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Anatomy and function of the intrathoracic neurons regulating the mammalian heart

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... One of their early findings is that the heart has a complex neural network that is sufficiently extensive to be characterized as a brain on the heart (Figure 1.2). [11,12] The heart-brain, as it is commonly called, or intrinsic cardiac nervous system, is an intricate network of complex ganglia, neurotransmitters, proteins and support cells, the same as those of the brain in the head. The heart-brain's neural circuitry enables it to act independently of the cranial brain to learn, remember, make decisions and even feel and sense. ...
... A few of these connections synapse on motor neurons in the intrinsic cardiac nervous system and these neurons project directly to the SA node (and other tissues in the heart), where they trigger acetylcholine release to slow HR. [11] However, the majority of the efferent preganglionic vagal neurons (~80%) connect to local circuitry neurons in the intrinsic cardiac nervous system, where motor information is integrated with inputs from mechanosensory and chemosensory neurons in the heart. [119] Thus, efferent sympathetic and parasympathetic activity is integrated in and with the activity occurring in the heart's intrinsic nervous system, including the input signals from the mechanosensory and chemosensory neurons within the heart, all of which ultimately contribute to beat-to-beat cardiac functional changes. ...
... 11 Aortic systolic blood pressure (ASBP) data for the three groups. Data are mean and 95% CI a = p <.05 HeartMath pretest vs. HeartMath posttest. ...
Technical Report
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This insightful and comprehensive monograph provides fundamental and detailed summaries of HeartMath Institute’s many years of innovative research. It presents brief overviews of heart rate variability, resilience, coherence, heart-brain interactions,intuition and the scientific discoveries that shaped techniques developed to increase fulfillment and effectiveness. Included are summary reports of research conducted in the business, education, health and first responder fields. Both the layperson and science professional will appreciate its simplicity and thoroughness.
... It involves the mind of the heart and requires that we tune into fields or words to be able to 'read' or receive information about them. Armour (1991Armour ( , 2007Armour ( , 2008 has characterized the extensive and complex neural network found in the heart as the brain on the heart or heart-brain (Armour, 1991(Armour, , 2007(Armour, , 2008 and in the Theory of the Six Main Levels of Consciousness, Arka talks of the third level as involving "feeling-consciousness" which "generally prevails in the heart area and thus can be called Heart or Heart-Consciousness" (Arka, 2013, p. 37). Amongst other things, intuition seems to be related to the ability to tune into the field around the heart and our capacity to feel. ...
... It involves the mind of the heart and requires that we tune into fields or words to be able to 'read' or receive information about them. Armour (1991Armour ( , 2007Armour ( , 2008 has characterized the extensive and complex neural network found in the heart as the brain on the heart or heart-brain (Armour, 1991(Armour, , 2007(Armour, , 2008 and in the Theory of the Six Main Levels of Consciousness, Arka talks of the third level as involving "feeling-consciousness" which "generally prevails in the heart area and thus can be called Heart or Heart-Consciousness" (Arka, 2013, p. 37). Amongst other things, intuition seems to be related to the ability to tune into the field around the heart and our capacity to feel. ...
Chapter
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In this chapter, I suggest that when the masculine principle represented by the logical, rational thinking mind becomes overextended, it creates a lack of harmony both inside and outside which is reflected by a society which has become over mechanized, over-politicized, over militarized and where the corporate world operates purely for profit. To re-establish balance, I hold we need to restore the female principle as, without it, there is no caring, relatedness, and concern about nature. This requires we change our focus from outside to inside and from our thinking mind to our feeling heart-mind so we can receive intuitive guidance that is based on inclusiveness and the best interests of all, and not only on profit.
... Neurons do not exist only in the brain, as is common in the scientific community. Some studies have shown that the heart contains over 40,000 neurons (Armour, 1991), and the enteric nervous system (ENS) contains nearly 100 million neurons (Kulkarni et al. 2018, p. 9346). ...
... Furthermore, Andrew Armour, a medical researcher from the University of Montreal, noted that the heart has a mind that can perform its own functions (Armour, 1991), which shows that we are facing a complex phenomenon (Armour, 2007). Research that studies the impact of the heart on social psychology has shown that the heart has a critical role not only in keeping humans alive, but also in how a human being relates to people and how they interact with each other (Waytz, 2010). ...
Article
The aim of the study is to explore the interaction between finance and neurosciences, which is one of the emerging research areas since the beginning of the new millennium. After highlighting the underlying epistemological presuppositions of this new field of knowledge, the study reviews its most important characteristics compared with neoclassical and behavioral schools. In reference to an approach inspired by classical and contemporary Quranic exegesis of the verse ﴾ they should have had hearts to understand with ﴿ (Quran, s. 22, v. 46) distinguishing between the reason related to representation and cognition and that related to conduct and how to deal with problems in life. There can be degrees of uncertainty and interactions between reason and emotion. Community functioning between the heart and the brain takes precedence over the competition, survival of the fittest, and zero-sum game mechanisms. This new approach could allow finance to exploit neurosciences by combining functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG), with heart rate variability (HRV) to highlight the importance of reason and emotion in economic life beyond calculation. We need to shift how we think about emotion and how we feel about thought.
... Dr Stewart Wolf Jr who conducted the Roseto community studies and was the first to show that poor HRV recovery after a heart attack was the strongest predictor of future mortality (Wolf, 1992). Dr John Andrew (Drew) Armour, who is a leading figure in the Neurocardiology research community, coined the term "heart brain" (Armour & Ardell, 1994;Armour, 1991Armour, , 2003b. The neuroscience members were Dr Karl Pribram, who conducted pioneering research into the functions of the brain's limbic system, frontal lobes, temporal lobes, and their roles in decision making and emotion, and developed the holonomic theory of memory and perception (Pribram, 1967(Pribram, , 1991(Pribram, , 2013. ...
... In addition, most of the mechanosensitive afferent neurons that monitor pressure (baroreceptors) and rate are most sensitive to rate of change. Therefore, when in a coherent rhythm, which has a much higher rate of change, there is an increase in both sympathetic and vagal afferent pathways (Armour, 1991). ...
Article
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This paper outlines the early history and contributions our laboratory, along with our close advisors and collaborators, has made to the field of heart rate variability and heart rate variability coherence biofeedback. In addition to the many health and wellness benefits of HRV feedback for facilitating skill acquisition of self-regulation techniques for stress reduction and performance enhancement, its applications for increasing social coherence and physiological synchronization among groups is also discussed. Future research directions and applications are also suggested.
