherent abra-
sive qualies of the episperm resulng from the
structure of the plant ssue. Removal is a lot more
eecve and uniform when grains rub against each
other, since the friconal force is similar to or less
than that when the grains are rubbed against a
rough surface. It is, therefore, possible to beer
control the hulling process and obtain higher and
more uniform episperm removal (and hence sapo-
nin-removal percentages). Despite the ovoid shape
of the seed, the fragility of its embryo and exposure
to the environment, the nutrional quality of the
seed is not aected by the friconal force between
the grains.
Heang, an element used in both tradional dry
and wet methods, has not yet been incorporated
into the design of new saponin removal processes.
The tradional grain roasng technique is not se-
riously considered, because it colours the grain as
a result of the reacon between proteins and re-
ducing sugars present in the grain, and there is a
possible breakdown of the saponins. Nevertheless,
increasing the temperature of the water used to
wash the grain may improve the process of extract-
ing the saponins, as it soens the episperm ssue
and makes it more soluble, which facilitates and ac-
celerates leaching. In order to avoid modifying the
physical and chemical properes of the grain, the
temperature must under no circumstances exceed
the protein denaturaon temperature or the starch
gelanizaon temperature.
A greater understanding of water absorpon mech-
anisms and the distribuon of saponins in the grain
has made it possible to idenfy the best periods for
washing and to achieve more appropriate designs,
so that the water penetrates only as far as the lay-
ers where saponins are found. Consequently, the
other layers of the episperm are not hydrated, the
amount of water used is signicantly reduced and
drying me is much shorter. Drying is also a crical
stage that needs to be adequately controlled to pre-
vent microbial growth. The nal moisture content
of the grain should be < 13.5 %.
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
246 Although combined methods have been improved,
the amounts of water used in the washing phase
are sll signicantly high at 5–15 m3/tonne of pro-
cessed quinoa, especially in regions where water is
scarce. In the Bolivian Alplano, for example, an-
nual rainfall is only 150–200 mm (Fundación PIEB,
2010). These processes also generate residual
waters contaminated with saponins that, in many
cases, are discharged untreated into natural bodies,
with the risk that they may upset the balance of the
ecosystems. Furthermore, environmental regula-
ons on water and soil polluon are becoming in-
creasingly stringent with regard to accepted limits
of discharge. This could lead to an overhaul or even
the eliminaon of the wet or combined saponin re-
moval methods.
Enhanced recovery of residues (episperm and sa-
ponins)s is another aspect to be considered when
designing saponin removal equipment and technol-
ogy. Saponins have mulple uses in the industrial
sector (Kuljanabhagavad and Wink, 2009), and resi-
due from hulling is no longer considered “waste”
residue with no commercial value; on the contrary,
it is seen as a by-product with a good market price.
There is a need to develop methods that make it
possible, not only to recover a greater quanty of
saponins in dry removal, but to isolate the porons
with the highest concentraon of saponins. This
comparave advantage could be used to promote
the culvaon of other variees and ecotypes of
quinoa. Variees and ecotypes with smaller grains
and perhaps lower nutrional quality, but high sa-
ponin content, could be culvated in regions out-
side the tradional producing areas; this is the case
for quinoa culvated in the Inter-Andean valleys.
When developing equipment and technology for sa-
ponin removal, it is important to consider, not only
good processing capacity the ability to provide an
end product of internaonal quality standards, but
also environmental protecon and conservaon
factors: i) reducon of water and energy consump-
on; and ii) reducon of contaminated solid and
liquid residues. To this end, many of the prototypes
constructed have good potenal for adaptaon to
industrial level, responding both to the technical
requirements of eciency and grain quality and to
environmental and economic requirements.
There are currently many quinoa products on the
market (e.g. expanded products, our, noodles,
akes, extruded products, cereal and energy bars)
made from saponin-free grains. In addion, re-
search connues on the development of new com-
bined products that could generate more interest
in quinoa consumpon. However, lile has been
done to date to develop products requiring more
complex technologies for separang acve ingredi-
ents and nutrional components, such as oil, pro-
tein concentrates and isolates, starch, quinoa milk,
saponin derivaves, dyes from leaves and seeds.
These high value-added products, which are sll
being researched, are considered to represent the
economic potenal of quinoa: they make use of not
only its nutrional properes, but also its physi-
cochemical characteriscs. In the light of the vast
genec variety that exists in the Andean regions,
quinoa could transcend the food industry to pro-
vide products for the chemical, pharmaceucal and
cosmec industries. In order to develop this poten-
al, local producon capacity needs to be boosted
through appropriate planning, including research
on process and product development and subse-
quent technology transfer.

