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Theories of Friendship: The Analysis of Interpersonal Attraction
Abstract
According to the popular song, “Love and marriage go together like a horse and carriage, you can’t have one without the other.” Literally, of course, this is not true; but, as the song implies, most people believe that love and marriage augment each other. Both are better together than either is separately.
... The rationale behind this strong bond is that the customers feel intimate affection and love towards a particular brand or organization (Bugel et al., 2011). Moreover, when applying the Rusbult (1980) investment model i.e., reinforcement (i.e., sellers' efforts to maintain relationship with customers) from one party in the relationship (Perlman & Fehr, 1986) is a fundamental preamble in order to create an intimate relationship (Bugel et al., 2011). The literature is mostly skewed towards trust (Bugel et al., 2011) and ignores the customer intimacy aspect. ...
... The firms' customer focused strategy is translated on to the employee (customer-oriented behavior), and consequently helps to create and nurture the intimate relationship with customers (Babakus et al., 2017;Bagozzi et al., 2012;Sousa& Coelho, 2011). This research extends and contributes to further understanding of interpersonal relationship marketing (Palmatier, 2008) by adding the customer orientation strategy as an important reinforcement (Rusbult, 1980) investment model (Perlman & Fehr, 1986). Moreover, this research contributes in the understanding of the limitations that pertain to research of intimacy (Bugel et al., 2011). ...
This study examines the relationshipofa firm’scustomer orientations, salesperson customer-orientedbehaviorandcustomer intimacywithcustomer commitment. For the purpose of this study, the interpersonal relationship marketing model and the interpersonal attractioninvestment model are employed to propose the conceptual model. The conceptual model suggests that (1) firm’scustomer orientation positively influencesthe salesperson customer-orientedbehavior;(2) salesperson customer-orientedbehavior positively influences the customer intimacy;(3) customer-orientedbehavior positively mediates between customer orientation and customer intimacy;and (4) customer intimacy actsa positive mediatorbetweenthesalesperson customer-orientedbehavior and customer commitment. Through the course of this study, theproposed conceptual modelswere tested with the data collected from the firm and customer dyads. Moreover, thedata is collected from the food sector ofPakistan. Furthermore, the Smart-PLSis usedto testthestandardized dyadic data sets. Results have providedsubstantial support for the proposedconceptual model. Thereis strong support for the salesperson customer-orientedbehavior,and customer intimacy as mediator. Additionally, the results validate the interpersonal relationship marketing modeland the Rusbult investment modelas well. From a managerial perspective,this study canhelp organizational policy makersto understand the importance of salesperson behavior,and customer emotions for a long-term relationshipwith the targetedcustomer of the specific firm.
... Such results improve our understanding of interpersonal relationship marketing (Palmatier, 2008). Our results provide a deeper grasp of the processes underlying the recognized impact of frontline employees' customer orientationas a significant reinforcement and investment model (Rusbult, 1980;Perlman and Fehr, 1986)on individual-level results (Homburg et al., 2011). To maintain a good relationship and to build customer trust, frontline employees need to adopt empathic behavior throughout their interactions with consumers (Fellesson and Salomonson, 2016). ...
... Such results improve our understanding of interpersonal relationship marketing (Palmatier, 2008). Our results provide a deeper grasp of the processes underlying the recognized impact of frontline employees' customer orientationas a significant reinforcement and investment model (Rusbult, 1980;Perlman and Fehr, 1986)on individual-level results (Homburg et al., 2011). To maintain a good relationship and to build customer trust, frontline employees need to adopt empathic behavior throughout their interactions with consumers (Fellesson and Salomonson, 2016). ...
Purpose
Based upon social exchange theory, this study investigates the mediating effect of consumers' trust in banking industry frontline employees on two relationships: (1) the relation between consumers' perceptions of frontline employees' empathy and consumers' perceptions of frontline employees' performance, and (2) the relation between consumers' perception of frontline employees' customer orientation and consumers' perceptions of frontline employees' performance.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors used a time-lag research design to collect data through online questionnaires distributed in two waves. The sample comprises 375 respondents having experience and interaction with banking frontline employees.
Findings
Results confirm the mediating effect of consumers' trust in the banking industry on the relationships between their perceptions of frontline employees' empathy and consumer orientation on the one hand and their perceptions of frontline employees' performance on the other hand.
