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Design Methodology
Abstract
Stimulated by the growth of multimedia, the World Wide Web, and the convergence of communication and information technologies, the nature and potential of digital learning materials are rapidly changing. Design and development methods have to adapt to the new situation. In this chapter an overview of traditional design and development methodologies used for the realization of digital learning material is given, as well as problems and issues associated with their application. From these problems and issues a new direction for design and development is advocated, based on context responsiveness. An example of such an approach, called the 3-Space Design Strategy, is described.
... Whatever method is used, it has to be responsive to the diversity of learners' needs and situations, to whatever technologies are available, and to the cultural idiosyncrasies of the learning context (Soloway et al., 1996). The lack of unified theories for functional specifications of DLEs can make the design situation unpredictable (Moonen, 2002). Such uncertainty gives, for instance, rise to the need for a formative design process. ...
... The focus in ID models falls more on the pedagogical side of the development process (Moallem, 2001). Contemporary ID models, for example, stress learner-centered approaches, reflection and formative development (McKenna & Laycock, 2004;Moonen, 2002). DR includes a series of approaches that issue in technological designs and practices for learning and teaching (Barab & Squire, 2004). ...
Introduction: This article explores the impact of Web 3.0 and Web 4.0 contents dominant in the information environment on modern thinking. The purpose of the article is an analytical study of the changes that occur in the thinking of Internet consumers. Materials and Methods: The research is conducted on the basis of the method of theoretical analysis by adopting an activity and synergistic approaches. Results: The authors have identified the following main characteristics of Web 3.0 and Web 4.0 content: semantic structure, cooper ativity, clustering, wide opportunities for consumer self-expression, self-developing basic personal content, self-correcting errors system, efficient and convenient information management, accessibility, simplicity and maximum convenience, development and use of additional features, human resource management in the current time mode, crystallization, and the availability of maximum possible security of consumers. The authors emphasize that in the present context of accelerating scientific and technological progress and the development of global information networks, qualitative changes in the thinking activity of the modern person are taking place. Content has a developing effect on consumers' thinking and thinking itself becomes like content. The authors suggest the hypothesis that there exist a combination of two mechanisms of self-development of content thinking: the external mechanism - the self-development of content, and the internal mechanism - the reflection. Conclusions: Conclusions are drawn that the main characteristics of such thinking are the following: accumulation of many different types and styles of thinking, the leading method is synthetic deduction, increasing entropy, increasing singularity, operation within the framework of the "peace" category, expanding and tapering integrity, variability and different levels of clusters of processing and packaging of information, bringing thought to the ultimate limits of philosophical categories, multivector focus of reality research, and creative self-development. The limitation of content thinking is a reduction of a reflection level as a consequence of a scanning method of working with information.
... Whatever method is used, it has to be responsive to the diversity of learners' needs and situations, to whatever technologies are available, and to the cultural idiosyncrasies of the learning context (Soloway et al., 1996). The lack of unified theories for functional specifications of DLEs can make the design situation unpredictable (Moonen, 2002). Such uncertainty gives, for instance, rise to the need for a formative design process. ...
... The focus in ID models falls more on the pedagogical side of the development process (Moallem, 2001). Contemporary ID models, for example, stress learner-centered approaches, reflection and formative development (McKenna & Laycock, 2004;Moonen, 2002). DR includes a series of approaches that issue in technological designs and practices for learning and teaching (Barab & Squire, 2004). ...
FODEM (FOrmative DEvelopment Method) is a design method for developing digital learning environments for widely dispersed learning communities. These are communities in which the geographical distribution and density of learners is low when compared to the kind of learning communities in which there is a high distribution and density of learners (such as those that exist in urban areas where courses are developed and taken by hundreds or thousands of learners who are simultaneously present in the area). Since only limited resources can be allocated for the design of a digital learning environment for widely dispersed learning communities, it is necessary to use what limited funds are available to obtain valid feedback from stakeholders and to utilize such feedback in an optimal way. In terms of the FODEM model, the design process consists of asynchronous development threads with three interrelated components: (1) needs analysis, (2) implementation, and (3) formative evaluation. In needs analysis, both theory and practice are used to define specifications for the environment. In implementation, fast prototyping in authentic learning settings is emphasized. Finally, formative evaluation is used to evaluate the use of the environment within the thread. FODEM has been applied to develop ViSCoS (Virtual Studies of Computer Science) online studies and LEAP (LEArning Process companion) digital learning too in the rural regions of Finland where the population is geographically widely dispersedly.