Projecons in the sector indicate that demand for
this ancestral grain – especially organic quinoa –
will connue to rise,. This will inspire the improve-
ment of agricultural machinery currently available
on the market, with the opmizaon of processes
and technological innovaon, not only in the har-
vest and post-harvest stages, but throughout the
producon chain. The objecves will be to increase
yield, improve grain quality, reduce water and ener-
gy consumpon and generaon of waste, and mi-
gate the intrinsic negave environmental impacts.
Industrial saponin removal uses the combined
method, to meet the quality standards for commer-
cializaon of quinoa grain, especially with regard to:
i) grain integrity, ii) nutrional value, and iii) nal sa-
ponin content. Current combined processes enable
saponin removal to reach levels of 0.01–0.06% (as
required on the internaonal market), which is far
below the values detected by the palate. The most
eecve systems use the dry method to remove up
CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
247
to 95% of saponins in the huller, with a grain mass
loss of approximately 5–7%. The rest of the saponin
is removed during washing, when the grain remains
in contact with the water for barely 2 minutes – or
even just seconds.
With the equipment and technology currently avail-
able, it is not yet possible to process large volumes
of quinoa using the dry method, without compro-
mising the nutrional quality and changing the
grain shape. There are some arsanal dry-method
prototypes with high eciency in terms of saponin
removal and recovery of the saponins, but these
are yet to be developed on an industrial scale.
The latest technologies recognize the value of the
saponin-rich episperm residues, which have mul-
ple uses in the industrial sector and therefore seek
to recover as much of these chemical components
as possible during the removal the process. The
presence of saponin should be considered yet an-
other opportunity presented by quinoa.
Because of its physicochemical, rheological, nu-
trional properes and its agronomic versality,
quinoa is increasingly incorporated in the prepara-
on of a range of foods; nevertheless, only a small
poron of its potenal has to date been explored,
especially in terms of higher value-added products.
Today, the “golden grain” is considered a strategic
crop poised to contribute to global food security.
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CHAPTER: 3.1 TRADITIONAL PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN
QUINOA HARVESTING PROCESSING AND INDUSTRIALIZATION
... Additionally, quinoa contains about to 4% saponins. However, this level is much lower than the levels of consumption that have been shown to negatively affect ruminal fermentation and nutrient digestion in ruminants (Quiroga et al. 2017;Kholif and Olafadehan 2021). Saponins are known to decrease the population of ruminal archaea and protozoa in the rumen and thereby reduce rumen methanogenesis (Nowak et al. 2016). ...
... In the present experiment, quinoa whole plant contained 27.7, 5.35, 44.6, 12.7, and 9.73% for A, B 1 , B 2 , B 3 , and C fractions, respectively. Quinoa in this research contained 2.9% saponin, which is less than the level that may depress the population of ruminal archaea and protozoa in the rumen and reduce rumen methanogenesis (Nowak et al. 2016) or cause negative effects on ruminal digestion (Quiroga et al. 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
Replacement of conventional feedstuffs with inexpensive and non-conventional ingredients such as quinoa may improve animal performance and the quality of their products. Quinoa supplementation is believed to have a good nutritive value as a ruminant feed, but evidence is scarce. The present experiment aimed to evaluate the nutritive value of whole, dried quinoa plant (Chenopodium quinoa) as a feed for ruminants. In the first experiment, the in sacco technique was used to evaluate nutrient disappearance and fermentation kinetics of quinoa. In the second experiment, the in vitro gas production technique was used to evaluate diets with substitution of clover hay with quinoa at 0 (Q0), 15 (Q15), 30 (Q30), and 45% (Q45) of the diets. Proximate analysis showed that quinoa contained about 18.6% crude protein (CP) with oleic acid, arachic acid, linoleic acid, and palmitic acid as the major fatty acids. The in sacco degradability showed that the “a” fraction of dry matter (DM) was low, while the fraction “b” was high for DM and CP. Replacing clover hay with quinoa did not affect gas or methane production; however, Q30 treatment quadratically increased (P < 0.05) its production. It is concluded that quinoa can be used as a feed for ruminants and can replace clover hay up to 45% in the diet.