... Dr. J. Andrew Armour (1991), a pioneer in this field, has undertaken extensive research and introduced the concept of the intrinsic cardiac network as a functional "heart brain." His work demonstrated a complex intrinsic nervous system in the heart, that is deemed sufficiently sophisticated to qualify as a "little brain" in its own right (Armour, 2007). ...
... The complexity of the neural circuitry in the heart allows independent action, separate from the cranial brain. Armour (1991) has demonstrated the ability of the heart to learn independently, it has its own memories, and it can feel and sense information. This information from the heart is sent to the brain through a variety of different afferents, including autonomic afferents. ...
Article
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There is a growing body of literature that supports the idea that decision making involves not only cognition, but also emotion and intuition. However, following extant “dual-process” decision theories, the emotional and intuitive aspects of decision making have predominantly been considered as one “experiential” entity. The purpose of this article is to review the neurological evidence for a three-factor model of head, heart, and gut aspects of embodied cognition in decision making and to report on a study carried out to design and validate a psychometric instrument that measures decision-making preferences across three separable interoceptive components, representing the complex, functional, and adaptive neural networks (or “brains”) of head (analytical/cognitive), heart (emotional/affective), and gut (intuition). Development and validation of the Multiple Brain Preference Questionnaire (MBPQ) instrument was carried out in three phases. Translational validity was assessed using content and face validity. Construct validity was undertaken via exploratory factor analysis of the results from the use of the instrument with 301 subjects from a global sampling, and reliability tests were performed using internal consistency and test–retest analysis. Results confirmed extraction of three factors (head, heart, and gut) was appropriate and reliability analysis showed the MBPQ to be both valid and reliable. Applications of the tool to coaching and leadership are suggested.
... The heart has been found to have an intrinsic nervous system of its own, containing around 40,000 neurons called sensory neurites. This extensive and complex neural network has been characterized as a brain on the heart or heart-brain [22][23][24] (Armour 1991;2007;. This allows the heart to act independently of the brain, sending and receiving meaningful messages of its own through the autonomic nervous system [4]. ...
... The heart has been found to have an intrinsic nervous system of its own, containing around 40,000 neurons called sensory neurites. This extensive and complex neural network has been characterized as a brain on the heart or heart-brain [22][23][24] (Armour 1991;2007;. This allows the heart to act independently of the brain, sending and receiving meaningful messages of its own through the autonomic nervous system [4]. ...
Article
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On the grounds of a possible parallel between embryogenesis, including the fertilization process, and the development of the Universe, the validity of the Big Bang theory is questioned. In this article, it is suggested that the fundamental nature of the Universe is a cosmic play of opposites, the male and female principle; a polarity, which is inherent in everything as indicated by the yin yang symbol. Even for an electrical charge to exist one needs a positive and negative pole. It also proposes that all matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force that brings all particles to pulsation; a conscious Mind that is expressing itself through ever-changing pulsating forms. Although this invisible spiritual principle behind creation becomes tangible in animals and humans via the heart, it is only the human being who can realize his or her fundamental nature or true Self through a journey of inner discovery. As the development of the Universe might reflect the process the embryo undergoes in forming a body, the principles discussed in this article might also apply to the nature of Nature itself. This implies all of Nature might be a living being or organism, an interconnected whole united through the underlying creative pulsating force. The suggestions put forward here have theological and cosmological implications.
... 61 Its complex circuitry enables it to sense, remember, selfregulate, and make decisions about cardiac control independent of the central nervous system. 55,62 The heart's sensory neurons translate hormonal and mechanical information into neurological impulses, which are processed in the intrinsic nervous system and then sent to the brain via afferent pathways in the vagus nerve and spinal column. ...
... 89,90 The heart's intrinsic nervous system has both a short-term and long-term memory capacity that affects afferent rhythms related to both mechanical factors (pressure, Hr, and rate of change) occurring over milliseconds (single cycle) and activity related to hormonal and mechanical factors that operate over seconds to minutes. 55,62,91 This led our research team to postulate that the organization of the heart's rhythmic activity over longer time scales could also have a directly affect on cognitive processes. We called this the heart rhythm coherence hypothesis. ...
Article
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"All nature is a continuum. The endless complexity of life is organized into patterns which repeat themselves - theme and variations - at each level of system. These similarities and differences are proper concerns for science. From the ceaseless streaming of protoplasm to the many-vectored activities of supranational systems, there are continuous flows through living systems as they maintain their highly organized steady states." "Even more basic to this presentation than the concept of "system" are the concepts of "space," "time," "matter," "energy," and "information, because the living systems exist in space and are made of matter and energy organized by information." James Grier Miller, Living Systems (1978).
... 5 Dr Armour introduced the idea of a functional 'heart brain'. 6 His research revealed that the heart has a complex intrinsic nervous system that is sufficiently refined to qualify as a 'little brain' in its own right because of its independent existence. The heart's nervous system contains around 40000 neurons, called sensory neurites. ...
... Its elaborate circuitry enables it to act independently of the brain to learn, remember and even feel and sense. 6 Information from the heart, including feeling sensations, is sent to the brain through several afferents. These afferent nerve pathways enter the brain at the area of the medulla, and cascade up into the higher centres of the brain, where they may influence perception, decision making and other cognitive processes. ...
... A few of these connections synapse on motor neurons in the intrinsic cardiac nervous system that project directly to the SA node (and other tissues in the heart) where they trigger acetylcholine release to slow HR. 84 However, the majority of the efferent preganglionic vagal neurons (~80%) connect to local circuitry neurons in the intrinsic cardiac nervous system where motor information is integrated with inputs from mechanosensitive and chemosensory neurons in the heart. 85 Thus, efferent sympathetic and parasympathetic activity is integrated in and with the activity occurring in the heart's intrinsic nervous system. ...
... 70,88,89 The intrinsic cardiac neurons (sensory, interconnecting, afferent, and motor) can operate independently of central neuronal command, and their network is sufficiently extensive to be characterized as its own "little brain" in the heart ( Figure 5). 84,90 The afferent nerves play a critical role in physiological regulation and affect the heart's rhythm and HRV. Efferent sympathetic and parasympathetic activity is integrated in the heart's intrinsic nervous system, with the signals arising from the mechanosensory and chemosensory neurons in the heart ( Figure 6). ...