... learners). Moonen suggests that a learning material design process should be processoriented emphasizing gradually evolving relationship between the tool and its intended user [4]. Our method of formatively analyzing the usage of learning portfolios plays an important role in the development process of PPA. ...
... • The aim was to develop effective and sustainable solutions, avoiding designs based on intuition and 'recipes' (Lowyck 2002); • The developed solutions should have been contextual, addressing local problems and supporting learners' needs (Abdelraheem 2003); and • Design processes should be flexible and adaptable to handle unfamiliar situations and to cope with uncertainty (Moonen 2002). ...
Formative development method (FODEM) is a multithreaded design approach that was originated to support the design and development of various types of educational technology innovations, such as learning tools, and online study programmes. The threaded and agile structure of the approach provides flexibility to the design process. Intensive stakeholder feedback is a vital aspect of FODEM. As a formative method that emphasizes research-orientation and evaluation through the entire development process, this article proposes that FODEM is fundamentally also a research and development method. FODEM provides tools to conceptualize the development process via its distinguishing feature, namely a dynamic thread structure. FODEM can be used to manage, analyse and visualise the overall design process at different stages. FODEM can also be used to create different conceptulisations of a design process in order to identify successes and failures.
... Educational interventions are usually viewed holistically, as enacted through interactions among materials, teachers, and students. Different design models can be identified, for example, a nine-phase design model for instructional computer programs (Clements & Battista, 2000), a research-based process including several stages for designing learning materials (Juuti, 2005;, and a three-space design strategy for designing computer software (Moonen, 2002). Table 1.5.2 ...
Reflection document by Prof. dr. B.A. Collis and Prof. dr. J.C.M.M. Moonen on the occasion of their retirement as professors in the Faculty of Behavioral Sciences of the University of Twente on Thursday 15 September 2005
Traditional design methods for digital learning environments are based on rigid approaches, which need substantial resource investments, and do not take into account the needs of sparse learning communities. FODEM (formative development method) is an action-research-oriented method consisting of three components: (1) needs analysis, (2) implementation, and (3) formative evaluation. First, in needs analysis, both theory and practice is used to define specifications. Secondly, in implementation, fast prototyping in authentic learning settings is emphasized. Thirdly, formative evaluation is used to evaluate the use of the environment. The feasibility of the method was illustrated by applying it to two digital learning environments; LEAP (Learning Process Companion) and ViSCoS (Virtual Studies of Computer Science) in sparsely populated region of Finland.
Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1999). Cognition and Multimedia Design
for Complex Learning. Inaugural address, Open University of the Netherlands, The Netherlands.
In designing materials for use in a contructivist learning environment, instructional designers still have a role in selecting the situations that may provide a stimulus for knowledge construction and providing features that support students and teachers in using these materials. This paper describes the process of designing a series of case-based interactive videodiscs to be used within a constructivist learning environment. The cases present two elementary teachers and their students as they progress through science lessons based on the conceptual change model of science teaching. Dual audio tracks allow the viewers to hear either the classroom events or the teacher's reflections on the classroom events. Assumptions about teaching and learning that guided the design, and implications of these beliefs for the instructional materials are discussed; generalizations are derived about the differences between the process described and procedures recommended by traditional instructional design models. (Contains 18 references.) (AEF)
Instructional design is that branch of knowledge concerned with theory and practice, related to instructional strategies and systematic procedures for developing and implementing those strategies.
This study of 550 persons, predominately education professionals, was designed to test an integrated theoretical model (the 4-E Model) for predicting the likelihood of the use of telecommunications-related technological innovations (in particular, e-mail, the WWW, and videoconferencing) in learning-related settings. The four Es in the model, derived from a series of previous studies (Collis & Pals, 1999), are environmental factors, effectiveness, ease of use, and (personal) engagement. The model was first tested using factor-analytic procedures on the results of a 54-item questionnaire adminstered via the WWW to a sample of 550 persons from 39 countries. Twelve factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.00 were extracted and latent variables were generated to correspond with the factors. The factors as interpreted by items with loadings
Instructional design and development models are sometimes criticized for being unnecessarily complex and for requiring an
unrealistic amount of precision. To counter this criticism, some will argue that the complexity and precision are necessary
to help ensure a quality instructional product. This article offers a solution to the problem of practicality versus precision
by introducing a “layers-of-necessity” model of instructional design and development. By recognizing that instruction evolves
over time rather than emerges fully developed, the model offers an alternative means of achieving quality instruction.