... Nonetheless, F16 shows agronomically positive characteristics linked to morphological aspects, including large seeds (above 3.3 mm 2 ). The simple habit shown by this genotype with few secondary panicles concentrated around the primary panicle , facilitates harvesting allowing a higher-scale production (Gómez-Pando and Aguilar-Castellanos, 2016;Quiroga, 2015). Besides, the lower quantity of seeds coming from SP helps avoid yield losses due to the asynchronism of maturity between PP and SP (Ceccato et al., 2011;Mujica et al., 2013) and ensures a lower number of smaller seeds. ...
... The maximum saponin range for consumer acceptance is 0.06%-0.12%. 13 In an effort to improve the agronomic properties and development of quinoa cultivars with desirable profiles, its genome was recently assembled 14 and the metabolic diversity (e.g., saponins) in 471 quinoa cultivars was determined. 15 Although 90%-95% of saponins can be removed by different desaponification methods (e.g., mechanical abrasion, washing), 16 a bitter aftertaste has been reported in quinoa-rich products. ...
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Background Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a gluten‐free pseudocereal, rich in starch and high‐quality proteins. It can be used as a cereal. Recently, a variety of nontraditional food products were developed; however, the sharp bitterness and the earthy aroma of unprocessed quinoa interfered with the acceptance of these products. Malting of cereals is known to improve their processing properties and enhance their sensory quality. To evaluate the acceptance and potential of quinoa malt as a raw material for beverage production, malt quality indicators (e.g., soluble protein) and the aroma profiles of different quinoa malts were compared. Results Initial sensory assessment of quinoa in its native and malted state identified differences in their aroma profiles and revealed that pleasant nutty and caramel aromas were formed by malting. Subsequently, three complementary isolation techniques and gas chromatography‐olfactometry/mass spectrometry (GC‐O/MS) were used for volatile analysis. Instrumental analysis detected 34 and 62 odor‐active regions in native quinoa and quinoa malt, respectively. In the second part, storage and the impact of three malting parameters on volatile formation were examined. By varying the malting parameters, seven additional odor‐active malting byproducts were revealed. Conclusion Three naturally occurring methoxypyrazines were identified as important contributors to the characteristic quinoa aroma. In all fresh quinoa malts a similar number of volatile compounds was perceived but their intensity and composition varied. Higher germination temperature promoted the formation of lipid oxidation products. Fatty smelling compounds and carboxylic acids, formed during storage, were classified as aging indicators of quinoa malt. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
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Among various size reduction techniques, high-energy ball milling is one of the most attractive means for plant-based foods. The objectives of the work were to investigate the influence of ball diameters (3, 6, and 13 mm) and milling time (2, 4, and 6 h) on particle size and microstructural properties of quinoa flours. Particle size analysis demonstrated that ball-milled particles were mostly in the range of nanoscales (122-295 nm). A longer milling time with larger balls significantly increased the particles to microscale (3.58 μm). The scanning electron microscopy displayed the conversion of quinoa starch granules into flakes after ball milling, however, the X-ray diffraction crystallinity peak observed at a 2θ value of 19 to 20° did not change. The AFM roughness parameters, arithmetic and squared mean heights of flours increased with increasing ball diameters. These results provided new insights for the application of ball milling, in particular in functional foods and pickering emulsion.
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Quinoa is an annual and a pseudocereal plant, which is a good source of minerals, vitamins, polyphenolic compounds, phytosterols and flavonoids. In addition, quinoa contains less sodium, but more calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, iron, copper, manganese, and zinc than wheat, barley, and corn, and contains high amounts of vitamin E and B group vitamins, including riboflavin, thiamine and niacin. All these characteristics make quinoa a suitable option in terms of nutritional value, safety and functional properties in recent years. Therefore, this article studies the functional properties and safety of this important product.
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Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Wild.) has attracted considerable attention owing to its unique nutritional, economic, and medicinal values. Meanwhile, quinoa germplasm resources and grain colors are rich and diverse. In this study, we analyzed the composition of primary and secondary metabolites and the content of the grains of four different high-yield quinoa cultivars (black, red, white, and yellow) harvested 42 days after flowering. The grains were subjected to ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) and transcriptome sequencing to identify the differentially expressed genes and metabolites. Analysis of candidate genes regulating the metabolic differences among cultivars found that the metabolite profiles differed between white and black quinoa, and that there were also clear differences between red and yellow quinoa. It also revealed significantly altered amino acid, alkaloid, tannin, phenolic acid, and lipid profiles among the four quinoa cultivars. Six common enrichment pathways, including phenylpropane biosynthesis, amino acid biosynthesis, and ABC transporter, were common to metabolites and genes. Moreover, we identified key genes highly correlated with specific metabolites and clarified the relationship between them. Our results provide theoretical and practical references for breeding novel quinoa cultivars with superior quality, yield, and stress tolerance. Furthermore, these findings introduce an original approach of integrating genomics and transcriptomics for screening target genes that regulate the desirable traits of quinoa grain.