Article
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Heart rate variability, the change in the time intervals between adjacent heartbeats, is an emergent property of interdependent regulatory systems that operates on different time scales to adapt to environmental and psychological challenges. This article briefly reviews neural regulation of the heart and offers some new perspectives on mechanisms underlying the very low frequency rhythm of heart rate variability. Interpretation of heart rate variability rhythms in the context of health risk and physiological and psychological self-regulatory capacity assessment is discussed. The cardiovascular regulatory centers in the spinal cord and medulla integrate inputs from higher brain centers with afferent cardiovascular system inputs to adjust heart rate and blood pressure via sympathetic and parasympathetic efferent pathways. We also discuss the intrinsic cardiac nervous system and the heart-brain connection pathways, through which afferent information can influence activity in the subcortical, frontocortical, and motor cortex areas. In addition, the use of real-time HRV feedback to increase self-regulatory capacity is reviewed. We conclude that the heart's rhythms are characterized by both complexity and stability over longer time scales that reflect both physiological and psychological functional status of these internal self-regulatory systems.
... Kalp Beyni [heart brain] kavramını ortaya çıkaran Andrew Armour, kalbin kendi karmaşık içsel sinir sistemine sahip olduğunu ve bu sistemin beynin işlevlerini desteklemenin ötesine geçerek bağımsız bir şekilde çalışabildiğini ifade etmektedir (Armour, 1991). Araştırmaları sonucunda kalbin sinir sisteminin bilgiyi algılama, işleme ve dahili olarak kodlama kapasitesine sahip olduğu vurgulanmaktadır. ...
Chapter
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“Kendini Bil”, “İnsan doğası gereği bilmek ister” ve “Düşünüyorum, öyleyse varım” bu güçlü ifadeler, insanın bilgiye olan derin arzusunu ve zihinsel kapa- sitesinin önemini vurgulayan, düşünce tarihinin mihenk taşlarıdır. Sokrates’in ”Kendini bil” öğüdü, bireyin kendi varoluşunu anlaması gerektiğine işaret ederken, Aristoteles’in ”İnsan doğası gereği bilmek ister” sözü, bilginin insa- nın temel bir içgüdüsü olduğunu hatırlatmaktadır. Descartes’in ”Düşünüyo- rum, öyleyse varım” ifadesi ise insanın bilinçli düşüncesinin varlığının kanıtı olduğuna dikkat çekmektedir. Bu üç büyük filozofun sözleri, insanın kendini ve çevresini anlamaya yönelik bitmek bilmeyen çabasını ifade ederken, aynı zamanda bilgi arayışının insan doğasının en belirgin özelliklerinden biri oldu- ğunu da ortaya koymaktadır.
... Although we do not often consider it as such, Shultz (2003) and Shepherd (1985) view the heart as a sensory organ; it has its own intrinsic extensive nervous system consisting of about 40,000 sensory neurites making Armour (1991;2008) refers to them as a brain on the heart or heart-brain. As we have seen, the heart system is primary, and consists of the heart as a muscular organ, the capillary system, and blood (all made of meso tissue); when blood leaves the heart as an organ and starts flowing in the artery, is it no longer the heart? ...
Preprint
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In this comparative article concerned with contrasting Pereira’s and Lindhard’s view on sentience, I give a new twist to consciousness research by including the study of the development of our body during our embryological past as a way of clarifying our fundamental nature and its relationship to cognitive and sentient principles. Here, I advance the idea the heart system is primary and buttresses sentience as a property of our fundamental nature. I base this conjecture on the heart’s electromagnetic pulsating nature, which guides the body's development on a physical, emotional, and spiritual level. This hypothesis may change the debate in consciousness research from biochemical versus bioelectrical ways of understanding the organism's basic functioning to one centering on the relationship between electromagnetic and bioelectrical systems. However, in considering these aspects of life, it is easy to fall into another type of reductionism. "In a wider context, everything is consciousness and consciousness is everything. Neither non-physical conscious life forces, nor energy, nor the physical body alone can sum up the totality of a living entity that thinks, imagines, perceives and understands" .
... Scattered scientific groups and individuals started to explore the new discipline of neurocardiology [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29], heart energetic fields and other related disciplines. But the most important scientific breakthroughs in this direction were related to Heart Rate Variability (HRV) and its different frequencies and the heart capabilities to communicate with the biology around the planet and the far away galaxies [30][31][32][33]. ...
... The heart has been shown to have an intrinsic nervous system of its own, containing around 40,000 neurons called sensory neurites. This extensive and complex neural network has been characterized as a brain on the heart or heart-brain [27] [28] [29]. This allows the heart to act independently of the brain, sending and receiving meaningful messages of its own. ...
Article
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COVID 19 is just one more problem we humans have to face today. Crises, such as global warming, species extinction, climate change, and the extended use of anxiolytics and antidepressants by all sections of the population including youngsters, are telling us we are out of sync with Nature, and with our Self. Here, I suggest we need to change the focus of our attention from outside to inside, and from the overextended use of logical thinking mind associated with the brain to the feeling mind linked with the heart. I associate the thinking mind with the male principle and the feeling heart-mind with the female principle. This change can bring about the necessary next step in our evolution by providing us with a way to connect with the deeper Self or Essence to obtain Higher Guidance. This epistemological way of knowing is based on intuition, and heart-based esoteric traditions throughout the ages have known about it. However, to find solutions to the multiple problems we are facing today, many more people need to learn how to tap into their heart-mind. In this article, I explore and expand on these ideas from different angles, including the scientific.
... In actual fact, it was observed that the heart communicates with the brain in ways that significantly affect how a person perceives and reacts to the world. Now seen as a highly complex, self-organizing information processing center, the heart has its own functional 'brain' that influences and communicates with the cranial brain via the nervous system (through transmission of nerve impulses), hormonal system (hormones and neurotransmitter) [29] and other pathways including pressure waves and electromagnetic field [30] . Recently, a neurocardiology research has also revealed the complex neural interactions between the heart and the brain, of which the afferent information processed by the intrinsic cardiac nervous system can influence perception and cognitive functions of the brain [31] . ...
Article
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Memory formation occurs within the central nervous system (CNS), specifically in the hippocampal region of brain. The notion that memories are only located within the brain has been challenged by reports of some patients that they have “inherited memories” from their donor after organ transplantation; some even experienced personality changes and picked up hobbies or preferences similar to their donor. Recently, a research team has reignited the embers of this theory by using scientific method to show that memory can be genetically transferred from one sea snail to another. Nevertheless, even as more and more scientific mysteries are being unravelled, memory remains an elusive entity shrouded in the haze of many unresolved hypotheses. To seek clarity on what is currently known, this write-up summarizes and consolidates records associated with the theory of “cellular memory” and experiments evaluating the possibility of memory transference by genetic materials like RNA.