Practical implications
Results may be helpful to policymakers and managers in the service industries, prompting them to adopt approaches and strategies designed to build strong relationships with consumers, thus increasing consumers' trust and frontline employees' performance.
Originality/value
This study confirms the relevance of social exchange theory in understanding the role of consumers' trust and perceptions of frontline employees' empathy and consumer orientation in understanding their perception of frontline employee performance in the banking industry.
... This level of relationship is difficult to maintain if there is no investment in personal attention, sacrificing time, self-affirmation, utility values, personal resources, reducing ego, and stimulating value. In closer relationships (such as between couples), marriage and love are complementary because they are better together than apart (Perlman & Fehr, 1986). This serves as inspiration for the next hypothesis: ...
This paper examines the role of social trust in influencing ethical work climate and decision-making. Moderated regression analysis was used to analyse the data. A survey was carried out at the Ministry of Entrepreneur and Co-operative Development (MECD) in Malaysia, and was completed by all 349 employees, which permitted a comprehensive overview. We found that company interest, friendship, team play, and personal morality were closely related to increasing social trust (p <0.05). Social trust also mediated a positive impact of company interest, friendship, team play, and personal morality on decision-making with p <0.05. Rules and procedures had no significant impact either on social trust or decision-making. Eight hypotheses were confirmed, while two were rejected. Implications for practice and research are discussed.
... Levinger emphasized the importance of observing the transition phase, moving from one stage to another. However, according to Perlman and Fehr (1986), Levinger concentrated on the breakdown of relationships, more specifically on their deterioration. It is at this stage when couples can see the negative changes in behavior, i.e., lack of affection, keeping secrets and lack of openness and/or honesty, etc. Conflicts occur as couples find themselves being unhappy and yet unable to leave the relationship due to their interdependence, responsibilities to the family, or any reason that may prevent them from doing so (Levinger 1983). ...
This study investigates the linguistic dimensions of the songs made popular by One Direction– the British-Irish boy band that captivated young fans around the world in the 2010s. The tailored corpus output was based on One Direction’s five albums (65 songs, 21,566 words). Using Voyant Tools (Sinclair & Rockwell 2016) and discourse analysis framework (Fairclough 1995, 2001), we examined the word frequency, collocation patterns and semantic references found in the lyrics. Further analysis was grounded on the 5-stage model of love and relationships by Levinger (1983). The results suggest that the lexicogrammatical associations found in One Direction’s songs show that words may have similar meaning but carry a different illocutionary message in terms of use patterns within a contextual structure. The semantic and pragmatic references in the lyrics also tell an emotional narrative of a roller-coaster-kind-of-young love and the challenges they face i.e., exhilaratingly titillating and painfully short-lived. From Oh yeah, baby to Oh, love, goodbye, love is indeed like a song; its own rhythm has a beginning and an end– a story that ironically reflects the band’s own fate. This study has major implications for corpus discourse research, particularly in analyzing the semantic references and implicatures of the lyrics and the story behind them.
... In addition, the current study was performed within the context of an evolutionary theoretical framework, but other theoretical frameworks may also provide valuable insight to this phenomenon (for further discussion of such frameworks, see Duck, 1991;Fehr, 1996;Perlman & Fehr, 1986). In addition, we did not distinguish between same-and opposite-sex friendships. ...
People make friendships, some of which last a lifetime, whereas others are short-lived. Within the context of an evolutionary theoretical framework, this study aims to identify the reasons that lead people to terminate a friendship. More specifically, in Study 1, by using a combination of qualitative research methods in a sample of 133 Greek-speaking participants, we identified 55 such reasons. In Study 2, by using exploratory factor analysis in a sample of 557 Greek-speaking participants, we classified these reasons in four broader factors for terminating a friendship. As indicated by the means, the most important factor was selfishness, followed by romantic involvement, the lack of frequent interaction, and the perceptions of friends and family. Moreover, significant sex and age effects were found for most factors.
... The model also helps to link the context of our study to related literature on friendship. Friendship should be associated with satisfactory outcomes, in which the rewards are larger than the costs ( Perlman and Fehr, 1986 ). According to reinforcement theories, people like those who can offer them reward ( Byrne and Clore, 1970 ). ...