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En El auge y la caída evidencio y analizo la complejidad que caracteriza a la comunidad rural y al campesinado contemporáneo del Altiplano sur boliviano. Para ello, realizo un análisis desde la antropología económica, a partir de una reflexión orientada en una mercancía: la quinua. O, lo que Roseberry denominaba commodity orientation. Este libro propone un análisis antropológico del campesinado contemporáneo del Altiplano sur boliviano desde la economía política, inspirado en las propuestas metodológicas de William Roseberry y Tania Murray Li. Las propuestas metodológicas de ambos autores me permitieron analizar el contexto actual, es decir, el ciclo de declive de la quinua y las contradicciones por las que atraviesa el campesinado, pero también combinar este análisis con una revisión y reflexión histórica para comprender cómo determinados aspectos del campesinado emergen por la influencia de los actores locales y del sistema global en el presente, mientras que otros corresponden a procesos pasados.
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Se ha minimizado el consumo específico de energía para el novedoso proceso de beneficiado en seco de quinua, mediante el empleo de un lecho fluidizado de tipo surtidor (LFTS). Se estudiaron las condiciones de operación y características básicas de funcionamiento del lecho, en la remoción de saponinas de la quinua real blanca, proveniente de zonas productivas en los departamentos de Oruro y Potosí. Se utilizaron dos reactores de vidrio a escala laboratorio de 7,5 y 20 cm de diámetro , boquillas de 1,4 a 5 mm de diámetro y alturas de lecho estático entre 12,5 y 17,5 cm. Los reactores de laboratorio se alimentaron de aire utilizando un compresor de 400 Lmin -1 de capacidad, provisto de dos medidores de flujo de 10-280 Lmin -1 y de un filtro de humedad y aceite. Muestras de quinua real blanca fueron procesadas en estos equipos de acuerdo a un diseño experimental, evaluándose el efecto de los factores: diámetro de reactor, diámetro de boquilla, altura de lecho y tiempo de proceso sobre el consumo específico de energía, el porcentaje de remoción de saponinas y el porcentaje de pérdida de masa. Los factores más preponderantes sobre el consumo específico de energía son: el diámetro de boquilla, diámetro de lecho, tiempo de proceso y altura de lecho, lográndose valores de consumo específico de energía mínimos (0,23 kWh kg -1 ) con la siguiente combinación: diámetro de boquilla 3 mm, diámetro de lecho 20 cm, altura de lecho de 12,5 cm y 60 min de tiempo. En estas condiciones se obtuvo un valor próximo a 0,01 % de saponinas y una pérdida de masa menor al 5%. Estos valores son inferiores a los obtenidos en estudios anteriores. Para calcular la caída de presión en el lecho fluidizado de tipo surtidor, se han obtenido nuevos valores de las constantes K y n de la ecuación de Lama: K = 9,2572 y n = 0,3308, para el lecho de 7,5 cm de diámetro y K = 12,8453 y n = 0,3451 para el de 20 cm El uso de estas constantes permitió calcular la caída de presión global del sistema con bastante aproximación, respecto de los valores experimentales obtenidos para diferentes diámetros de boquilla y alturas de lecho. En general, las caídas de presión globales, para esta configuración de LFTS, son pequeñas, comparadas con las observadas en el anterior estudio [11], lo cual permitiría utilizar sopladores más económicos, en lugar de compresores de más alto precio, aspecto que favorece la economía del proceso.