Stimulated by the growth of multimedia, the World Wide Web, and the convergence of communication and information technologies, the nature and potential of digital learning materials are rapidly changing. Design methods and in particular prototyping activities have to adapt to the new situation. New design approaches are not only needed in the area of digital learning material. From a more general perspective rational and relational design approaches can be examined in the context of their contribution to design strategies. In order to cope with the new situation, a new design approach called ‘the 3-space design strategy’ is presented and applied to the design and prototyping of digital learning material. Furthermore an example of a design project about a media-selection support system is discussed from the perspective of the 3-space design strategy.
This paper examines paradigms used in on-line learning, with a specific emphasis on how to effectively employ asynchronous learning networks for delivery of on-line courses. Recent progress in ALNs is presented, methodologies for getting started in creating an ALN course given, and relationships between traditional teaching and learning methods and ALN-based courses discussed. To illustrate a specific ALN model, the paper presents a case study about the creation of an on-line course. The prospects for on-line education and the challenges that face the ALN field are considered.
While instructional software authoring tools are often described, and the ‘best’ approach to authoring or developing instructional software is often debated, criteria used to choose among various tools are rarely discussed. Such criteria become a definition of the ideal instructional software tool. Criteria are specified from the perspective of the (a) content specialist or instructor, (b) the instructional designer or analyst, (c) the programmer, and (d) the administrator of the instructional software. Criteria are developed using literature from appropriate fields.
To understand technological innovation (be it the design of a mouse trap or a piece of computer software), it is crucial to understand the process of design. Design is not simply a one-to-one mapping of scientific knowledge or theoretical frameworks onto a problem. Design is a complex and multifaceted process requiring the understanding and implementation of a range of skills and knowledge domains. The design of software in particular entails a lot more than just representing in a computer program the original concepts or learning theory that motivated it. This article offers a framework for understanding the complex processes of design by examining the design process of two computer programs: FLiPS and Tiger. FLiPS is a multimedia program for learning complex concepts in chemistry, while Tiger is an automated manuscript submission and review system. We examine the process of design by identifying and highlighting some significant common themes that underlie the design processes of these two different computer programs. We believe that this framework has much to offer the theory and practice of educational software design.
Courseware development should follow the lessons learned by the misnamed software engineers during the last twelve years. Many of these lessons are presented as twenty-eight principles of software development in this paper. The most important include a stress on human readability, the importance of early planning and analysis, the use of hierarchical structure, the need for independent evaluation, and the need to be flexible.
Authoring Languages and Systems (AL/S) are being marketed to K-12 educators with hopes that teachers will use them to develop their own CAI. Because the literature has not addressed the use of AL/S in K-12 settings (they only recently have been made available to K-12 educators), there is a need to examine the AL/S and how teachers are using them. This article describes twelve AL/S which are being marketed to K-12 teachers and compares their features. Also included in the article is a discussion of the probability of wide-spread use of AL/S in K-12 settings, the factors affecting the extent of their use, and some new approaches to CAI development tools.
A rather drastic attempt to benefit from computers in our schools is to see them as prostheses for thinking, reasoning, estimating, experimenting, and learning. Most intriguing in these attempts is that we are confronted with new views on the process of learning. An even further speculation would be that learning tools might even change the way we learn, as they finally embody the ways we think and imagine. Looking back to dominant views on learning we see associationism, behaviorism, and cybernetics which gave in-depth change to teaching models, didactic procedures, and the way teachers tend to structure, sequence, and represent learning events. As students are immersed in the teachers' explanations, thinking procedures, and testing for longer periods we may expect that students are shaped by popular teaching methods and will hence incorporate dominant views on learning at that period.
Experience suggests that using computers in mathematics education does not automatically improve the learning of mathematical concepts. In this paper, it is assumed that a cognitive theory should be an integral part of the design.
A description is given of a general theory of mathematical knowledge and its acquisition. Our design of instructional computer use is based on this theory. Some of its aspects will be shown to relate to specific learning to be performed with computers. Some preliminary investigations are presented on students' learning about sequences, convergence and limits. Finally, some preliminary aspects are described of possible instructional treatments of limits of sequences.