This study examines the causal effect of positive income shocks on friendships in Vietnam. We measure income shock by respondents’ lottery prizes, controlling for spending on the lottery. We find a positive effect from lottery winnings on the number of friends. People tend to increase the number of their non-colleague and long-term friends, rather than the number of friends among colleagues or new friends. The elasticity of the number of friends with respect to lottery winnings is estimated at 0.05%. Our estimate implies that the income shock needed to purchase one additional friend is nearly 5,000 USD.
Friendships are a key element of mental health, yet modern life increasingly involves "enforced online regimes," which can inhibit friendship formation. One example is provided by residential university students under COVID-19. Through interviews with 17 graduate students at a U.S. university, we investigate how new friendships were made and maintained under the pandemic. While some of our individual findings echo previous work with online social interaction, our analysis reveals a novel 7-phase friendship formation process that extends Levinger & Snoek's classic pair-relatedness theory. The model enables pinpoint diagnoses. For our participants, three specific phases were blocked -- Physical Awareness (apprehension of another's physical characteristics); Personal Contact (exchange of personal information); and Ongoing Mutuality (repeat interactions to build friendship). The model also explains divergent results under similar but different situations (e.g., residential students under COVID eventually made friends, but students of purely online courses do not), and enables targeted recommendations.
Using a pre-test post-test design, this study extends research on the principle of immediacy by investigating how enacted levels of nonverbal immediacy (high, low) work alongside similarity (high, low) to impact perceptions of students from the U.S. and the Middle East within same-gender dyads. Participants reported impressions twice—first after seeing a document showing only the confederate’s name, photo, and country of origin, and then after interacting with the confederate on Zoom. Confederates were trained to enact either high or low levels of nonverbal immediacy and similarity, but within a normative range that would not be considered too atypical. After interacting, participants exposed to high nonverbal immediacy reported increased perceptions of likability and friendship potential. In addition, those exposed to low nonverbal immediacy or low similarity reported decreased perceptions of likability and friendship potential. Culture and gender of the dyad moderated some of the effects for nonverbal immediacy. These findings generalize the principle of immediacy to first meetings with Middle Eastern students on Zoom, and demonstrate that low nonverbal immediacy and similarity have particularly strong negative effects on perceptions of likability and friendship potential.
Throughout the ages, the development of human character has always been an important issue for the establishment of a good society. Since Platon and Aristoteles, who handled morality and education, up to the present educational sciences and psychology, many books with various views have been written, and many researches have been carried out. Besides, scientific studies have focused upon human nature and tried to explain it through genetic, socio-genetic, social or sociocultural approaches, according to which they developed educational systems and institutions in order to have humans act in the desired way. Since the primitive religions and beliefs, which emerged in order to explain the mysterious natural events, and get rid of the fear of the unknown, up to the present heavenly religions, it has always been an important goal to direct human behaviour into a moral and socially acceptable set of conduct.By setting the Victorian period as the basis of her novels, Jane Austen deals particularly with the morality of the period. As a realist author, she attaches great importance to the depiction of her female characters in their struggle to overcome their depravity and achieve higher social status. In Northanger Abbey, a novel of her early period as an author, the protagonist Catherine Morland needs to construct a new existence and attain a new personality by transforming herself from the poor villager girl into an acceptable woman in an aristocratic circle. Her lack of education, ignorance of human nature and aristocratic circles, as well as loneliness with no experienced adult to guide her leave her alone in a seemingly hostile and indifferent environment, where she has to find her own path by her own means. She finds herself amid the world of aristocrats and her personality develops in line with the choices and decisions she makes. This article, which examines her character development, aims to trace personality development through social and psychological terms, and analyse the transformation in her attitudes and perceptions.
Equity theory is a social psychological theory concerned with justice in all interpersonal relationships. Until recently, however, equity principles have been examined only in casual role relations (i.e., employer-employee, philanthropist-recipient, and harmer-victim relations) and have not been examined in more personal relations (see Walster (Hatfield), Walster, & Berscheid, 1978). The distinction between role relationships and personal relationships is a long-standing and important one (see Cooley, 1902; Tonnies, 1887). Given the importance of primary, intimate relations, it would be a grave omission to overlook such relations in theory and research on interpersonal behavior.