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Se han identificado las condiciones óptimas de operación para la recuperación de saponinas, dentro del beneficiado en seco de granos de quinua amarga, mediante la aplicación de un lecho fluidizado de tipo surtidor, desarrollado por los Centros de Investigación de la Universidad Privada Boliviana. Las pruebas experimentales se realizaron con 3 ecotipos de Quinua Real: Blanca, Amarilla y Rosada, en un reactor de vidrio a escala laboratorio, de 7,5 cm de diámetro, alimentado con aire por medio de un compresor de 400 Lmin -1 , provisto de un filtro para eliminar la humedad y el aceite del aire. Se evaluaron los efectos de las variables: tiempo de procesamiento, diámetro de boquilla, ecotipo de Quinua Real y altura de lecho, en la calidad de los residuos sólidos colectados (contenido de saponinas) y en la calidad del grano de quinua (contenido de saponinas remanente y pérdida de masa). El contenido de saponinas en las muestras se cuantificó por el Método de la Espuma (afrosimétrico) y el Método Espectrofotométrico (colorimétrico). Para los ecotipos de Quinua Real Blanca y Amarilla, el tiempo óptimo para la recuperación de saponinas es de 5 minutos, con un diámetro de boquilla de 1,1 mm y una altura de lecho d e 7,5 cm, obteniéndose concentraciones de saponinas de 4,88 % y 6,18 % respectivamente. Para el ecotipo de Quinua Real Rosada, el tiempo óptimo para la recuperación de saponinas es de 3 minutos, con una concentración en saponinas de 5,75 %. A estos tiempos de procesamiento, los granos de quinua han sufrido una pérdida de masa entre 2,5 – 3 %, y el porcentaje de saponinas aún está por encima de los niveles de aceptación para consumo humano, i.e. mayores al 0,12 %, por tanto, se debe continuar con el proceso de remoción de las saponinas del episperma de los granos de quinua hasta los niveles requeridos por el consumidor. El porcentaje de saponinas en los residuos sólidos incrementa cuando se trabaja con materia prima muy bien seleccionada, i.e. materia prima con la menor cantidad de impurezas posible. En todas las pruebas realizadas, los porcentajes de saponinas son mayores al de los residuos sólidos de la etapa de escarificado de las empresas beneficiadoras que usan el método convencional. El empleo de un lecho fluidizado de tipo surtidor en el beneficiado de ecotipos y variedades de quinua amarga, permite la recuperación total de las saponinas, obteniéndose fracciones de residuos sólidos con contenidos altos de saponinas, que tienen un mejor precio en el mercado. Siendo las principales variables de operación que se deben controlar en el proceso: el tiempo de procesamiento, el diámetro de boquilla y el ecotipo o variedad de quinua.
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La tecnología desarrollada para el beneficiado de variedades amargas de quinua en seco tiene per se varios beneficios respecto a las ofertas tecnológicas actuales: ahorro en el consumo de agua y recursos no renovables (gas), la no generación de efluentes contaminados con saponinas y la recuperación total de las saponinas. En este trabajo se evaluó la calidad de la quinua beneficiada, para ello, se realizaron pruebas experimentales en los equipos de laboratorio y prototipo piloto con 3 ecotipos de Quinua Real (Blanca, Amarilla y Rosada) de las zonas de Garci Mendoza y Uyuni. Muestras de quinua fueron procesadas de acuerdo a un diseño experimental, evaluándose el efecto de las variables: ecotipo, diámetro de reactor, diámetro de boquilla y altura de lecho en el porcentaje de remoción de saponinas, la calidad nutritiva (porcentaje de proteína y materia grasa) y cambios en la morfología del grano procesado. Los resultados muestran claramente que los factores preponderantes en la remoción de saponinas son el diámetro de reactor, el diámetro de la boquilla, seguido del ecotipo. Las condiciones óptimas de procesamiento se dan en los intervalos de 1,4 a 1,8 mm para el diámetro de boquilla y 7,5 a 12,5 cm para el diámetro de reactor y una altura de lecho de 12,5 cm, en estos intervalos los niveles del contenido de saponina en el grano están entre 0 y 0,02 %, niveles muy por debajo de lo que establece la Norma Boliviana NB NA 0038 (< 0,12 %). La calidad nutritiva de la quinua no sufre ningún deterioro, los porcentajes de proteína y materia grasa están por encima de los niveles mínimos establecidos en la norma anteriormente mencionada, > 10 % y > 4 % respectivamente, y tampoco hay signos de daños en la superficie de la microestructura del grano. Por tanto, se puede concluir que la quinua beneficiada en el reactor de lecho fluidizado de tipo surtidor tiene una calidad igual o mejor a la quinua que ha sido escarificada, lavada y secada durante el beneficiado.