This paper suggests 13 dimensions, along which to consider changes in educational software development. The analysis follows, in a general way, that of John Naisbitt's book Megatrends (1982), and considers four broad areas: the computing environment, software design, the user or learner, and the software development process. For each of these areas, several dimensions of change will be considered.
It is suggested that the central contribution of computers is the invention and publication of processes. Many trends are presented in the context of the shift from intellectual product to intellectual process, with publication and wide distribution of processes seen as the major contribution of software development.
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Discusses the change in learning materials to digital formats and considers whether current design and production methods for educational software are still appropriate or if there is a need for a new design and production strategy. Describes structural versus associative design strategies and a new three-space strategy. (LRW)
Discussion of the field of educational technology focuses on the influence of instructional design on its development. Topics discussed include instructional applications of the systems approach; programed instruction; learning strategies, including large group and small group instruction and independent study; and behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist paradigms. (18 references) (LRW)
Discusses some of the emerging constructivist instructional design models and suggest three guidelines for instructional design that are based on an interpretivist philosophy of science and constructivist theories of learning. Explains recursive (iterative) non-linear design, reflective design, and participatory design. (Contains 72 references.) (LRW)
Eight conditions that facilitate the adoption, implementation, and institutionalization of educational technology innovations are described and applications to the transfer of portable software are suggested. The conditions: dissatisfaction with the status quo, knowledge and skills, resources, time, rewards, participation, commitment, and leadership. Potential outcomes for using the conditions to review the likely level of portability of an educational software product in terms of its implementation in local sites are suggested.
This text, now in its fourth edition, provides an understanding of the diversity and use of models used to portray the instructional development (ID) process, while reflecting the many changes in the field that have occurred since publication of the last edition in 1997. Beginning with the belief that an ID model should be selected based on the specific context of the project, a classification schema for ID models is presented that indicates whether a given model is best applied to: (1) developing individual classroom instruction; (2) products for implementation by users other than the developers; or (3) large and complex instructional systems directed at an organization's problems or goals. A schema that will help guide the way in which instructional development models are adopted or adapted is offered. The authors also present a brief history of ID models, explore numerous examples from each of the three categories in the schema, and discuss the latest trends in instructional development affecting the use of ID models. (Contains 55 references.) (MES)
Shannon A. Alpert is a Vice President with NationsBank's Training Development Services, a team dedicated to providing training and support products as part of the General Bank Training and Development Organization. She earned an MS in instructional technology from Georgia State University.
To improve the quality of courseware products and the efficiency of the courseware development process, a methodology based upon “courseware engineering”, being a combination of instructional systems development and software engineering, has emerged over the last 10–15 years. Recently, software engineering aspects have gained extra attention. It is unclear to what extent a courseware engineering emphasis has contributed to an improvement of the quality of the courseware products or to the efficiency of the production process. However, continuing developments in hardware and software are opeing new perspectives for courseware engineering and connected research.
Developing multimedia courseware is considered very difficult. Both development process and implementation of the product seem to be difficult. In this article it is assumed that the complete life cycle including development and implementation has to organized consistently in order to deliver successful products. A framework of ways of thinking, modelling, working and controlling the development process is used to derive criteria for a compre-hensive method. Separate quality assurance of both product and process is proposed. This and other theorems are tested in a professional courseware project for second language learning. The results indicate that separa-tion of quality control of product and process is positive. Other conclusions concern the roles of the participants of the developing team. Lessons from film making and other creative design disciplines can be learned. Another conclusion is that "good" methods and tools do not work without a suitable way of thinking and, thus, the way of thinking should be an explicit part of a method. Writing or adjusting a formal QA-plan as a first phase of a new project is a good way to provide this. Results of this study may be applied for other multimedia products as well.
This paper outlines extensions of Component Display Theory to provide the type of design guidance needed for experiential computer based instructional systems. The new Component Design Theory (CDT) extends the original theory in several significant ways. Content types are extended to content structures. These content structures include experiential as well as structural representations. Primary presentation forms are extended to primary presentation functions and the display is replaced by the transaction. Various types of transactions are identified for both structural and experiential representations. Course organization, previously described as Elaboration Theory, is included as part of the new CDT. Consistency rules are extended to include: (a) goal-content representation consistency; (b) goal/content representation-transaction consistency; and (c) goal/content representation-course organization consistency. Intervention rules are included for intra-transaction guidance, inter-transaction selection and sequence (strategy), inter-content representation selection and sequence (sequence) and control (who makes the guidance, strategy and sequence decisions, the learner or the system?). Finally a set of cardinal instructional principles is identified and the sets of rules which comprise the new CDT are suggested as prescribed procedures for implementing these cardinal principles.