... Different pathomechanisms are operating through which ANS induces the fatal heart rhythms. Andrew Armor, the pioneer of neurocardiology, elaborates in this direction as well as heart brain communications [90]. The state of cardiac coherence (CC) where HRV-dominant frequency peak is in the 0.04-0.26 ...
Chapter
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This chapter represents advanced scientific exploration in the different disciplines of SCD and channelopathy. Epidemiology of SCD and channelopathy is given special attention. The essence of detailed electrophysiological bases of the different diseases of channelopathies and the diverse cellular pathways mandated detailed discussion that can open the closed doors that we faced to the next generation(s). Special sections have been devoted to spatial as well as temporal heterogeneity of the cardiac action potential. Genetic heterogeneity and allelic heterogeneity are two prominent findings of channelopathies that confirm the fact of the major overlap in the field. The way we present the clinical findings is a true call for the next generation(s) of clinicians and researchers to revolutionize the field in the near future. Detailed management plans based on the up to date basic sciences findings for the different channelopathies give better therapeutic options for the clinicians in the field. Unique to this chapter is the new directions to look for channelopathies beyond the human body. The new understanding of the psychophysiological well-being of HRV and the sympathovagal balance extending to cosmic resonances and its possible effect on cardiac ion channels carries new era of promising preventive, diagnostic and therapeutic options.
... Mothers understand the need of their children and loved ones using this faculty (Arka, 2013). Armour (1991;2008) has shown that the heart has an intrinsic nervous system of its own and McCraty (2009) found that the heart sends more signals to the brain than vice versa. ...
Article
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Consciousness has scientists baffled, and the search to understand it has been described as the Holy Grail of science. However, the hypothesis that different levels of Consciousness, which can be encountered through phenomenological introspection, might be correlated with different layers of our anatomical development, which unfolds in gradational degrees, offers a new way of looking at our body, our mind, our nature, and Consciousness. Here Pure Consciousness is considered a non-physical intelligence that gives rise to life, expresses itself through all forms, prompts our anatomical development, and in humans, manifests itself through a by-product called 'mind' comprising of several levels. As we are part of this intelligence, we can explore the deeper levels of our consciousness using the cursor of our mind. The search for the deeper Self is consistent with the phenomenological perspective used by somatic heart-based meditation methods, as opposed to the modern Western phenomenological standpoint, which is the study of 'phenomena'. As our body unfolds in gradational degrees linked to layers, we suggest there might be a relationship between these layers and the levels of consciousness we can encounter in our search to know our deeper Self. These different aspects are addressed in this paper.
... Different pathomechanisms are operating through which ANS induces the fatal heart rhythms. Andrew Armor, the pioneer of neurocardiology, elaborates in this direction as well as heart brain communications [90]. The state of cardiac coherence (CC) where HRV-dominant frequency peak is in the 0.04-0.26 ...
Chapter
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Channelopathy constitutes significant proportion of SCD worldwide (around 10% or 370,000 deaths annually). It was creating a mysterious group of diseases until the second half of the last century when Anton Jervell and Fred Lange-Nielsen described Jervell Lange-Nielsen syndrome in 1957. It was late until 1995 where genetic characterization commenced. Later on, the massive genetic information with the discovery of genetic heterogeneity and allelic het¬erogeneity was a major victory in the field. The basic sciences in cellular electrophysiology and genetics complemented by meticulous clinical detection and the different clinical trials in the field opened a new era of wide therapeutic choices for clinicians. The knowledge obtained from the different experimental platforms especially the induced pluripotent stem cells is promising. The revolutionary move in SCD and channelopathies is described where correlation between the arrhythmogenesis and fluctuation in SGMA is established and must be investigated. The observation of the arrhythmogenicity of SGMA fluctuation and its effect on HRV together with the differential effect of certain sympathovagal tones (more sympathetic innervation is favoring VT/VF in LQTS1, LQTS2 and SQTS but not BrS or ERS) are all future directions to optimize our preventive, diagnostic as well as therapeutic options of SCD and channelopathy in humans.
... The literature also discusses a potential influence of SGBs on cardiac function. [37][38][39] Current data show no effect of right-sided SGBs on HR or BP. Despite statistical significance, the marginal changes in vital signs did not have clinical relevance. ...
Article
Background Evaluating effectiveness of stellate ganglion blockades (SGBs) proves challenging as criteria defining a successful blockade, are controversial. This may be one reason for the scarcity of studies on this topic, thus forcing clinical guidelines to remain conservative in recommending SGBs. Moreover, factors to predict which patients benefit from blockade series, are not yet available. Objectives Objectives are to evaluate through a clinical approach SGBs’ effectiveness performed under ultrasound‐guidance (us‐SGB) and to identify factors to predict effectiveness. Methods This study retrospectively analyzes 809 us‐SGBs in 105 patients with complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) and neuropathic pain syndromes (all potentially including sympathetically maintained pain) regarding pain reduction. Volume and type of local anesthetics, magnitude of pain, temperature of the dorsal hands, heart rate, blood pressure, and occurrence of Horner’s syndrome or complications were assessed. Results Pain reduction after blockade series was highly significant and showed no significant correlation with either change of temperature, vital signs, or Horner’s syndrome. For patients with neuropathic pain, predictive potential for pain reduction following a series lies within the range of pain reduction after the first blockade. In a literature comparison, incidences of complications (hoarseness 3.9 %, dysphagia 3.4 %, hematoma 0.6 %) were lower than in non‐ultrasound‐guided techniques. Conclusions Data indicate that us‐SGBs are safe and effective in reducing sympathetically maintained pain in patients with CRPS and neuropathic pain syndromes. Pain reduction after the first blockade may predict total pain reduction after a blockade series. Other clinical measures seem unsuitable to predict effectiveness.
... The model presented here, suggests that there are feeling, and emotional levels below our surface mind level of consciousness, where the mind of the heart plays a key role. This is supported by Armour (1991;2008) who has shown that the heart has an intrinsic nervous system of its own and by McCraty (2009) who has found that the heart sends more signals to the brain than vice versa. It has been suggested here that through our will we can direct the cursor of our mind into the deeper layers of our being and rewind our history so that we can find our true nature of deeper Self that pervades our being and is beyond. ...