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Se ha desarrollado un proceso novedoso de beneficiado en seco de quinua, mediante el empleo de un lecho fluidizado de tipo surtidor (LFTS). Se estudiaron las características básicas de funcionamiento del lecho en la remoción de saponinas de 3 ecotipos amargos de quinua real provenientes de zonas productivas en los departamentos de Oruro y Potosí. Se construyeron dos reactores de vidrio a escala laboratorio de 7,5 y 20 cm de diámetro y boquillas de 1,4 y 3,4 mm y un prototipo piloto de sección rectangular de 10 cm de ancho por 40 cm de alto y 40 cm de largo, con una sección angular en la parte inferior donde se instalaron boquillas con una distancia entre ejes de 10 cm. Tanto los reactores de laboratorio como el reactor piloto, se alimentaron de aire a través de un compresor de 400 Lmin-1 de capacidad, provisto de un medidor de flujo de 10-100 Lmin-1 y de un filtro de humedad y aceite. Muestras de quinua fueron procesadas en estos equipos de acuerdo a un diseño experimental multifactorial, evaluándose el efecto de los factores: ecotipo, diámetro de reactor, diámetro de boquilla y altura de lecho sobre el porcentaje de remoción de saponinas, la calidad nutritiva (porcentaje de proteína), el porcentaje de pérdida de masa y el consumo específico de energía. Los factores más preponderantes sobre la remoción de saponinas son el diámetro del lecho y el diámetro de la boquilla, seguidos del ecotipo, lográndose valores de saponinas mínimos (0 - 0,02%), tanto para los ecotipos individuales como para sus mezclas, con la siguiente combinación: diámetro de boquilla 1,4-1,8 mm; diámetro de lecho 7,5-12,5 cm; altura de lecho de 12,5 cm y 30 min de tiempo. Ninguno de los factores estudiados tiene un efecto significativo sobre el contenido de proteínas y las pérdidas de masa. En general, tanto la remoción de saponinas como la pérdida de masa ocurren a mayor velocidad durante los primeros minutos. Las saponinas extraídas durante la desaponificación se recuperan en su totalidad. Los ecotipos más resistentes a la fricción entre granos de quinua son: (1) Toledo de Salinas de G. Mendoza; (2) Blanca de Uyuni; (3) Blanca de Salinas de G. Mendoza; (4) Amarilla de Uyuni y (5) Rosada de Uyuni, en ese orden. El desempeño de remoción de saponinas del prototipo piloto de paredes planas y sección rectangular es similar al del lecho de sección circular operado bajo las condiciones óptimas. Sin embargo, en ambos casos, el consumo específico de energía eléctrica es alto cuando se utiliza un compresor a pistón comercial (0,621 kWh/kg quinua procesada para prototipo piloto y 1,259 kWh/kg para condiciones óptimas de laboratorio). Como conclusión general se puede afirmar que la configuración del lecho fluidizado de tipo surtidor que no utiliza agua es idónea para la remoción de saponinas de diferentes variedades de quinua amarga en escala de laboratorio.
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The presence of saponin-bodies in Chenopodium quinoa Willd. fruit was established. The identification of saponin-bodies in the pericarp cells was found through optical and electronic microscopy, and chemical methods. Through electronic and optical microscopy the saponin-bodies exhibited a globe-shape. The saponin-bodies were about 6.5 μm in diameter and they appear as an aggregate which would be formed by 4 or 5 small granules (2.2 μm diameter). Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed a different ultrastructure in relation to starch granules. Enzymatic digestion with amyloglucosydase did not show disappearance of saponin-bodies.
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In this era of ever-increasing world population, newer food and feed crops that have been hitherto neglected are gaining recognition. The rejection of such lesser-known food crops has been due not to any inferiority but to the lack of research resources in the place of origin and often to their being scorned as “poor people's plants.” The genus Chenopodium supplies tasty and nutritious leaves as well as pink- to cream-coloured edible seeds. Tolerance to cold, drought, and salinity and the high lysine content of the seed protein are the attractive features of quinoa (Chenopodiumquinoa), the most frequently consumed species in the Andean regions of South America, Africa, some parts of Asia, and Europe. This review compares and evaluates the nutritional and antinutritional constituents of the leaves and seeds of C. quinoa vis-à-vis their conventional counterparts and argues for the acceptance of this plant in human diets.
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The stability of various descriptive characters was studied over a 5-year period in 14 lines of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) to determine the most appropriate time in a breeding programme when selection for these characters could be performed, and which lines could serve as potential parents. Various measures of stability were employed to analyse these data, including those proposed by Francis and Kannenberg (1978) and Lin and Binns (1988), appropriately modified for the purpose of this investigation. From these results it was concluded that selection for height, inflorescence size and developmental stage could be satisfactorily performed at an early stage of the breeding programme. For saponin content, however, the measuring techniques available were too insensitive to enable a recommendation to be made. Potential parents were identified in this material for use in the development of varieties suitable for North European conditions.