1. The preparation of this paper was supported in part by funds provided by The Army Research Institute via Human Technology, Inc. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsoring organization or Human Technology, Inc.
2. Mark Hopkins was a powerful teacher and President of William College of Massachusetts (1836–1872). It is said that the best instructional technique ever devised was Mark Hopkins on one end of a log and a student on the other.
Many scholars in the instructional systems field have addressed the paradigm shift in the field of learning psychology and its implications for instructional systems technology (IST). This article analyzes the philosophical assumptions underlying IST and its behavioral and cognitive foundations, each of which is primarily objectivistic, which means that knowing and learning are processes for representing and mirroring reality. The philosophical assumptions of objectivism are then contrasted with constructivism, which holds that knowing is a process of actively interpreting and constructing individual knowledge representations. The implications of constructivism for IST provide a context for asking the reader to consider to what extent our field should consider this philosophical paradigm shift.
A study of authoring system technology was done to update a previous study done in 1985. While the earlier study focused on
software selection methods, the current one emphasizes trends in authoring tool characteristics, vendor approaches to the
market-place, and evaluation methods. It also raises questions about some of the often tacit assumptions underlying the technology's
development and use.
Many researchers are attempting to develop automated instructional design systems to guide subject matter experts through
the courseware authoring process, a process that usually includes analysis, design, production, implementation, and maintenance.
What is lacking in many existing efforts, however, is a systematic method for analyzing the interplay between user characteristics,
the authoring environment, and the resulting quality of computer-based instruction (CBI). In this article, a cognitively oriented
method for developing a useful and predictive model of the process of designing CBI is proposed, and its use in three small-scale
case studies in Air Force training settings is reported.
This article reviews three classes of instructional design techniques that are necessary if educational courseware is to teach. These techniques can be grouped into those that affect three areas of instructional design: (a) instructional strategy, (b) screen design and (c) human factors. The first section identifies design strategies which are believed to have a direct impact on the amount of learning that occurs as a result of instruction. Instructional design strategy involves the arrangement of content elements and other information in such a way that learning is facilitated. The second section identifies screen display techniques which are believed to facilitate the students' ability to interact with the materials. Screen display refers to the way that information is exhibited on the monitor. In this section I have attempted to identify a few display characteristics which may enhance or inhibit learning. Screen display refers to the way that information is exhibited on the monitor. The third section of this paper identifies some human factors, characteristics, and concerns which will make educational software easier to use and thus result in more efficient learning.
Microsoft Corp. has probably tackled more PC software projects than any other company in the industry. Microsoft Corp.'s philosophy for product development has been to cultivate its roots as a highly flexible, entrepreneurial company and not to adopt too many of the structured software-engineering practices commonly promoted by such organizations as the Software Engineering Institute and the International Standards Organization. Microsoft Corp. has tried to scale up a loosely structured small-team style of product development. The objective is to get many small parallel teams or individual programmers to work together as a single relatively large team in order to build large products relatively quickly while still allowing individual programmers and teams freedom to evolve their designs and operate nearly autonomously. This article summarizes how Microsoft Corp. uses various techniques and melds them into an overall approach that balances flexibility and structure in software product development. The authors label Microsoft Corp.'s style of product development, the synch-and-stabilize approach.
The idea of a programming system which generates other programs (referred to as automatic programming or metasoftware) has always been a popular one in computer science. Despite the interest, however, few such systems have actually been inplemented and used. An exception is the development and use of authoring systems in the domain of Computer Based Education (CBE). This article surveys the development and characteristics of authoring systems.
Though there have been advances in end-user programming, complex applications still need professional developers. This inspired look at the future of creating complex software explores the shift from programming environments to design environments, discussing environments that help developers satisfy end-users' cognitive needs and help deal with contextual issues such as the aesthetic, practical, and social properties of the application and the users. A strong case is made that design environments will need to provide robust support for communication between developers and end users.