Article
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If we want to understand some of the requisites for mental health, we first have to know what we mean by mental, which is related to the term mind. For this, we need to explore the topographical organization of consciousness from the 'inside-out' position. Only by doing this, can we begin to understand the nature of consciousness and the different levels of mind. The exploration of our inherent nature is a natural art where we use our will to direct the cursor awareness of our surface mind into the inner, deeper realms of their being. For people who have forgotten how to do this, certain somatic focusing heart-based methods of meditation may assist them. As the deeper levels of consciousness below our thinking mind, are linked with sensations, feelings, and emotions, it is important to learn more about them, especially as many mental health disorders are linked with emotions, including those related to violence. When an emotion such as anger has become part of our repressed shadow personality, it may erupt with very little provocation causing us to act in a violent way that is inappropriate to the situation. Shadow emotions can also be projected onto others, which may result in aggressive and violent acts against another or even a collective body of people. As such, learning about the different levels of consciousness, and how to bring our repressed emotions to the light by learning how to 'surf' the different bodily sensations that arise during meditation, warrant more scientific attention and investigation.
... This represented the beginning of the new discipline now called neuro-cardiology. One of their early findings is that the heart has a complex neural network that is sufficiently extensive to be characterised as a "brain" in the heart (Armour, 1991(Armour, , 2008 . The heart-brain, as it is commonly called, or intrinsic cardiac nervous system, is an intricate network of complex ganglia, neurotransmitters, proteins and support cells just like those of the brain in the head . ...
Article
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The ability to alter one’s emotional responses is central to overall well-being and effectively meeting the demands of life. In this article, we discuss the perspective that one’s ability to self-regulate the quality of feeling and emotion of one’s moment-to-moment experience influences our physiology and the reciprocal interactions between physiological, cognitive, and emotional systems. We outline the bi-directional communication pathways between the heart and brain, and how neural activity in these pathways affect the central processes of cognitive and emotional function and self-regulatory capacity. We discuss how self-induced positive emotions is reflected in the pattern of one’s heart’s rhythm, which in turn increases the coherence in bodily processes. This shift in the heart rhythm plays an important role in facilitating higher cognitive functions, creating emotional flexibility, and facilitating social connectedness. Over time, this establishes a new inner-baseline reference, resulting in improvements in attention, behaviour, and measures of health and wellness.
... They trigger acetylcholine release to slow HR. [19] However, more than 80% of the efferent preganglionic vagal neurons has connection to local circuitry neurons in the intrinsic cardiac nervous system where motor information is integrated with inputs from T. ...
... Armour [22] [23] [24] found that the heart has an intrinsic nervous system of its own which has been characterized as a brain on the heart or heart-brain. He suggests that intuition begins to function at the level of the heart. ...
Article
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For a new evolutionary step forward, this study suggests humans need to learn to live from the heart and not only the mind. Here I associate the mind with the Masculine Principle and thinking which with learning, develops into intellect. This is contrasted with intuition which I associate with the Female Principle and the deeper heart-mind. They are different epistemological ways of knowing which reflect different levels of consciousness of the Self where each way of knowing has a different origin, the surface mind and the deeper heart-mind. Each gender can tap into both ways of knowing but most mothers have easier access to intuitive knowing, especially when obtaining information about the wellbeing of their children and loved ones. Connecting with the deeper Self using heart-based meditation methods, leads to insights about the different levels of consciousness and awakens one’s intuitive abilities. Although intuition is attracting attention in different scientific fields, the connection between the deeper Self and intuition still needs to be recognized and explored by modern-day science. Different rea-sons why intuition linked to the female principle has been systemically depreciated for over two thousand years is also explored including questioning the origin on which the Western Intellectual Tradition is said to stand. To create a more caring, creative society, I propose that we need to resuscitate the female principle linked to intuition by reconnecting with our feeling heart-mind. Nevertheless, I advocate that we need both ways of knowing to unfold our full potential. This analysis has multiple implications which I address in the discussion.
... In brief, with each day we learn new information about the body, with knowledge of multiple brains being longstanding in some disciplines. Armour (1991) showed that the heart can function independently and some of the functions he outlines have a particular relevance to the treatment of stress, namely: the role of memory, the ability to learn and adapt responses and the heart's ability to 'feel'. In addition, neurological signals from the heart transfer this information to the headbrain, which influences our personal perception of the 'stressor' and our ultimate response to it through system-wide autonomic regulation (Armour, 2004;Thayer, 2007). ...
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Introduction: This paper discusses using an mBraining approach in the management of stress, including building longer term resilience in order to avoid ongoing problems and recurrence of prior symptoms. By the provision of several case studies, we propose the effectiveness of this approach in practice and outline the opportunity to utilize mBIT alongside other existing and established therapeutic approaches. Objectives: This paper aims to discuss the perceived value of the mBIT (multiple Brain Integration Techniques) approach as a complementary technique in the applications of psychotherapy, counseling, coaching and overall personal optimization and development, with specific focus on reducing unwanted stress and building resilience over time. Methods: mBIT approach methodology and brief literature review. Results: The discussed case studies suggest a demonstrable value in introducing mBIT into the optimal management of stress and building of personal resilience. Conclusions: We advocate that mBIT can be successfully used as a complementary approach to reduce the day to day experience of stress and to change the way clients process stressors in the longer term. Keywords: neuroscience, coaching, multiple brain integration, embodied cognition, stress, resilience
... Other sources indicate that we not only have a thinking mind associated with the brain but a heart-mind associated with the heart (Louchakova 2005). The complex neural network of the heart that was discovered by Armour (1991;2008) has been characterized as a brain on the heart or heart-brain. (McCraty, Atkinson, Dana Tomasino & Bradley 2009) have shown that the heart sends more information to the brain than vice versa. ...
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Abstract The theory of the Six Main Levels of Consciousness of the philosopher Arka, is an analysis of the main levels a practitioner will go through when he or she undertakes the inner journey of Self-discovery using a heart-based meditation method such as the Intuitive Meditation (IM) method. It opens science to a new way of understanding and researching consciousness for it permits phenomenological experiences associated with the different levels, to be researched using different methods including the scientific method. As it addresses the experiencing aspect of consciousness, it cuts through the dilemma posed by Chalmers, which he terms the "hard problem of consciousness". In addition, by recognizing the thinking Mind (often associated with the brain) as the first level, it helps incorporate the work already undertaken by many scientists. The levels mentioned by Arka are: 1) M (Mind) – Consciousness, 2) SM (Subliminal-Mind) – Consciousness, 3) F (Feeling-Mind) – Consciousness, 4) H (Emotional-Heart) – Consciousness, 5) HS (Heart-Soul) – Consciousness and 6) PS (Pure-Self) – Consciousness. In a recent study using a repeated measures design, it was found that participants showed a significant shift towards a more feeling-based consciousness after learning the Intuitive Meditation Method and practicing it a minimum of five times over a 6-week period as measured by the same Feeling Consciousness Scale. This gives support to the third Feeling Mind level of consciousness Arka mentions in his theory. As the role of the heart is said to play a key role in this theory, in this article we present information regarding the heart, embryonic development and pulsation to understand more about the relevance of the heart and why it has been used as a center of attention in meditation practices throughout the ages. Embryogenesis also poses interesting but difficult questions, which, as yet, Western Science has not addressed. It also stimulates the enquiry into the nature of "consciousness" and the fundamental question: Who are we? Keywords Levels of Consciousness, Self-discovery, Intuitive Meditation, Phenomenology, Experiencing Consciousness, Feeling-mind Consciousness, Embryogenesis, Pulsation
... This is probably related to a level of consciousness, which is linked to the quality of consciousness that is experienced by young children prior to their learning to develop their thinking minds. Research into the heart shows that it has a brain of its own (Armour, 1991;2007;2008) and more information is sent from heart to the brain than vice versa (McCraty, 2009). ...
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Far from offering a tentative structured theory or solution regarding the urgently needed reforms concerning education in the 21st century, we limit ourselves to some punctual considerations of how education can prepare students for the future. Even if they are not directly connected, we hope they may help in creating the indispensable radical paradigm shift in the way we teach and learn, which is needed to meet the multi-dimensional challenges confronting global society in the 21st century. They involve the following points: an attitudinal change from memorizing to understanding; openness to the internet requirements of the present 4th Industrial Revolution; and developing a connection to Nature and our inner Self or essence, so students can get guidance in their lives and also to help find solutions for the many problems humanity faces today
... This is probably related to a level of consciousness, which is linked to the quality of consciousness that is experienced by young children prior to their learning to develop their thinking minds. Research into the heart shows that it has a brain of its own (Armour, 1991;2007;2008) and more information is sent from heart to the brain than vice versa (McCraty, 2009). ...
Conference Paper
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Far from offering a tentative structured theory or solution regarding the urgently needed reforms concerning education in the 21st century, we limit ourselves to some punctual considerations of how education can prepare students for the future. Even if they are not directly connected, we hope they may help in creating the indispensable radical paradigm shift in the way we teach and learn, which is needed to meet the multi-dimensional challenges confronting global society in the 21st century. They involve the following points: an attitudinal change from memorizing to understanding; openness to the internet requirements of the present 4th Industrial Revolution; and developing a connection to Nature and our inner Self or essence, so students can get guidance in their lives and also to help find solutions for the many problems humanity faces today.
... It has been found that the heart has been found to have an intrinsic nervous system of its own, containing around 40,000 neurons called sensory neurites. This extensive and complex neural network has been characterized as a brain on the heart or heart-brain (Armour, 1991(Armour, , 2007(Armour, , 2008. This allows the heart to act independently of the brain, sending and receiving meaningful messages of its own through the autonomic nervous system. ...
Chapter
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Flowers come in many colors, many sizes and many forms and express themselves in different ways. Yet they are all flowers and together they form a most beautiful bouquet! Humans too come in all sizes, shapes and colors, yet they are still humans. Humans also express themselves in different ways, religiously, culturally and individually. The question is how can we form a beautiful bouquet? This involves a deep respect for differences on the one hand, and on the other, it involves a sincere search for ‘that’ what underlies all of us.
... It has been found that the heart has been found to have an intrinsic nervous system of its own, containing around 40,000 neurons called sensory neurites. This extensive and complex neural network has been characterized as a brain on the heart or heart-brain (Armour, 1991;2008). This allows the heart to act independently of the brain, sending and receiving meaningful messages of its own through the autonomic nervous system. ...
Research
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This research was to test the third level Arka mentions in his Theory of the Six Main Levels of Consciousness. The paper describes the scale that was constructed (Feeling Consciousness Scale - FCS) and the results obtained from the study. It also includes the drawings of one of the participants which show that accessing our deeper levels of consciousness by learning a meditation method such as the Intuitive Meditation Method, is a process.
... Armour demonstrated that there are fewer postganglionic cholinergic neurons than adrenergic neurons [12]. Colocalization of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibres has been reported in nerve trunks of the left atrium [13,14], and a predominance of parasympathetic fibres has been noted, particularly in the posterior left atrium [13]. ...
Article
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A 55-year-old hypertensive patient presents atrial fibrillation after vasovagal syncope. Non-invasive cardiac workup is normal. Without antiarrhythmic therapy, the patient has no recurrence for the next 3years, then presents with a stroke. Echocardiography eventually reveals left atrial dilation. This sequence of events illustrates the well-known links between age, arterial hypertension, atrial fibrillation, atrial neuromyopathy and stroke. A frequently neglected common denominator in this equation is impaired sympathovagal balance. Contrary to what is often stated, autonomic imbalance is not a simple modulation factor of atrial fibrillation; both the trigger and the substrate of atrial fibrillation can be influenced by abnormal cardiac innervation. Here, we review the neurogenic theory of atrial fibrillation, based on literature and original data. We also provide evidence that this concept may help to improve atrial fibrillation prediction, early diagnosis and therapy.
... Research into the heart shows that it has a brain of its own (Armour, 1991;2007;2008) and more information is sent from heart to the brain than vice versa (McCraty, 2009). ...
... The intrinsic cardiac nervous system has both shortterm and long-term memory functions, which can influence HRV and afferent activity related to BP, rhythm, rate, and hormonal factors [19][20][21]. The intrinsic cardiac neurons (sensory, interconnecting, afferent, and motor) can operate independently of central neuronal command,and their network is sufficiently extensive to be characterized as its own "little brain" in the heart [22,23]. ...
... The heart has been found to have an intrinsic nervous system of its own, containing around 40,000 neurons called sensory neurites. This extensive and complex neural network has been characterized as a brain on the heart or heart-brain (Armour, 1991(Armour, , 2007(Armour, , 2008. This allows the heart to act independently of the brain, sending and receiving meaningful messages of its own through the autonomic nervous system. ...
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UNLOCKING THE SECRETS OF THE HEART THROUGH MEDITATING ON THE SELF By Tina Lindhard August, 2016 Chair: Dr. Inula Martinkat Major Department: Consciousness Studies Inspired by Max Planck to look for the Absolute, the universally valid, the invariant that is normally absent when only concentrating on relative, testable relationships, the present study set out to understand the nature and role of the heart using different procedures. In the literature review, this study includes the application of the comparative method of Goethe to the ontological development of the heart and the notochord based on primary observations of other scientists. This revealed that with the advent of the pulsating heart, the morphological ontology of the embryo mirrors the different broad phylogenetic stages of creation from worms to mammals and invertebrates to vertebrate forms. Reflecting on the origin of the heartbeat, this researcher concurs with Arka that pulsation is probably the underlying core principle and property of universal existence, cosmic existence, and local existence. This suggests that all matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force that brings all particles to pulsation; a conscious Mind that is expressing itself through ever-changing pulsating forms. This study also involved finding out what happens when one meditates on the Self via the (pulsating) heart using the Intuitive Meditation (IM) method of inner investigation. Based on the Arka's theory of the six main levels of consciousness, this study predicted that people would show a trend towards a more feeling-based consciousness after being trained to go below their thinking mind. In order to test this, a scale was constructed under the name of the Feeling-Consciousness Scale (FCS). The scale items were based on Arka´s work and information derived from interviews with people who had practiced the IM method for more than 7 months. Using a repeated measures design, the FCS was filled in by 8 male and 23 female participants comprising of five different groups, before and after attending five IM training sessions spread over 6 weeks (a total of 13.5 hours). The second time the scale was administered, several open questions were added. A significant difference at the .001 level was found between both scores. No correlation was found between the number of times the method was practiced and the end scores. Due to the small sample size and that the scale is a project in development, these results are tentative. Statements from the open questions suggest there may be a relation between increased sentience and intuition, especially in females. The study ends with extensive suggestions for further research.
... Lokální okružní neurony propojují neurony srdeční pleteně, kromě toho vysílají své axony i do extrakardiálních ganglií (intratorakálních a paravertebrálních), čímž se podílejí na zpracování aferentních a eferentních informací na různých úrovních periferní části srdeční inervace (obr. 3; Armour, 1991). Nervová srdeční pleteň vytváří konečný vzorec vzruchové aktivity, který významnou měrou určuje výslednou podobu srdeční činnosti za fyziologických podmínek. ...
Article
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Myocardial contractility is the ability of the cardiac muscle to contract, thereby generating force. Contractile functions of the myocardium are influenced by a number of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The intrinsic factors, including the initial length of the muscle fibers, stimulation frequency and cardiac rhythm are modulated by neurohumoral mechanisms and extrinsic factors (ions and energy balance, temperature, pH, drugs, etc.). The mechanism of the cardiac contraction, intrinsic and neurohumonal regulation of the cardiac activity and changes in contractile functions of the myocardium and their regulation under pathological conditions are described in this article.
Chapter
Cardiac output is controlled by the autonomic nervous system to meet continually changing demands for the perfusion of systemic vascular beds. Dysfunction of autonomic control can contribute to a range of cardiopathies; conversely, robust autonomic function can help maintain a failing myocardium as heart diseases progress. Understanding the structure and operation of the intracardiac nervous system is thus essential to guide the formation of novel neuronally-directed cardiac therapies. Neural control of the heart operates through a hierarchy of interconnected reflex loops at the levels of the intracardiac neural network, the extracardiac intrathoracic ganglia and medullary and spinal autonomic nuclei. Within this hierarchy, the intracardiac nervous system represents the final common pathway for local cardiac control, capable of modulating chronotropy, dromotropy and inotropy on a fast, beat-by-beat basis. Intracardiac neurons constitute a series of interconnected ganglionated plexi distributed throughout the atrial walls and around the atrioventricular border; plexus nerves innervate all regions of the heart. This chapter reviews the position of the intracardiac nervous system in the autonomic control hierarchy and summarizes current knowledge of the neuroanatomy, physiology and potential roles of neuronal populations in cardiac control. Opportunities for future research to address remaining gaps in knowledge of this system are discussed in terms of the application of new tissue imaging technologies, genetic manipulations and novel experimental models.
Chapter
Es besteht allgemein wenig Bewusstheit über ihre Bedeutung für das Gelingen von Beziehung und Prozess. Dadurch werden Chancen verschenkt. Das Herzstück der Wirksamkeit ist eine therapeutische Beziehung, die von bewusster Menschlichkeit durchdrungen ist und die eine adäquate, lebensförderliche Neuerfahrung vermittelt, egal mithilfe welcher Technik. Die Qualität der Beziehung, die in der Wissenschaft bislang als „allgemeiner Faktor“ läuft, korreliert am höchsten von allen Faktoren mit dem Therapieerfolg (30 %). Sie differiert jedoch stark in den verschiedenen Schulen. Die hohe Effektstärke der Gestalttherapie beruht vermutlich auf ihr. Der Therapeutenpersönlichkeit wird 20 % der Ergebnisvarianz zugerechnet. Die störungsspezifische Technik trägt zum Endergebnis nur ca. 10 (−15) % bei. Fälschlicherweise verbuchen ihre Verfechter in der bisherigen Forschung fast alle Erfolge als methodenspezifisch. Auf Techniken könnte auch verzichtet werden. Sie bilden dennoch einen Reichtum, der aber mit Augenmaß angewendet werden sollte.
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Si queremos comprender algunos de los requisitos para la salud mental, primero tenemos que saber a qué nos referimos con el término mental, que está relacionado con el término mente. Para esto, se recomienda explorar la naturaleza de la consciencia y, aunque esto a menudo, se lleva a cabo utilizando el enfoque de 'afuera hacia adentro', es solo a través del estudio de la naturaleza de nuestra consciencia desde la posición 'adentro hacia afuera' que podemos comenzar a comprender la naturaleza de la consciencia de otro. Se necesita usar nuestra voluntad y redirigir el cursor de nuestra mente superficial hacia los reinos internos, más profundos de nuestro ser. Este es un arte natural, pero para las personas que lo han olvidado, ciertos métodos de meditación somáticos, centrados en el corazón, pueden ayudar. Como los niveles más profundos, debajo de nuestra mente pensante, están vinculados con los sentimientos y las emociones, es importante aprender más sobre ellos, especialmente porque muchos trastornos de salud mental están vinculados con las emociones, incluida la violencia. Cuando la ira se ha convertido en parte de la personalidad en la sombra de una persona, esta puede estallar con muy poca provocación y hacer que la persona actúe de una manera violenta, que sea inapropiada para la situación. Las emociones en la sombra también pueden proyectarse sobre otros o incluso contra un colectivo de personas. Aprender sobre los niveles de consciencia y cómo "surfear" las diferentes sensaciones corporales durante la meditación, como una forma de sacar a la luz nuestras emociones inconscientes y restaurar la salud mental, merece más atención e investigación científica.
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In this paper I adopt a multidisciplinary perspective and the main aim is to increase our understanding of consciousness and to give us an overall view of this multifaceted term. I distinguish between the outside-in and inside-out methodological approach to the study of consciousness and I qualify what I mean by these two terms. The outside-in approach, including the neuroscientific method involving the study and mapping of the brain and psychological approach, which is based on observations of patients in psychotherapy, leads to theories based mainly on our senses or extensions of them and inductive and deduction reasoning. The phenomenological inside-out approach where people study the nature of their own consciousness, involves going below or above the thinking mind guided by intuition. This gives rise to theories based on intuitive insight and experience. Among other things, how different cultures view consciousness is also considered and I point out that whatever metaphysical position we take regarding the origin of consciousness will have an effect on what we consider as ethically permissible conduct in scientific explorations and experiments.
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The issue of consciousness and cognition has been a long concern for humankind over thousands of years. So far, most investigations in this field of research, have studied the brain tissue for cognitive performance assessment. During the last two decades of the twentieth century, the astonishing relationship between cognitive impairments and cardiovascular diseases has been reported by many researchers. In 1999, these studies led to the formation of a new branch of science called "neurocardiology" investigating the brain-heart connections. Research of neurocardiologists has shown that the heart is much more complex than a mechanical pump, and has an elaborate intrinsic cardiac nervous system (ICNS) arranged in the form of several ganglia around the cardiac conduction system. Besides, intrinsic cardiac production of many brain hormones and neurotransmitters involved in cognitive performance such as memory, thinking, decision making and motivation, has provided a complex network which is described as a "small brain". When a person experiences positive emotions such as kindness and generosity, the finest brain-heart synchronization improve cognitive performance. On the contrary, negative emotions such as hatred and jealousy through disturbing brain-heart coherency have adverse effects on cognitive performance. So the heart, just like the brain, has a significant influence on different cognitive proficiencies.
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As the painstaking unification of the planet unfolds, human suffering is rapidly escalating. The World Health Organization (WHO) now recognizes anxiety and depression-related disorders as the new pandemics, debilitating increasingly larger and younger segments of the world’s population. People everywhere are searching for solutions; yet, in this time of deep disenchantment, there is also heightened suspicion toward ready answers. As Bahá’ís seek ways to bring Bahá’u’lláh’s healing Message to a troubled, disillusioned, and anxious humanity, a question emerges. How can we become beacons of light and encouragement, shed distractions, and build hospitable, healing, and uplifting communities, able to embrace humanity’s griefs and point the way forward? This paper focuses on what depression- and anxiety-related conditions can teach us about creating healing spiritual communities.
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Introduction: This paper outlines the scientific background behind the mBraining approach (mBIT - multiple brain integration techniques) regarding the recent research in neuroscience revealing the relationship between the cerebral, enteric and cardiac neural systems and its potential as an optimization tool. In addition, a number of case studies have been detailed, to confirm the effectiveness of this approach and a number of extensive references have been included for further study. Moreover, parallels and common principles with experiential therapeutic approaches are being discussed. Objectives: This paper aims to promote the mBIT approach as a complementary diagnosis and optimization tool with applications in coaching, therapy, counseling and overall personal optimization. Methods: mBIT approach methodology and literature review. Results: The five case studies included in this paper clearly indicate the effectiveness of the mBIT approach in managing and resolving issues such as: occupational stress, anxiety, depression and even in more delicate areas such as takotsubo and bipolar disorder. Conclusions: The mBIT research so far shows us that it can successfully work as a complementary approach with other types of therapeutic approaches, especially experiential psychotherapies
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The heart is the symbol of life. A fetus is pronounced alive when the heart beats between 6to 8 weeks gestational life otherwise ,it is dead body. Also , life ends by the cessation of heart beats. All organs including the brain develop after the heart formation. Emryologically , the heart initially develops from the tube stage to folding stage to differentiation into chambers followed by rotation. Right and left nomenclature are misnomers , actually anterior and posterior. This project is to understand exactly the moral function of the heart and being the master of the brain in decision making.
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The object of this article is to show the interest of research on the applications of neuroscience in the field of finance insofar as it aspires to shed light on the limits of behavioral finance which itself aspires to throw light on the limits of neoclassical finance if one believes the contemporary mainstream economists. The study shows that despite its best interests, neurofinance is based on a hypothesis that should be better tested since the essence of the mind is not in the brain but in the heart.
Article
Objective: To determine whether chronic myocardial infarction (MI) induces structural and neurochemical changes in neurons within afferent and efferent ganglia mediating cardiac neurotransmission. Methods: Neuronal somata in i) right atrial (RAGP) and ii) ventral interventricular ganglionated plexi (VIVGP), iii) stellate ganglia (SG) and iv) T1-2 dorsal root ganglia (DRG) bilaterally derived from normal (n=8) vs. chronic MI (n=8) porcine subjects were studied. We examined whether the morphology and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) expression in soma of RAGP, VIVGP, DRG and SG neurons were altered as a consequence of chronic MI. In DRG, we also examined immunoreactivity of calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP), a marker of afferent neurons. Chronic MI increased neuronal size and nNOS immunoreactivity in VIVGP (but not RAGP), as well as in the SG bilaterally. Across these ganglia, the increase in neuronal size was more pronounced in nNOS immunoreactive neurons. In the DRG, chronic MI also caused neuronal enlargement, and increased CGRP immunoreactivity. Further, DRG neurons expressing both nNOS and CGRP were increased in MI animals compared to controls, and represented a shift from double negative neurons. Conclusions: Chronic MI impacts diverse elements within the peripheral cardiac neuraxis. That chronic MI imposes such widespread, diverse remodeling of the peripheral cardiac neuraxis must be taken into consideration when contemplating neuronal regulation of the ischemic heart.
Chapter
The parasympathetic nervous system modulates the electrophysiological properties of most structures involved in normal cardiac function and in experimental and human arrhythmias. However in vivo it is actually difficult to evaluate the pure vagal effect since sympatho-vagal interactions are specifically involved in modulating the electrophysiological parameters. The not universally accepted concept of dividing the atrial fibrillation episodes in vagal and sympathetic induced ones is mainly based on anecdotal cases and on clinical preselected models.
Chapter
Angina pectoris, described as a radiating pain or discomfort central in the chest, is the major symptom of ischemic heart disease. The term “angina pectoris” is derived from anger (compress, strangle) and pectus (breast). Classically, the term is used for an imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and demand resulting from atheromatous coronary disease. A puzzling fact is a poor correlation between underlying pathophysiology and symptoms. In patients with known coronary stenoses, about 60–80% of the ischemic attacks are symptomless (1,2), so-called “silent ischemia;” on the other hand, a great number of patients suffer from disabling angina pectoris without signs of ischemia.
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